Media Research

MEDIA RESEARCH (MMC- 205)
CONTENT
No.
Lesson
Page No.
Writer
Vetter
01
Introduction to
Research
Prof. (Mrs) S. Gandhi
Prof. Manoj Dayal
02
Media Research:
14
Role & Functions
Prof. Manoj Dayal
03
Methods & Practice of

13
Media Research
Sh. M. R. Patra
04
Theory & Practice of

12
Random Sampling
Sh. S. K. Singh
05
Research Design
11
06
Questionnaire
12
07
Content Analysis
14
Prof. B. K. Kuthiala
08
Advertising
Research
Sh. M. R. Patra
09
Statistical Methods in
21
Media Research
Sh. S. K. Singh
Prof. Sunil K. Behera
Prof. Manoj Dayal
About Writers and Vetters:

Prof. Manoj Dayal
Dean, Faculty of Media Studies,
GJUST, Hisar, Haryana 125 001
Sh. M. R. Patra, Lecturer,
Department of C M& T,
Dr. Ved Paul
11
Prof. Manoj Dayal
Sh. S. K. Singh
20
Dr. P. K. Jena, Lecturer,

Department of C M& T,
Dr. Ved Paul, Faculty,
Department of Business Economics,
Department of Jounalism & Mass Communication,
Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa.
Chairperson, Department of Mass Communication,
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana
Converted in to SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra
MEDIA RESEARCH (MMC- 205)
No.
Lesson
Writer
01
Introduction to
Research
Prof. Manoj Dayal
02
Media Research:
Role & Functions
Prof. Manoj Dayal
03
Methods & Practice of

Media Research
Sh. M. R. Patra
Sh. S. K. Singh
04
Theory & Practice of

Random Sampling
Sh. S. K. Singh
Prof. B.K.Kuthiala
05
Research Design
Prof. Manoj Dayal
06
Questionnaire
Prof. Manoj Dayal
07
Content Analysis
______________
08
Advertising
Research
09
Statistical Methods in
Media Research
Sh. M. R. Patra
Dr. Ved Paul
Vetter____
Sh. S. K. Singh
Prof. B.K.Kuthiala
About Writers and Vetters:

Prof. Manoj Dayal, Dean, Faculty of Media Studies, GJUST, Hisar 125 001
Sh. M. R. Patra, Lecturer, Department of C M& T, GJUST, Hisar 125 001

Dr. P. K. Jena, Lecturer, Department of C M& T, GJUST, Hisar 125 001
Dr. Ved Paul, Faculty, Department of Business Economics, GJUST, Hisar 125 001
Prof. Sunil K. Behera, Department of J & M C, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa.
Prof. B. K. Kuthiala, Chairperson, Department of Mass Communication, K U K, Haryana
CONVERTED IN TO SIM FORMAT BY: SH. M. R. PATRA
nd
M. A. Mass Communication (2 year)

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Writer: Prof. (Mrs.) Sushma Gandhi
Chairperson, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

Vetter: Prof. Manoj Dayal
Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.
Converted in to SIM format by: Sh. Mihir Ranjan Patra

LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall provide an introduction to research in general. We shall discuss about the need, role and importance of research.
Finally, we shall focus on various aspects of research. The lesson structure shall be as follows:
1.0
1.0
Objectives
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Presentation of Content
1.2.1
Research: An Introduction
1.2.2
Need, Role, and Importance of Research
1.2.3
Major Aspects of Research
1.3
Summary
1.4
Key Words
1.5
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)
1.6
References/Suggested Reading
OBJECTIVES:
In this lesson we shall discuss about research in general. The specific objectives of this lesson
are:
o
To Have an Introduction to Research
To Know About the Need, Role, and Importance of Research
o To Understand the Major Aspects of Research
1.1
INTRODUCTION:
Curiosity is the basic motivation for research. It is said that ever since Adam tasted the
forbidden fruit of knowledge out of curiosity, he became the first researcher. Since then, the
human quest for knowledge has continued. From the beginning of time, curious people have
been trying to unveil the mysteries of nature, life and the cosmos.
Man has looked upon the stars, skies and seas with a sense of awe and wonder. From
the age of 'stones and spear' to the age of electricity and relativity; and now to the present days
of information technologies, man has been discovering new frontiers of knowledge at a terrific
speed. He has been cutting across the physical confines of the globe. Rockets and space ships
are the new vehicles for travel. Super computers are new means of working and expanding our
knowledge of the universe and beyond. With the human spirit of enquiry, man has ventured into
realms of science and research where angels fear to tread.
In this lesson, we shall try to get an introduction to research. In addition, we shall discuss
about some major aspects of research.
1.2
PRESENTATION OF CONTENT:
The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows:

o
Research: An Introduction
Need, Role, and Importance of Research
o Major Aspects of Research
1.2.1 RESEARCH- AN INTRODUCTION:

All research is a quest for ordered or systematic knowledge. It may be an observational study of
natural phenomena or a rational study of the relations between the concepts in which these
phenomena are expressed. Knowledge is gathered, organized and systematized. It is then
tested and validated with the help of research tools.
Research often starts with observation. Observation is in intelligent way to making use of
our sensory apparatus. It provides an insight to know and understand facts, relations and
events. If the observation is precise, the results will be more reliable. In addition to observation,
many other research tools and methods are used.
The term research, to some means an attitude of enquiry. It is an honest, intelligent and
exhaustive quest for facts. It is the quest for the unknown, and also about the known. Research
is done to reveal the secrets of this universe.
Research is the process of arriving at dependable solutions of problems through planned
and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research sometimes tries to find
out the conditions under which certain phenomenon occurs. Research is an aspect of scientific
quest and now has become a major discipline.
It is a systematic way of collecting, classifying and analyzing information, either
quantitative or qualitative. According to Rusk, "Research is a point of view, an attitude of enquiry
or a frame of mind." It is an attempt to elicit facts and analyze them once they have been
collected to get solutions for a variety of problems.
1.2.2 NEED, ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH:

Rummel considered research as "an endeavour to discover, develop and verify knowledge". Its
main aim is the discovery of the truth. Research means a systematic and refined technique of
thinking. It involves employing of specialized tools, instruments and procedures to obtain more
adequate solutions of problems than would be possible with ordinary means. This way research
implies a systematic and objective analysis. It is a recording of controlled observations with an
aim to develop generalizations, principles and theories.
Some of the equipments of a researcher are as follows:
o Developed scholastics,
o Accurate observation,
o Integrity,
o Willingness to spend long hours,
o Rational thinking.
Long hours are required to collect and study all forms of acts, data and evidence before arriving
at conclusion.
The first four aspects are important. But above all, the researcher must cultivate the
ability think rationally. This is the ability to recognize causal relationships. Researchers must
also have originality and objectivity in thinking.
Any research should be based on a unifying theory or a conceptual system. A series of
often loosely connected observations lead to a more systematic programme of research. The
maturity of judgement comes after a wide experience of the field. Research can be:
o Basic Research,
o Applied Research, and
o Action Research.
BASIC RESEARCH:
It is designed to add organized knowledge to the body of scientific knowledge. It does not
necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. It is either concerned with the
formulation of theory or contributes to the existing body of knowledge. It is also termed as
fundamental or pure research. Its chief concern is to discover knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and not for the sake of application of the findings or even for their social usefulness.
Simply put, basic research is generally done for academic purposes.
APPLIED RESEARCH:
Applied research aims at improving a theory, product or process. It is testing of theoretical
concepts in specific problem situations. Its concern is generally with the solution for problems.
ACTION RESEARCH:
Action research is not much concerned with the development of theory or its general application.
It concerns itself with an immediate problem in a specific setting. Action research aims at
improving the social reality. Its finding can be carried into effect by the administrator and
sometimes, even the layman. Its emphasis, therefore, is on experience in which the
administrator and the layman can participate creatively in the research process.
While pure research is done by outside specialists, action research in done by those who
are taken to evaluate their own work situation.
1.2.3 MAJOR ASPECTS OF RESEARCH:

From the above, it is clear that research involves carefully designed procedures. It is thus, a
systematic process of study. And all research studies have the following characteristics:
o Research is objective and verifiable. The data collected can be tested and validated.
o Research involves an empirical process. It is based upon empirical evidence or
observable experiences. It focuses on such problems as can be verified through
empirical observation.
Research calls for rigorous and valid data gathering procedures. These may include
mechanical, electronic, clinical or psychometric devices together with observation, description
and analysis of data. To ensure precise description and explanation, it can take the help of
quantitative measuring devices also.
Research can be replicative and transmitted in different settings and in different times. In
trying to replicate, the existing concepts and processes can be confirmed or it may lead to
questions about the conclusions of previous studies.
Research has a specific purpose of findings solutions to some problems. It seeks to
develop generalizations, principles, and theories. Some times, it even tries to predict future
occurrences. Research, however, is always goal-oriented.
Research requires diligent observation at the stage of collection of facts. It involves time,
energy, efforts, manpower, and money. The information so gathered has to be recorded as
precisely as possible with a view to paving the way for furthering research.
The procedures, methods and approaches to be adopted for research have to be
carefully chosen. They have to be both vigorous and rigorous involving deep analysis.
Research calls for patience and diligence. An impatient mind is not fit for research. Hurry
and impatience hamper genuine research. A good researcher needs patience, perseverance
and the ability to challenge the established knowledge or the urge to find new things.
Good research must be purposive. It must be carefully planned and timely executed.
The researcher must have foresight. Research also requires an open mind and clarity of
purpose. Everything must be planned with utmost precision. Its objectives, hypotheses and
methodologies must be made clear before hand.
Objectivity is the chief trait of all good research. Personal biases must be kept out from
research studies as far as possible. The emphasis has to be on testing and finding out the
ultimate reality.
We accept something as truth only when it is verifiable. Only then it becomes credible.
What is true in USA must be true in India under similar conditions. Without verifiability of the
processes, procedures and conclusions, research is not significant.
Research is a professional affair involving systematic, accurate and expert handling of
the research problem. Data has to be gathered through systematic planning. It has to be done
by having control on data collecting procedures. The collected data as to be subjected to
rigorous analysis, Inferences and generalizations have to be stated in clear precise language.
A good research study should have focus on facts. A balance has to be struck between
quantitative and qualitative facts. Facts become significant only when interpreted in the light of
accepted standards and assumptions, which are normative in character. It is only by
interpretation and evaluation methods, as determined by the purpose, facts could be related
with each other in the wider context.
All good research presupposes insight and imagination in the researcher. These are
needed to interpret, explain and draw inferences. They are equally necessary for planning, data
collection and interpretation and report writing, etc. Using insight and foresight can solve many
puzzles related to research. Good research should adopt interdisciplinary approach. Most of the
disciplines are interconnected in one way of the other.
A good research should contribute to the widening of knowledge and to solution of
problems confronting human society. Ethical questions relevant and highly import in scientific
research, which is concerned with the discovery of truth.

There are many reasons why should be undertake any study of human problems with a
spirit of scientific enquiry and research. Some of the most common reasons can be enumerated
as follows:
o Research enables one to think rigorously and critically. It trains researchers to carefully
examine research evidence that is advanced for acceptance in variety of popular and
scholarly applications.
o Research equips one to learn how to find answers to questions facing mankind.
o Research enables one to acquire skills and techniques to study problems in specific
social field situations. Researchers also learn how to find answers through research.
o As a result of advances in science, technology and other fields, research has become
imperative of our times. Without research, the development and discrimination of
knowledge is not possible. Research contributes innovative ideas necessary for
professional competence and growth.
Here are a few more points about research:
o Research contributes to new facts and generalizations. It keeps the professional
researcher abreast with the latest in their discipline. It helps him to develop, interpret and
reinterpret facts and concepts in the light of changing situations.
o Research creates an urge for taking further strides in one's discipline. It modifies all
partial theories and helps dispel myths and antiquated practices by examining them on
the anvil of scientific validity. Without research there is no progress, no growth of
knowledge.
o Research requires mastery over such processes as observing events with a clear vision,
handling sophisticated research tools or equipment, knowledge of various research
methods, treating data statistically, analyzing and interpreting results and writing research
reports. These qualities help a lot in cultivating, refining and training the mind of the
researcher. All this can be achieved by practice rather than precepts.
1.3
SUMMARY:
o All research is a quest for ordered or systematic knowledge. It may be an observational

study or a rational study.
o Research is the process of arriving at dependable solutions of problems through the planned
and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research tries to find out the
conditions under which certain phenomenon occurs.
o Research is an aspect of scientific quest and now has become a major discipline. It is a
systematic way of collecting, classifying and analyzing information, either quantitative or
qualitative.
o Basic research is designed to add organized knowledge to the body of scientific knowledge.
It does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. It is either concerned
with the formulation of theory or contributes to the existing body of knowledge. It is also
termed as fundamental or pure research. Its chief concern is to discover knowledge for the
sake of knowledge and not for the sake of application of the findings or even for their social
usefulness. Simply put, basic research is generally done for academic purposes.
o Applied research aims at improving a theory, product or process. It is testing of theoretical
concepts in specific problem situations. Its concern is with the solution of immediate
problems.
o Action research is not much concerned with the development of theory or its general
application. It concerns itself with an immediate problem in a specific setting. Action research
aims at improving the social reality. Its finding can be carried into effect by the administrator
and sometimes, even the layman. Its emphasis, therefore, is on experience in which the
administrator and the layman can participate creatively in the research process.
o Research is objective and verifiable. The data collected can be tested and validated.
o Research involves an empirical process. It is based upon empirical evidence or observable
experiences. It focuses on such problems as can be verified through empirical observation.
o Research calls for rigorous and valid data gathering procedures. These may include
mechanical, electronic, clinical or psychometric devices together with observation,
description and analysis of data. To ensure precise description and explanation, it can take
the help of quantitative measuring devices also.
o Research can be replicative and transmitted in different settings and in different times.
o Research has a specific purpose of findings solutions to some problems. It seeks to develop
generalizations, principles, and theories.
o Research requires diligent observation at the stage of collection of facts. It involves time,
energy, efforts, manpower, and money.
o Research calls for patience and diligence. An impatient mind is not fit for research. Hurry and
impatience hamper genuine research.
o Good research must be purposive. It is carefully planned and timely executed.

o Researchers need foresight along with an open mind and clarity of purpose.
o Objectivity is the chief trait of all research. Biases have no place in research.
o Research is a professional affair involving systematic, accurate and expert handling of the
research problem. Data has to be gathered through systematic planning.
o Good research study should have focus on facts. A balance has to be struck between the
quantitative and qualitative facts. Facts become significant only when interpreted in the light
of accepted standards and assumptions, which are normative in character.
o All good research presupposes insight and imagination in the researcher. These are needed
to interpret, explain and draw inferences.
o Good research should contribute to the widening of knowledge and to solution of problems
confronting human society.
o Research enables one to think rigorously and critically. It trains researchers to carefully
examine research evidence that is advanced for acceptance in variety of popular and
scholarly applications. Research enables one to acquire skills and techniques to study
problems in specific social field situations.
o Without research, the development and discrimination of knowledge is not possible.
Research contributes to innovative ideas necessary for professional competence and
growth. Research contributes to new facts and generalizations. It keeps the professional
researcher abreast with the latest in their discipline.
o Research creates an urge for taking further strides in one's discipline. It modifies all partial
theories and helps dispel myths and antiquated practices by examining them on the anvil of
scientific validity.
o Research requires mastery over such processes as observing events with a clear vision,
handling sophisticated research tools or equipment, knowledge of various research methods,
treating data statistically, analyzing and interpreting results and writing research reports.
1.4
KEY WORDS:
Research: The term research, to some means an attitude of enquiry. It is an honest, intelligent
and exhaustive quest for facts. It is the quest for the unknown and also about the known.
Research is done to reveal the secrets of this universe. Research is the process of arriving at
dependable solutions of problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data. Research tries to find out the conditions under which certain phenomenon
occurs. Research is an aspect of scientific quest and now has become a major discipline. It is a
systematic way of collecting, classifying and analyzing information, either quantitative or
qualitative.
Requirements for Research: Research is the recording of controlled observations with an aim
to develop generalizations, principles and theories. Some of the equipments of a researcher are
as follows: developed scholastics, accurate observation, integrity, willingness to spend long
hours, and rational thinking.
Basic Research: It is designed to add organized knowledge to the body of scientific knowledge.
It does, not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. It is either concerned with
the formulation of theory or contributes to the existing body of knowledge. It is also termed as
fundamental or pure research. Its chief concern is to discover knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and not for the sake of application of the findings or even for their social usefulness.
Simply put, basic research is generally done for academic purposes.
Applied Research: Applied research aims at improving a theory, product or process. It is
testing of theoretical concepts in specific problem situations. Its concern is with the solution of
immediate problems.
Action Research: Action research is not much concerned with the development of theory or its
general application. It concerns itself with an immediate problem in a specific setting. Action
research aims at improving the social reality. Its finding can be carried into effect by the
administrator and sometimes, even the layman. Its emphasis, therefore, is on experience in
which the administrator and the layman can participate creatively in the research process.
Characteristics of Research: Research is objective and verifiable. The data collected can be
tested and validated. Research involves an empirical process. It is based upon empirical
evidence or observable experiences. It focuses on such problems as can be verified through
empirical observation.
Research and Researcher: Research enables one to think rigorously and critically. It trains
researchers to carefully examine research evidence that is advanced for acceptance in variety
of popular and scholarly applications. Research enables one to acquire skills and techniques to
study problems in specific social field situations. Without research, the development and
discrimination of knowledge is not possible. Research contributes to innovative ideas necessary
for professional competence.
Benefits of Research: Research contributes to new facts and generalizations. It keeps the
professional researcher abreast with the latest in their discipline. Research creates an urge for
taking further strides in one's discipline. It modifies all partial theories and helps dispel myths
and antiquated practices by examining them on the anvil of scientific validity.
1.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs):

1. What do you mean by media research? Discuss the role and importance of media
research.
2. Discuss the various types of media research in detail.
3. Why is media research required? Discuss.
1.6
REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS:

o Introduction to Communication Research by John C. Reinard.
o Mass Media IV by Ray Eldon Hiebert et al
o Mass Media Research by Roger D. Wimmer & Joseph R. Dominick
o Doing Media Research - An Introduction by Susanna Houring Priest
M. A. Mass Communication (2nd year)

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 2
MEDIA RESEARCH - ROLE AND FUNCTIONS

Writer: Prof. (Mrs) Sushma Gandhi
Chairperson, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.
Faculty Member, Department of C M and T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.
LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall provide an introduction to media research. We shall start with the
differences between social research and media research. Then we shall concentrate on
feedback and feed forward studies. Finally, we shall try to learn the importance of media
research as a tool of reporting. The lesson structure shall be as follows:
2.0
Objectives
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.2.1 Media Research: An Introduction

2.2.2 Social Research and Media Research Differentiated
2.2.3 Feedback and Feed Forward Studies
2.2.4 Media Research as a Tool of Reporting
2.0
2.3
Summary
2.4
Key Words
2.5
Self-Assessment-Questions (SAQs)
2.6
OBJECTIVES:
In this lesson we shall broadly discuss about media research. The specific objectives of
this lesson are:
o To Get An Introduction to Media Research
o To Differentiate Between Social Research and Media Research

o To understand Feedback and Feed Forward Studies
o To Know How to Use Media Research as a Tool of Reporting
2.1
INTRODUCTION:
Media research is the study of the social, psychological and physical aspects and effects
of the different mass media. For example, how much time do people spend with a
particular medium? Whether it has the effect of bringing about changes in the
perspectives of people? Does the use of medium have any harmful effects? Whether
these effects are because of technology or the programme contents. What the media
users want and expect to hear or read or see and experience?
In this connection it is also researched whether a medium can provide information
and entertainment to more and different types of people. In what way, new technology
can be used to improve or enhance the sight or sound of the medium? How is it possible
to change the content or programming to make it more valuable effective and
entertaining?
In this lesson, we shall discuss about various aspects of media research.
2.2

o Media Research: An Introduction
o Social Research and Media Research Differentiated
o Feedback and Feed Forward Studies
o Media Research as a Tool of Reporting
2.2.1 MEDIA RESEARCH- AN INTRODUCTION:
Media research includes a whole range of study about the development of media, their
achievements and effects. It includes the methods used in collecting and analyzing
information with regard to newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, Cinema or other mass
media. It also concerns with an expanded discussion of the scientific methods of
research. While studying any medium of communication we may ask series of questions.
o What is the nature of the medium?
o How does it work?
o What technology does it involve?

o How is it different or similar to any other media in any ways?
o What function and/or services does it provide?
o How much does it cost?
o Who will have access to the new medium?
o Is this medium effective?
o Can its performance be improved?
Media research also accumulates information about the uses of the mass media and also
the users of the mass media. In this connection we may ask:
o How the people use a medium or the various media?
o Whether it is used for information only and/or for entertainment and education
also?
o Which category of people use the different media more and why?
o What gratification do the media provide?
o What types of uses the media are put to?
We have been discussing about too many questions. Well, that is what research is all
about. A researcher has to have a highly inquisitive mind full of questions as he or she
tries to find valid answers to these questions. Research is a never-ending process. A
research project, which is originally designed to answer one series of questions, may
finally give rise to a new set of questions no one had thought of before.
If we take radio, there can be several studies this medium.

o On the uses of radio: What specific moods radio listening generates?
o Effect of radio,
o Improvement in the broadcasting technologies.
During World War I, Harold Lasswell studied the nature of propaganda from a stimulusresponse point of view. He thought that media could exert very powerful influence over
their audiences. Some experts were of the opinion that mass communication, to be
effective, need only transmit messages to an audience. By doing so they would produce
preplanned and almost universal effect. This concept was later named as the Hypodermic
Needle Model of Communication. The model is deficient in one very significant respect
that it did not take into account the individual differences among people.
A lot of media related research is done for practical application purposes. From the
fifties and sixties, advertisers have been using media research to devise ways to
persuade potential customers to buy products and services. As a result, a large number
of media studies were conducted on message effectiveness. Demography, and size of
audience, role of advertising in achieving higher degree of acceptance and sell,
frequencies of message to persuade potential customers and selection of media that
best suited to reach the target audience were some of the advertising related media
research areas.
In the seventies and eighties, a new trend in media research set in. Several studies
focused on the effects of the media on the public, including the effects on children. Many
investigations relating to violence and sexual content in television programmes come in
this category. Researchers also studied the positive and pro-social as well as the
negative and antisocial effects of television.
The competition among different media for audience-share and advertisingrevenue has led to the growth of research. Now media research has grown to be highly
sophisticated. It utilizes long-range plans. Research is, in a way, a tool in the
management-by-objective process. There is an increasing dependency on data to
support the decision-making process. Even programme producers also seek relevant
research data to develop the creative side of their programmes.
Mass media are now heading towards audience fragmentation and massive
demassification has set in.
To survive, the media requires information about the consumer's changing tastes
and values, about shifts in demographic pattern. Finally, media need to understand the
various trends in life styles of target audiences:
As a result of audience fragmentation in the mass media there is a keener focus on
trend studies concerning new behaviour patterns. Besides, there is also a trend towards
image studies, which investigate how people perceive media and their environment. Then
there is also a shift towards segmentation studies, which provide explanation of types or
groups of people. Now in the area of media research, these types of researches are
conducted which were previously considered the sole preserve of marketing, psychology
and sociology.
In recent years, mass media research included the various psychological and
sociological aspects of mass media. For example, many studies are conducted on the
psychological and emotional responses to television programmes and music played and
broadcast by radio and television.
Today in media research, computer modeling and other sophisticated computer
analysis including multimedia applications have become commonplace.
2.2.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEDIA RESEARCH AND SOCIAL RESEARCH:
The difference between media research and social science research are in fact one way
of looking at two related phenomena, namely, society and media. Both rely on the careful
systematic collection and analysis of data. Both strive for objectivity while recognizing
the importance of personal interpretation by experienced professionals in the respective
fields. Most often they employ the same methods for data gathering and analysis.
The real difference lies in the purpose. The media research aims at keeping the
public informed about the events deemed important by them. On the contrary, social
scientists are interested in understanding and explaining human social behaviour. Their
focus is on grasping how social institutions including mass media institutions functions
in actual terms. Some social scientists are more concerned with practical problems
rather than developing abstract, theoretical understanding. While both are interested in
generating knowledge, the primary goal of media research is communicate it.
Many studies conducted by media expert and social scientists are complementary
to each other. They help us to understand modern societies. They tell us a lot about what
is happening in the society and in the media. They also inform us about the effect of the
news media on public opinion and politics.
Media research can help us understand the ways in which media can meet the
needs of the audience. The answer to the above question can help us manage media
organizations much better from a business point of view. It can make the media more
socially responsible, particularly if communication professionals and media consumers
become more aware about the problems the society is facing at present. This will help
them make better decisions not only to manage and regulate the media effectively, but
also to insightfully deal with social and political issues.
Since social sciences deal with issues more generally by using, social scientific
approaches, it will not answer most of the immediate questions. However, it can provide
important insights about the goings on in the society.
Media research both reflects and helps shape our perceptions of the appropriate
roles of media professionals, media institutions, groups and public figures. It helps teach
us what issues are important. It provides us with adequate information to form opinions.
The influence of media on modern societies is very powerful but it is not a oneway. Social sciences research also affects the mass media and media organizations,
particularly in contexts like- social values and cultural legacies. Social sciences research
can also help us understand how different government are influencing media. The other
important areas covered are how the media influence our thinking, what role they play in
everyday life and how media institutions vary from society to society. These are all
important and meaningful areas of research.
The methods to study the media have been borrowed from social sciences like
Sociology, Psychology and Anthropology, etc. Empirical methods, widely used in
Economics, are very much in use in today's media research.
Media research, like social science research, uses both qualitative and quantitative
methods. It uses qualitative and interpretative methods to summarize findings in words.
It uses quantitative or statistical methods to summarize findings in numbers.
The impact of communication research as in case of the role of the electronic
media on problem of intercultural communication including that between subcultures in
modern multi ethnic societies have been extended to a great extent as a result of the use
of social scientific methods.
Media technologies like computers have also contributed a lot to changes in the
society. At a functional level, these technologies are used to produce desktop published
materials, as a new commercial mass medium in the form of videotext, and are direct
links between individuals in the form of electronic mail.
The electronic networks are creating communities that are physically dispersed
across a country or around the world, but are connected through machines. These
computer and Internet-linked virtual societies with new kinds of experiences have
created an important area of research. This is what a growing number of todays social
scientists and media researchers are exploring.
There is an increasing use of computers and other technologies for

communication research. From research design preparation, to data collection, to
tabulation, to data analysis, these modern technologies are being increasingly used.
Other areas in which both social scientists and media researchers are interested
pertain to the relationships among gender and ethnic stereotypes. They are concerned
with the portrayals of these groups in the mass media. Also they study this issue with a
focus on the impacts of media across national and cultural boundaries. Both media
researchers and social scientists are focusing on the ways to increase the diversity and
representativeness with a view to enriching the context of democracy itself.
Media and social sciences research are also concerned with the ever-growing
relationship between media and society as a result of the introduction of new
technologies. How the both disciplines will respond to this new challenge and in what
areas they both will develop to achieve a higher understanding of the human self and
society is a pivotal question.
2.2.3 FEEDBACK AND FEEDFORWARD STUDIES:
Communication, by definition, is a two-way process. It is a co-operative and a joint effort.
It is a mutual experience. It is an exchange between two parties- a sender and receiver.
For the communication experience to become complete, what we need is a response to
the message of the communicator. That response, when it reaches back the sender, is
called feedback.
In interpersonal Communication, the sender and receiver interact naturally, directly
and immediately. They constantly interchange roles- as sender and receiver. But in mass
communication, the situation is different. The response of the audience becomes
meaningful only if it reaches the sender. The different means of feedback include writing
a letter, making a phone-call or sending an e-mail or SMS, canceling a subscription, etc.
Turning of the TV set is a reaction. But it does not reach the sender. In view of the
distance, time and space between the communicator and the audience, mass
communication feedback is indirect, delayed, often cumulative and rarely representative.
Thus media organizations try to collect feedback on their own. But the process of
collecting feedback is immensely time consuming, and involves enormous expenses.
The audiences of the mass media are usually very large. Any feedback to be
worthwhile has to come from a representative sample of the total population. It must be
statistically represent the feelings and actions of the total audience.
Sampling (borrowed from the social sciences) is a statistically valid technique; this
is used extensively in mass communication survey research. Sampling represents a
portion of the population and is used to collect detailed responses.
The telephone provides immediate feedback because it can tell what an individual
is doing at the time of phone call. This method is fast simple and inexpensive.
Telephone recall is another method, which is used for collecting audience data,
primarily for programme viewing on TV.
Then there is the diary method. Here respondents keep record of their own or their
family's use of media. It gives detailed information about viewers habits and consumers'
behaviour.
Also there is the mechanical device called the audiometer or the people's meter
that records the minute-by-minute use of the TV sets. It supplies the information whether
the set is on and the station or channel to which it is tuned. However, it does not provide
data about who the viewers are, or how many of them are watching.
FEED FORWARD:
Another important aspect of media research is feed forward. This involves collection and
interpretation of information about media contents before they are published or
broadcast. One technique used for this is preview theatre. Here random samples of
people are shown various TV programmes and advertisements, etc., in a theatre. They
are made to respond to the messages by pushing buttons or turning dials signaling like
or dislike feelings. This method provides data that show how people react at different
stages of the message, not simply at the end. This method is also used in motion picture
previews." The methods also employed in sophisticated ways involving detailed
audience questionnaires and follow up interviews with selected audiences.
While the diary method and the mechanical device (people meter) provide delayed
feedback, personal interviews and telephone surveys are used as a speedy method of
having broadcast audience information.
2.2.4 MEDIA RESEARCH AS A TOOL OF REPORTING:
Media research makes use of scientific methods of research. It aims at providing an

objective, unbiased evaluation of data. First the research problem is identified, and then
a prescribed set of procedures of research is followed to investigate the problem. Only
thereafter comes report of the findings.
Viewed thus, media research is an objective and systematic way of collecting
information. News reporting on the other hand, tries to collect information and present
them in an objective and fair manner. The objectives of both media research and news
reporting are the same. The difference lies in the processes involved. Media research
uses more stringent and severe data collection and data analysis methods. So media
research is often used as a tool of reporting. Major examples of this include news
reporting based on surveys, opinion polls, pre-poll surveys, exit polls, etc.
When media research methodology and related tools are used for news reporting,
it is called precision journalism.
Researchers after identifying and developing a problem or topic for investigation
may give their attention to several potential sources for data. This may include a critical
analysis of everyday situations and background material already available. This is done
to achieve a clear perspective and make a concise presentation of results. One needs
select an appropriate method of analysis. They have to be wary of potential sources of
error that may creep into the findings. They need to consider, like a good investigative
reporter, every plausible alternatives and explanations. Only after making a thorough
evaluation of all the data and hypotheses that these may be reported.
The media researcher may be a detached observer, or a participant in the process
under study. He may undertake field observation, focus groups, intensive interviews or
case studies. All these methods and tools help the researcher to gather necessary data
concerning the research questions. These methods provide the researcher in-depth
information. Even extremely detailed information can be obtained from a small set of
respondents by following in the method of intensive interviewing.
Due to the advances in computer technology, computers have come to play a
useful role in mass media research. Computers have become a significant tool of
research. Computers play multiple roles in gathering and evaluating of data, and also in
preparing sophisticated graphic presentations and preparation of models.
Both writing a research report and news reporting follow almost the same process.
The only difference is in the analysis in research. Writings in the media are important for
scientific research. This is because the news reports place research studies in the public
domain for perusal and validation.
No research is complete with only information. It is essential to have facts and also
in-depth interpretation of facts. This necessitates the adoption and application of various
steps of media research that are highly reliable. News reporting, particularly,
investigative reporting is almost like research. For even the so-called fair and objective
account of occurrences may be misleading, if not carefully investigated and analyzed.
Sometimes it is not enough to report facts truthfully. It has become now necessary to
report the interpretation of the facts. That is because mere straight reporting of the facts,
while essential, may not always be sufficient. This is because data is sometimes
doctored or manipulated by vested interests
Many tactics are adopted to divert the attention of the reporters, even though
pictures and sound bytes from cameras and microphones from the real story support
them. Those who wish to express their particular point of view manipulate the news
media to communicate their own ideas or ideologies. To balance the use and abuse of
views, the media people must also use analysis and interpretation as is done in media
research. By doing so, facts can be put into proper perspective in order to tell what it
mean, to explain, to assure, and to persuade the target audience.
Now the new trend among journalists is to bring their interpretation in to the new
stories they report. This trend is a departure from the traditional practice that news and
opinion should be kept separate. The reporters, in the early days, were not expected to
editorialize, or to express ideas, opinion and feelings about what happened. Rather,
reporters were expected to tell simply what happened. But now blurring of facts and
opinion in mass media reporting has become very common.
Radio and TV face a special problem in being used for interpretation and analysis,
Earlier, it was held that broadcasting was such a powerful medium that it should only
report facts and should not be allowed to influence the opinion. This situation no longer
exists. Now, the editorial function of broadcasting is regulated through the so-called
fairness doctrine. This requires that when a station presents one side of a controversial
issue of public importance, the opposing view must also get a reasonable coverage.
Media research as a tool of reporting can also be used in a variety of others ways
in which mass media are used to provide interpretation and analysis of the world in
which we live in. Now while reporting there has to be a greater emphasis on telling the
audience more about an occurrence than the mere fact it has happened. Historical
background and perspective has also to be given. Many facts need further explanation,
amplification and clarification. The mass media are increasingly having their own
specialists among their reporting staff. They are the people who are expected to know as
much about their subjects and also analyze and interprete. In reporting about a complex
or controversial matter they can add their own expert opinion to enable the audience to
have a fuller understanding of the situation.
Even the wire services, which once depended on straight objective news reporting,
are now making more use of background and interpretative reports. Most of the news
agencies and syndicates have many special reporters to carry out in-depth investigations
of complicated and vital issues and concerns of the people. They are under no deadline
pressures forcing them to write a quick and superficial report of the facts. They have to
get behind the facts in order to explore the various ramifications and meanings of the
facts. Their chief concern is to reveal the truth about events, etc. This is how media
research has become an important tool of reporting.
2.3
SUMMARY:
o Media research is the study of the social, psychological and physical aspects and
effects of the medium. In this connection it is researched whether a medium can
provide information and entertainment to more and different types of people. In what
way, new technology can be used to improve or enhance the sight or sound of the
medium?
o In media research, we ask different questions including the following: What is the
nature of the medium? How does it work? What technology does it involve? How is it
different or similar to any other media in any ways? What function and/or services
does it provide? How much does it cost? Who will have access to the new medium? Is
this medium effective? Can its performance be improved?
o Harold Lasswell studied the nature of propaganda from a stimulus-response point of
view, during World War I. He thought that media could exert very powerful influence
over their audiences. Some experts thought to be effective mass communicators need
only transmit messages at an audience. By doing so they would produce preplanned
and almost universal effect.
o The competition among different media for audience and advertising-revenue has led
to the growth of research. Now media research has grown to be highly sophisticated.
It utilizes long-range plans. It is in a way management the objectives. There is an
increasing dependency on data to support the decision process. Even programme
producers also seek relevant research data to develop the creative side of their
programmes.
o There are many similarities between media research and social science research.
Both rely on the careful systematic collection and analysis of data. Both strive for
objectivity while recognizing the importance of personal interpretation by experienced
professionals in the respective fields. Most often both media research and social
science research employ the same methods for data gathering and analysis. Many
studies conducted by media expert and social scientists are complementary to each
other.
o There are some differences between media research and social science research. The
real difference lies in the purpose. The media research aims at keeping the public
informed about the events deemed important by them. On the contrary, social
scientists are interested in understanding and explaining human social behaviour.
o Media research, like social science research, uses both qualitative and quantitative
methods. It uses qualitative and interpretative methods to summarize findings in
words. It uses quantitative or statistical methods to summarize findings in numbers.
o Media research as a tool of reporting can also be understood in a variety of others
ways in which mass media are used to provide interpretation and analysis of the
world in which we live in. Now while reporting there has to be a greater emphasis on
telling the audience more about an occurrence than the mere fact it has happened.
Historical background and perspective has also to be given. Many facts need further
explanation, amplification and clarification. The mass media are increasingly having
their own specialists among their reporting staff. They are the people who are
expected to know as much about their subjects and also analyze and interprete.
2.4
KEY WORDS:
Media Research: Media research includes a whole range of study about the development
of media, their achievements and effects. It includes the methods used in collecting and
analyzing information with regard to newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, Cinema or other
modern and traditional media of communication.
Research in Advertising: From the fifties and sixties, advertisers have been using media
research to devise ways to persuade potential customers to buy products and services.
As a result, a large number of media studies were concerned with message
effectiveness. Demography, and size of audience, role of advertising in achieving higher
degree of acceptance and sell, frequencies of message to persuade potential customers
and selection of media that best suited to reach the target audience were some of the
major media research areas.
Technology in Media Research: Media technologies have also contributed a lot to media
research. There is an increasing use of computers for communications. They are used to
produce desktop published materials, as a new commercial mass medium in the form of
videotext, and are direct links between individuals in the form of electronic mail.
Feedback Research: The audiences of the mass media are usually very large. Any
feedback to be worthwhile has to come from a representative sample of the total
population. A common method is the survey. The telephone provides immediate
feedback because it can tell what an individual is doing at the time of phone call. This
method is fast simple and inexpensive.
Feed-forward Research: Feed-forward research involves collection and interpretation of
information about media contents before they are published or broadcast. This method is
provides data that show how people would react to the message when it finally reaches
them. This method also employed in sophisticated ways involving detailed audience
questionnaires and follow up interviews with selected audiences.
Researcher in Media Research: The media researcher may be a detached observer, or a
participant in the process under study. He may undertake field observation, focus
groups, intensive interviews or case studies. All these help to gather necessary data
concerning the research questions. These provide the researcher in depth information.
2.5

1. Discuss the role of media research.
2. Discuss the functions of media research.
3. Discuss media research as a tool for reporting.
2.6

nd

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 3
METHODS OF MEDIA RESEARCH
Writer: Sh. M. R. Patra

Faculty Member, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.
Vetter: Prof. B. K. Kuthiala
Chairperson, Department of Mass Communication, KUK, Haryana.
LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall provide an introduction to the various methods of media research. We shall start with the census method. This will
be followed by the survey method, observation method, and case study method. Finally, we shall cover the interview method. The
lesson structure shall be as follows:
3.0
Objectives
3.1
Introduction
3.2
3.2.1
Introduction to Methods of Media Research
3.2.2
Census Method
3.2.3
Survey Method
3.2.4 Observation Method

3.2.5 Case Study Method
3.2.6 Interview Method
3.0
3.3
Summary
3.4
Key Words
3.5
3.6
OBJECTIVES:
In this lesson we shall discuss about the various methods of conducting media research. The
specific objectives of this lesson are to provide the learning on the following concepts:
o To Get an Introduction to the Methods of Media Research
o To understand the Census Method
o To know about the Survey Method
o To understand the Observation Method
o To understand the Case Study Method
o To know about the Interview Method
3.1
INTRODUCTION:
Human beings have always made enormous efforts to become aware about the past and the
present, and to probe into the future. Many have tried to understand, to evaluate, and to
communicate. This is what indeed research and particularly media research is all about.
Research is a systematic effort to secure answers to certain 'questions'. In case of
communication or media research, the questions are related to media. It involves description,
analysis and interpretation of media or communication events and message-related-behaviour.
Media research is done in a systematic manner. One major aspect of being systematic is
to adopt specific methodology. There are many methods used in media research. We shall
discuss about some of these methods in this lesson.
3.2

o Introduction to Methods of Media Research
o Census Method
o Survey Method
o Observation Method
o Case Study Method
o Interview Method
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA RESEARCH:

Communication covers a broad range of topics. Also it draws heavily from other fields like
sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, etc. Thus most of the methods applicable to
social research are used for communication research. In fact, while fields like history, literature,
etc use only specific methods, communication research uses all kinds of methods. Also
individual studies in the field of communication research use multiple methods. All methods of
media research can be classified as quantitative and qualitative.
QUANTITATIVE METHODS:
Many research studies concentrate on numbers. In such studies, observations are expressed in
numerical terms. Quantitative research is basically explanatory in nature and sometimes even
involves experiments. Such studies attempt to use precise statistical tools and models to
achieve comprehensive understanding of communication behaviours and phenomena.
The best examples of these are surveys and opinion polls. Such methods often try to
predict present or future behaviour in various communication situations. In such studies
statistical methods are used as a means to an end. These are not ends in themselves. Here
numerical data are analyzed and presented numerically.
Quantitative methods help in providing precise explanations about processes and help
measure communication behaviour.
QUALITATIVE METHODS:
Here the emphasis is not on numerical data. Rather these methods depend on description and interpretation of meanings of
communication messages by way of subjective treatment. Instead of going for large number of examples, qualitative research
concentrates on individual examples. Qualitative research does not try to find patterns. It makes intensive inquiries about single
events, individuals and social or communication units.
Case studies, focus group studies are some examples of qualitative methods.
As we have already discussed, there are a lot of methods used in media or communication
research. These include Census, Survey, Observation, Case Studies, and Interviews, etc.
3.2.2 CENSUS METHOD:

This method involves studying the entire population or universe of research. This is a quantitative method. Every single element of
the universe is covered in this method. Thus the results are always good. Also there is no danger of biases or prejudices being
introduced. The major drawbacks of the census method are, it is highly expensive, and involves large manpower and a lot of efforts.
For these reasons, the census method is rarely used for media research.
3.2.3 SURVEY METHOD:

The term survey comes from two words sur and vor, which mean to see a particular thing
from a high place. But this term is used differently in different sciences. In natural sciences,
survey means measuring things. In social sciences, survey means an investigation of social
problems by collecting data through interviews, questionnaire, etc.
In communication research it means looking at something in its entirety. In surveys, we
cover events, processes, behaviour, etc. In quantitative communication research, a survey is an
empirical study that uses questionnaires or interviews to discover descriptive characteristics of
communication phenomena.
Often people think that surveys are means of studying large number of people. However,
relatively smaller groups - like the employees of an office - can also be surveyed. Surveys can
be used for all kinds of communication studies. There are the two basic forms of surveys -
questionnaire surveys and interview based surveys. We shall discuss about the questionnaire
survey here and shall discuss interviews later.
QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY:
A questionnaire survey involves the following steps:
o Selecting and framing questions,
o Formatting,
o Determining validity and reliability of questions,
o Sampling subjects (respondents),
o Administering the questionnaire, and
o Analyzing and interpreting results.
Selecting and Framing Questions: Developing or framing questions is often a difficult task. It
requires extensive reading on the subject, composing a rough draft, putting them into a proper
format. Questions can be direct or indirect, specific or general. Also there could be pure
questions or statements to which reactions are sought. Again questions can be closed or openended. The researcher is free to adopt one type of questions or a variety of question types.
Open-ended questions often result in a broad variety of responses.
Formatting: The basic format of questionnaires includes a brief statement about the study at
the beginning, request for participation, assurance of confidentiality (if required). Then come the
demographic questions (about gender, age, academics, income, etc.) Next come the questions
on the topic. Usually questions of same response modes (like the yes and no questions) are
grouped together. Some researchers put questions on the same issue together. Researchers
usually try to have less number of questions. However, some studies require long
questionnaires of 30 to 40 questions. Putting large number of questions in a proper format is a
big problem.
Determining Reliability and Validity: After framing questions and formatting the questions,
researchers must test the validity (relevance) and reliability (consistency) of the questions. For
this, researchers often put check questions in the questionnaire. This involves putting the same
question in different ways at different places.
Many methods of testing validity and reliability are available. These include test scales,
polarity rotation etc.
Sampling Subjects (Respondents): One cannot always study the entire population or the
universe. A representative sample is thus selected. Many methods are used for this purpose.
Whatever the method is, the researcher should justify the size and method of sampling.
Administering the Questionnaire: Questionnaires can be delivered by mail, through fax or
personally. However, it is always good to get the questionnaire filled up personally.
Analyzing and Interpreting Results: Mostly researchers use statistical means for analyzing
data collected through the questionnaires. They try to show averages or the spread of data.
Whatever means used, this form of research tries to reveal answers to the problems posed in
the study.
3.2.4 OBSERVATION METHOD:

Generally, observation is the process of acquiring knowledge through the use of the sense
organs. Observation involves three components - sensation or experiencing through the sense
organs, attention or the ability to concentrate on the subject matter, and perception or the ability
to recognize facts and putting them in proper perspective. In simple terms, observation means
seeing things with a purpose.
In research terms, observation is perception with a purpose. The observation methods
usually look into an occurrence, event or phenomenon as it is taking place. It is basically a
qualitative method.
The two basic types of observation are participatory and non-participatory. In
participatory observation, the researcher observes from within the group under observation
while being part of the group. This provides first hand information. In case of non-participatory
observation, the researcher observes from a distance. This is a kind of a detached observation.
It does not provide any first hand experience.
Participatory Observation: This is also called naturalistic study as such studies are conducted
in natural environments or settings. These are non-experimental studies or inquiries conducted
as the subjects (people) are engaged in the natural course of their lives. Participatory
observation is an important form of fieldwork. Here researchers study groups by becoming a

part of the group.
Researchers try to establish close relationships with the group members and observe
and record their behaviour. Such studies produce both qualitative and quantitative data.
Researchers try to use non-intrusive methods to gather information- regardless of the fact that
whether it is qualitative or quantitative. Researchers try to get close and personal with the group
members. They do not ask questions as in case of surveys. They join the group and 'observe'.
Outside Observation (Non Participatory Observation): Some times researchers do not
become part of the group they are studying. They observe the groups behaviour from the
outside and not as a part of the group. Here the chances of getting personal details of
behaviours are less.
In case of participatory observation, the interpretations become more subjective. But in
case of outside observation, which involves no close relationship between the group and the
researcher, the interpretations are more or less objective. In participative observations, the
researchers sympathy and concerns are reflected in the interpretations.
The steps involved in observation method include:
o Selecting the group and the place or setting,
o Getting familiar with the place and the group,
o Building rapport,
o Sampling within the group for selecting the types of behaviours to study,
o Asking questions if required,
o Keeping records of observations, and finally
o Interpretation of the data.
The accuracy of observations depends on the precise and clear formulation of the problem,
studying items and issues individually, objectivity of inquiry, and the five W's and one H (what,
where, who, when, why and how). The reliability of the observation depends on the techniques
and tools used, the situation, setting or environment being observed and of course the quality of
the observer. It also depends on the quality of sampling. A lot of cross checking is required to
make sure that relevant and valid information is being collected.
Along with objectivity, the observer should have relevant experience, knowledge,
maturity, unbiasedness, and alertness. Observations should be noted down immediately and all
observations should be properly categorized. Categorization helps in proper understanding and
analysis.
Observation is distorted by prejudice, bias, haste, inexperience and lack of relevant
knowledge. Observation also has two major problems or fallacies: non- observation and malobservation. Non-observation involves overlooking or neglecting relevant facts. Mal-observation
involves misinterpretation or misperception. This means perceiving things differently from what
they actually are.
3.2.5 CASE STUDY METHOD:

These are intensive inquiries about single events, individuals, social units, or institutions. Case
studies throw light on individual events or processes. The results are not generalizable in the
statistical sense.
Case studies help the researcher know precisely the factors and causes of a particular
phenomenon. It is a kind of qualitative analysis. Whether an individual, an institution, a social
unit or an entire community is studied, the subject is considered as a whole or a unit. The case
study method covers every aspect of the unit very intensively. In the case study method,
information is collected through personal interviews, interviews with people close to the subject
(or unit being studied), documents (personal and official as in case of individuals and institutions
respectively), etc.
Unlike most other methods where only general aspects are covered, the case study
method covers emotional and psychological aspects also. Unlike in other statistical methods
where the emphasis is on numbers, the case-study method involves subjective treatment.
While case studies generate adequate and comprehensive information, which help solve
many problems, this method has some disadvantages also. These include a false sense of
confidence. Researchers often become over confident as they cover all the aspects. However,
some aspects are overlooked some times. Collecting all kinds of information about great many
aspects of the subject becomes difficult. It is also time consuming and expensive. Also it could
lead to false generalizations. Being qualitative and subjective in nature, case studies are not
quantifiable. Often case studies are unorganized and unsystematic as no standardized
methodology is developed as yet. However, case studies are used as a highly effective method
of research both in the social sciences and communication fields.
3.2.6 INTERVIEW METHOD:

Like in the participative observation method, the researcher collects information in the interview
method personally. Many people use questionnaire to collect information. But using
questionnaires is an impersonal method as these are often distributed through mail. Also many
people ignore the questionnaire and do not respond. But interviews are not generally ignored.
Also the researchers can observe and record such information about the manner, behaviour and
nonverbal actions of the respondents. These things are usually lost if questionnaires are being
sent through mail. The interview method involves the following steps:
Selecting Questions: The first and foremost thing for an interview is to select questions. The
key here is relevance. Some times interviewers use specially prepared formats as in case of
questionnaires. Here the questions are selected, framed and organized in a particular format.
These are called structured interviews. In some other cases, the interviewer does not have a set
of pre-framed questions. This method is called unstructured interviewing. Unstructured
interviews offer a lot of flexibility. Here the respondents are free to give their reactions on the
topic and related issues. This method also allows extended explorations and follow ups.
Types of Question Strategies: Researchers use a variety of strategies to organize their
questions. Some put the demographic questions at the end, unlike in case of questionnaires.
For initial questioning two strategies are used: funnel questioning and inverted funnel
questioning.
Funnel questioning starts with general and open-ended questions. These are followed by
narrow or specific questions. Inverted funnel questioning begins with a very specific question,
which is then followed by general questions.
Example of funnel questioning:
o How do you feel about the news programmes on Citi Cable?

o How would you rate the coverage of local events on Citi Cable?
o How would you rate the coverage of local problems on Citi Cable?
o How do you rate the coverage of the sewerage problem in the city on Citi Cable?
Example of inverted funnel questioning:
o What is your favourite TV Serial?
o Do you like other serials of the same type?

o What type of TV programmes do you watch?
After initial questioning is over, then the researcher uses two other strategies - mirror questioning and probing questions. Mirror
questioning involves repeating previous questions in a different way to gain additional information and to cross check previous
answers. And probing questions are asked to get elaboration or explanation.
The Gallup Organization, which runs the famous Gallup Polls, has devised the following principles for conducting interviews.
o The questions should be short and to the point.

o The words and phrases should be simple.
o The questions should avoid all possible bias against or in favour of a particular point of
view.
o The questions should include all the important alternatives.
3.3
SUMMARY:
o Research is a systematic effort to secure answers to certain 'questions'. In case of

communication or media research, the questions are related to media. It involves
description, analysis and interpretation of media or communication events and messagerelated-behaviour.
o Most of the methods applicable to social research are used for communication research. In
fact, while fields like history, literature, etc use only specific methods, communication
research uses all kinds of methods. Also individual studies in the field of communication
research use multiple methods.
o Quantitative research studies attempt to use precise statistical tools and models to achieve
comprehensive understanding of communication behaviours and phenomena. The best
examples of these are surveys and opinion polls. Such methods often try to predict present
or future behaviour in various communication situations. Quantitative methods help in
providing precise explanations about processes and help measure communication
behaviour.
o Qualitative research concentrates on individual examples. Qualitative research does not try
to find patterns. It makes intensive inquiries about single events, individuals and social or
communication units. Case studies, focus group studies are some examples of qualitative
methods.
o
Every single element of the universe is covered in the census method. Thus the results are always good. Also there is no danger
of biases or prejudices being introduced. The major drawbacks of the census method are, it is highly expensive, and involves
large manpower and a lot of efforts. For these reasons, the census method is rarely used for media research.
o In communication research, a survey is an empirical study that uses questionnaires or

interviews to discover descriptive characteristics of communication phenomena. Surveys can
be used for all kinds of communication studies. There are the two basic forms of surveys questionnaire surveys and interview based surveys. We shall discuss about the
questionnaire survey here and shall discuss interviews later.
o In media research, observation is perception with a purpose. The observation method
usually looks into an occurrence, event or phenomenon as it is taking place. It is basically a
qualitative method.
o The two basic types of observation are participatory and non-participatory. In participatory
observation, the researcher observes from within the group under observation while being
part of the group. This provides first hand information. In case of non-participatory
observation, the researcher observes from a distance. This is a kind of a detached
observation. It does not provide any first hand experience.
3.4
KEY WORDS:
Media Research: In communication or media research, we try to find answers to questions

related to the fields of communication and media. It involves description, analysis and
interpretation of media or communication events and message-related-behaviour.
Quantitative Methods: Quantitative research concentrates on numbers. Such studies attempt
to use precise statistical tools and models to achieve comprehensive understanding of
communication behaviours and phenomena. The best examples of these are surveys and
opinion polls. Such methods often try to predict present or future behaviour in various
communication situations. Quantitative methods help in providing precise explanations about
processes and help measure communication behaviour.
Qualitative Methods: These methods depend on description and interpretation of meanings of
communication messages by way of subjective treatment. Qualitative research concentrates on
individual examples. Qualitative research does not try to find patterns. It makes intensive
inquiries about single events, individuals and social or communication units. Case studies, focus
group studies are some examples of qualitative methods.
Census Method: This method involves studying the entire population or universe of research. This is a quantitative method. Every
single element of the universe is covered in this method. Thus the results are always good. Also there is no danger of biases or
prejudices being introduced. The major drawbacks of the census method are, it is highly expensive, and involves large manpower and
a lot of efforts. For these reasons, the census method is rarely used for media research.
Survey Method: In communication research, survey means looking at something in its entirety.
In surveys, we cover events, processes, behaviour, etc. In communication research, a survey is
an empirical study that uses questionnaires or interviews to discover descriptive characteristics

of communication phenomena. Surveys can be used for all kinds of communication studies.
There are the two basic forms of surveys - questionnaire surveys and interview based surveys.
We shall discuss about the questionnaire survey here and shall discuss interviews later.
Observation Method: In media research, observation is perception with a purpose. The
observation method usually looks into an occurrence, event or phenomenon as it is taking place.
It is basically a qualitative method.
Participatory Observation: These are non-experimental studies or inquiries conducted as the
subjects (people) are engaged in the natural course of their lives. Participatory observation is an
important form of fieldwork. Here researchers study groups by becoming a part of the group.
Researchers try to establish close relationships with the group members and observe and
record their behaviour. Such studies produce both qualitative and quantitative data.
Non-Participatory Observation: In case of participatory observation, the researchers observe
the groups behaviour from the outside and not as a part of the group. Here the chances of
getting personal details of behaviours are less. Here the interpretations are more or less
objective. In participative observations, the researchers sympathy and concerns are reflected in
the interpretations.
3.5

1. Write a detailed note on the various methods of media research.
2. Discuss the survey method in detail.
3. Write a detailed note on the observation methods of media research.
3.6

nd

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 4
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF RANDOM SAMPLING
Writer: Sh. Sushil K. Singh
Lecturer, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

Dept of Mass Communication, KU, Kurukshetra, Haryana.

Lecturer, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson will cover the various aspects of sampling including: Population, Sample, Sampling
errors, Sampling units, Sampling frame, Random sampling, Non-random sampling, etc.
The lesson structure shall be as follows:
4.0
4.0
Objectives
4.1
Introduction
4.2
4.2.1
Introduction to Sampling
4.2.2
Probability Sampling
4.2.3
Non- probability Sampling
4.3
Summary
4.4
Key Words
4.5
4.6
OBJECTIVES:
In this lesson we shall discuss about the theory and practice of sampling. The specific objectives
of this lesson are to provide the learning on the following concepts.
4.1
To Get an Introduction to Sampling
To Understand Probability Sampling
To Know about Non- probability Sampling
INTRODUCTION:
Advertisers want to find out about the reasons why customers like certain products and discard
others. Political candidates want to know whom the electorate is going to vote for. Psephologists
want to predict the possible results of elections. But in all these cases there is one big problem.
Advertisers cannot reach all the customers. Politicians and psephologists cannot reach all the
voters.
So while conducting research we study only a part of the total population under study.
This 'part' is called the 'sample' and the process by which we draw samples is called sampling.
In this lesson, we shall discuss about all the related aspects of sampling.
4.2
4.2.1
Introduction to Sampling
Probability Sampling
Non- probability Sampling
SAMPLING- AN INTRODUCTION:
Researchers often try to make inferences about the population on the basis of results from a survey sample. To draw samples from
populations, researchers must first decide the population. Suppose that you were interested in studying the degree to which
housewives in India rely on television commercials in preference to traditional methods. All the housewives in the country would
constitutes the population.
Take another example. You are interested to study the degree to which the news items in
national dailies are slanted on a particular topic or party. In this case all the news items of all the
national daily newspapers will be the population. Researchers define population as having
certain characteristics.
Sampling is the process of selecting units from a population. The total population under study is called the 'universe' of the
study. This practice is required as an alternative to census where you have to survey the entire population i.e. data is collected from
each unit. This is chosen in cases where the size of the population is very large.
However, the conclusion of the study can be good only when the collection of data is
done through logical reasoning behind choices. So we need to understand and study closely the
population under study and how samples are drawn from that population in order to study the
whole characteristics of that population.
A population is the universe of events from which the sample is drawn. In other words it is
all the units about which the information is sought. The researcher, on the basis of certain
characteristics, defines populations. Though population may be quite broad as all people or all
news items in all newspapers, they may be defined quite narrowly, such as television
commercials that appear during network prime time, i.e. between 7pm -11 p.m.
Sample is a part of the population selected for a particular research study. Researchers
rarely sample all the events or units, but rely on a portion of all data to draw conclusions.
Sampling may have the following dimension in a study of communication research:
o In sampling events are selected from the population to be included in the study.
o The results of the study are interpreted to test hypothesis and in order to estimate
parameters of the population from sample data.
The individual elements or events in the population are assigned numbers. These numbers from
population are called units. A sample is simply a selection of units from the population. The
collection of selected individuals or events is called the sample. A statistic is a number
computed from a sample. The statistics that reflect the features of the sample are called sample
characteristics. Communication researchers gather statistics from the sample to determine the
properties of the population.
BIAS IN SAMPLING:
The process of selecting sample units from the population has to be objective and without bias.
While sampling there is a tendency for the researcher to err. This is referred to as bias in
sampling. Certainly, researchers work to eliminate and minimize bias. Opinion poll predictions
and television rating services are supposed to be accurate, for this elimination of bias in
sampling is a precondition. Controlling bias is critical, as accuracy does not occur by accident.
Representative sample:
The goal of effective sampling should be that a good sample must be representative of
the population and big enough to permit reasonable analysis of data. A representative sample is
one that accurately reflects characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
SAMPLE SIZE:
"How big should a sample be?" This question is crucial for the research students. Generally
researchers collect the sample large enough to make reasonable interpretations. Yet, large
sample size is not enough to prove that a sample is representative of the population. The
students of communication research should try to gather a reasonably sized sample in order to
make a good and representative study.
The size of the sample should be determined keeping in view the following factors:
o Degree of accuracy required.

o Time available for completion of the study.
o Manpower available.
o Finances available.
o Subject matter of research.
There cannot be an ideal proportion between the size of the size of the universe and the size of
the sample. In most cases sample size is governed by the above-mentioned factors. However, it
may also be noted that very small sample may give distorted results. At the same time, very
large sample may also be a wastage of resources.
SAMPLING ERROR:
As we study a definite sized sample and not the entire population some error is bound to occur
in telling the characteristics of the population exactly.
Sampling error may be defined as the degree to which sample attributes differ from
population characteristics on certain measures. If we study the entire population then there is no
sampling error at all. But we also know that it is impossible to study the entire population over a
fixed period of time and we are bound to resort to sampling. Larger the size of the sample lesser
will be the sampling error.
Margin of error is the amount of sampling error associated with the sample. If we collect a
big sample this margin of error can be reduced and our research reports may be very accurate.
In good sample studies, sample error is generally indicated. For example, if in a population 40
percent of the households own television sets, but a sample study may reveal that 39 percent
households have television sets in their homes. This is sampling error, but from research point
of view 39 percent and 40 percent is not a big difference. In research study it may be indicated
as + 1%.
FORMS OF SAMPLING:
Broadly, sampling can be done in two ways:

o Probability sampling and
o Non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling is more commonly known as Random Sampling. Non-probability sampling
is called non-random sampling
4.2.2 RANDOM SAMPLING:

Random sampling plays an important part in research. In this form of sampling the selection of
sample is done in such a way that each event in the population gets equal chance of selection.
Random sampling is taken for all statistical tools, which are applicable to data.
The distributions of randomly occurring events can be used to figure the odds that a
sample truly reflects the characteristics of the population. Random sampling is not haphazard,
unsystematic or accidental. However, in research random means every unit gets equal chance
of selection.
Random sampling is considered as a systematic and most scientific means of studying
the population. Random sampling consumes a lot of time and most researchers want shortcuts.
But the shortcuts throw off the whole sample and leads to faulty results.
METHODS OF RANDOM SAMPLING:

o Simple Random sampling
o Stratified random sampling
o Cluster sampling
o Systematic sampling.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING:
In this type of random sampling the selection of data is done in such a way that each event
(individuals) gets an equal chance for selection. It may be done by way of pulling names out of a
container. Number are assigned to each individual events and a lot can be drawn randomly or
using a random number table the numbers to be included in the final selection can be drawn.
This increases the representativeness and sampling error can be easily computed.
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Population is divided into different strata based on the known proportions or properties and
random sampling is completed within each group in the population. As in simple random
sampling this method is also time consuming but allows analysis by sub division of strata and
the disproportionate representation of the sub divisions of the population is also prevented.
Say in a study of the opinion of men and women on certain issues of a particular place.
The member of men and women are identified. After deciding the number of men and women to
be taken for study a simple random sample is drawn from each sub group of the population
stratification (the population is stratified as men & women).
For a study on an industry strata can be divided into managers, superiors, skilled
workers, and unskilled workers. For a study on rural youth the strata can be student youth, nonstudent youth, rich-, medium-, or poor-youth.
But it should be noted that in a study based on stratified sampling, results should be
drawn for each stratum separately and various strata should not be merged for the entire
population. This will give you erroneous results.
CLUSTER SAMPLING:
In cluster sampling groups of events or areas (clusters) are taken as a unit (rather than taking
single individual events as units) and an actual sample is drawn from them. This method is
considered as a practical solution to the problems of gaining access to many settings and the
cost of sampling is minimized in large-scale surveys.
However, this sampling is disadvantaged by the requirement of larger samples and
weights for each strata or each individual event may be difficult to know in many settings.
Results cannot be taken as representative for the entire population.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:
This is a commonly used method in which cluster sampling and stratified sampling are
combined. Every n-th event or cluster in the population is taken for study and a systematic
sampling is done among the events or clusters thus selected.
NON-SAMPLING ERROR:
We know that some errors are bound to occur whatever method we used for sampling. Errors
due to sampling factors (Sampling error) usually get the most attention. However, there are a lot
of factors, which affect a study. These factors (or the sources of error) are critical as there are
so many of them. The non-sampling errors may include.
o Refusal by respondent s for interview
o Intentional lying by respondent
o Prevalent opinion
o Poor recall
o Subculture of respondents
o Miscommunication
o Coding errors
o Image of the interviewer.
o Recording error
o Misunderstanding of questions being asked.
4.2.2 NON-RANDOM SAMPLING:
This form of sampling is applicable where random sampling is not possible. Non-random
sampling may be classified as:
o Convenience sampling,
o Quota sampling,
o Purposive or known group sampling, and
o Snowball sampling.
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING:
In convenience sampling no attempt at randomization is made. Here selection of
respondents/events depends upon the availability. Although economical in nature the
computation of bias is not possible in this case and the generalisation to the population is out of
question.
QUOTA SAMPLING:
This method of sampling attempts that important parts of the population are not omitted and
samples are defined based on the known proportions within the population and non-random
sampling is completed within each group.
PURPOSIVE OR KNOWN GROUP SAMPLING:

This is a convenient and economical sampling method when key population characteristics are
identified. Here the selection of respondents is from groups that are known to possess a
particular characteristics under investigation. However, in this case also the generalization to the
population is also not possible.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING:
Snowball sampling is highly useful in studies where population units are not well defined and
thus cannot be listed. The selection of respondents is based on referrals from initial informants.
In this case the respondent is requested to refer the researcher to other individuals in the group.
Examples of not so well defined population are members of underworld organization,
prostitutes, criminals, AIDS patients, users of a particular brand, etc.
However, studies depending on snowball sampling provide broad features of the
population and cannot be considered as actual research.
PRACTICES IN RANDOM SAMPLING:

As we know that all the forms of sampling- random or non random have advantages and
disadvantages depending upon the type, nature of the study, we require to select a suitable
method. We also know that the study of research is riddled with choices and compromises. It
would, in the best interest of the researcher that all the pros and cons are zoomed in and adopt
so that they can produce good research results. Randomization is a pain in the neck so far as
the credibility of the study is concerned.
4.3
o
SUMMARY:
While conducting research we often study only a part of the total population under study. This 'part' is called the 'sample' and the
process by which we draw samples is called sampling.
o All the elements or events under study in any research are called the population or universe.
o This question of sample size is crucial for the research students. Generally researchers
collect the sample large enough to make reasonable interpretations. Yet, large sample size
is not enough to prove that a sample is representative of the population.
o
The size of the sample should be determined keeping in view the following factors: Degree of accuracy required, Time available
for completion of the study, Manpower available, Finances available, and Subject matter of research.
o Sampling error may be defined as the degree to which sample attributes differ from
population characteristics on certain measures. If we study the entire population then there is
no sampling error at all. But we also know that it is impossible to study the entire population
over a fixed period of time and we are bound to resort to sampling. Larger the size of the
sample lesser will be the sampling error.
o
Broadly, sampling can be done in two ways: Probability sampling and Non-probability sampling.
o In random sampling the selection of sample is done in such a way that each event in the
population gets equal chance of selection. Random sampling is a systematic and most
scientific means of studying the population. Random sampling consumes a lot of time.
4.4
KEY WORDS:
Sampling: We often study only a part of the total population under study during research. This
'part' is called the 'sample' and the process by which we draw samples is called sampling.
Population or Universe: All the elements or events under study in any research are called the
population or universe.
Bias in Sampling: The process of selecting sample units from the population has to be
objective and without bias. While sampling there is a tendency for the researcher to err. This is
referred to as bias in sampling. Certainly, researchers work to eliminate and minimize bias.
Sample Size: This question of sample size is crucial for the research students. Generally
researchers collect the sample large enough to make reasonable interpretations. Yet, large
sample size is not enough to prove that a sample is representative of the population.
Sampling Error: Sampling error may be defined as the degree to which sample attributes differ
from population characteristics on certain measures. If we study the entire population then there
is no sampling error at all. But we also know that it is impossible to study the entire population
over a fixed period of time and we are bound to resort to sampling. Larger the size of the sample
lesser will be the sampling error.
Random Sampling: In random sampling the selection of sample is done in such a way that
each event in the population gets equal chance of selection. Random sampling is not
haphazard, unsystematic or accidental. Random sampling is considered as a systematic and
most scientific means of studying the population.
Methods of Random Sampling: The major methods of random sampling are: Simple Random
sampling, Stratified random sampling, Cluster sampling, and Systematic sampling.
Simple Random Sampling: Here the selection of data is done in such a way that each event (individuals) gets an equal chance for
selection. It may be done by way of pulling names out of a container. This increases the representativeness and sampling error can
be easily computed.
Stratified Random Sampling: Population is divided into different strata based on the known proportions or properties and random
sampling is completed within each group in the population. As in simple random sampling this method is also time consuming but
allows analysis by sub division of strata and the disproportionate representation of the sub divisions of the population is also
prevented.
Cluster Sampling: In cluster sampling groups of events or areas (clusters) are taken as a unit
(rather than taking single individual events as units) and an actual sample is drawn from them.
This method is considered as a practical solution to the problems of gaining access to many
settings and the cost of sampling is minimized in large-scale surveys.
Systematic Sampling: This is a commonly used method in which cluster sampling and
stratified sampling are combined. Every n-th event or cluster in the population is taken for study
and a systematic sampling is done among the events or clusters thus selected.
Non- Random Sampling: This form of sampling is applicable where random sampling is not
possible. Non-random sampling may be classified as: Convenience sampling, Quota sampling,
Purposive or known group sampling, and Snowball sampling.
Convenience Sampling: In convenience sampling no attempt at randomization is made. Here
selection of respondents/events depends upon the availability. Although economical in nature
the computation of bias is not possible in this case and the generalization to the population is
out of question.
Quota Sampling: This method of sampling attempts that important parts of the population are
not omitted and samples are defined based on the known proportions within the population and
non-random sampling is completed within each group.
4.5
1. Write a detailed note on sampling giving examples.

2. Discuss random sampling in detail.
3. Write a detailed note on non-random sampling.
4.6

o Introduction to Communication Research by John C Reinard (Benchmark, 1994)
o Practical Marketing Research by Jefferey L Pope (Amacom, 1993)
o Introduction to Survey Research by Pamela L Alreck & Robert B Settle (Irwin, 1995)
nd

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 5
RESEARCH DESIGN
Writer: Prof. Sunil Kant Behera
Dept of Mass Communication, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa.

Dept of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

Faculty Member, Dept of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall provide an introduction to research designs. We shall start with some definitions of research designs. We shall also
focus on the various types of research designs, and also on experimental research designs. Finally, we shall try to understand the
features of a good research design. The lesson structure shall be as follows:
5.0
5.0
Objectives
5.1
Introduction
5.2
5.2.1
Research Design Defined
5.2.2
Types of Research Designs
5.2.3
Experimental Research Designs
5.2.4
Features of a Good Research Design
5.3
Summary
5.4
Key Words
5.5
5.6
OBJECTIVES:
In the previous lesson we have thoroughly discussed about the theory and practice of sampling.
In this lesson we shall cover research design. The objectives of this lesson are to provide the
learning on the following concepts.
5.1
To Define Research Design
To Know About the Types of Research Designs
To Know About Experimental Research Designs
To Know About the Features of a Good Research Design
INTRODUCTION:
Design, at a basic level, means planning. Generally some decisions are to be taken before the actual action. The design is a plan to
ensure that action achieves its objectives. So it is the way to avoid wasteful expenditure of money, time and energy.
Research design is the blueprint for research. The researcher records his decisions by using relevant symbols or concepts.
And these symbolic constructions are called research design. The process of data collection, sampling and analysis of the collected
facts are to be organized as per the basis of the design. The whole study can be done in a systematic manner. So the strategy needs
careful planning and preparation.
Media research requires a comprehensive plan of action. If research can be defined as

systematic inquiry into a subject media research can be defined as the process to examine
media topics methodically.
A media student faces a wide variety of assignments requiring planning and preparation of the research design. Some of the
areas are:
o Conducting audience or consumer surveys,

o Conducting basic research investigations,
o Investigating and writing news stories,
o Preparing advertising and public relation campaigns,
o Writing these and dissertations and reports.
Media research is a modern field of inquiry and is studied in a great variety of allied disciplines.
So, the research sources for this subject exit in the social and behavioral sciences, the arts and
the humanities. With so much information available, determining the best is not easy. So
proper designing is the need for media research.
5.2

o
Research Design Defined
Types of Research Designs
Experimental Research Design
Features of a Good Research Designs
5.2.1 RESEARCH DESIGN DEFINED:

The second step in research is the research design. It is the skeleton for the research project.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design. It is a process of deliberate anticipation directed
towards bringing an expected situation under control. Claire Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch and cook
define research design as, The arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in
a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
In fact, it is the structure within which research is conducted. The design constitutes the blue
prints for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
So, the agenda from writing
hypothesis to the final analysis of data is research design.

Research design results from certain decisions being taken. The decisions are:
o What is the study about?
o Why is the study being made?

o Where will the study be carried out?
o What type of data is required?
o Where can the required data be found?
o What periods of time will the study include?
o What will be the sample design?
o What techniques of data collection will be used?
o How will be the data analyzed?
o In what style will the report be prepared?
o And how the research purpose can be achieved with minimum expenditure of money,
time and energy.
The design decisions are based on an accepted methodology. After formulating the research
problem, the researcher tries to translate the ideal model into practical one.
research procedure is needed to solve the research problem.
So, an ideal
Ackoff states the idealized
research design as It is concerned with specifying the optimum research procedure that could
be followed where there is no practical restrictions.
Research design can be split into four phases:
o The sampling design: It deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study;
o The observational design: It relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
o The statistical design: It deals with the question of how many subjects are to be
observed and how the observations are to be analyzed; and
o The operational design: It deals with the specific techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
These above designs are not independent. The decision in respect of any one phase of the
design may influence or affect a decision in any other phase.
5.2.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS:

There are different research designs as per four research purposes:
o Exploratory or formulative studies

o Descriptive studies
o Diagnostic studies, and
o Experimental studies
Some times, we conduct research studies to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. Sometimes the
objective is to formulate a more precise research theory or to develop hypotheses. Such studies are known as exploratory studies.
Some other times, we conduct research studies to portray accurately the characteristics
of a particular situation or group or individual.
Studies having this purpose are known as
descriptive studies.
We some times conduct research studies to determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
Studies having this
purpose are known as diagnostic studies.

Some times, we conduct research studies to test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables. Studies characterized by this purpose are called experimental studies.
Exploratory researchers need the following three methods for studies:
o A review of related social science and other pertinent literature,
o A survey of people who have had practical experience of the problem to be studied,
and
o An analysis of insight stimulating cases.
From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive and diagnostic studies share
common requirements. In both cases the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he
wants to measure and must find adequate methods measuring it along with a clear cut definition
of population he wants to study.
The design in descriptive and diagnostic research must be rigid and not flexible and must
focus attention on the following:
o Formulating the objective of the study,
o Designing the methods of data collection,
o Selecting the sample,
o Collecting the data,
o Processing and analyzing the data, and
o Reporting the findings.
In these cases relevancy of data are important. The research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a comparative
design. It can be referred as a survey design.
The basic difference between exploratory research design and descriptive/diagnostic design is
given below in the tabular form.
___________________________________________________________________
Study type
Basic
Observational Sampling
Statistical
Operational
Design
Design
Design
Design
Design
_______________________________________________________________________
Exploratory Flexible
Descriptive
Diagnostic
Rigid
Flexible
Flexible
(Unstructured) (NonInstruments probability
Judgement
Flexible,
No
Preplanned
Design
For
Analysis
Flexible
No
Fixed
Decisions
About
Operationalizing
The Study.
Rigid
Rigid
(Structured
Probability
Instruments) Design
Random
Samples
Rigid
Preplanned
Design
For
Analysis
Rigid
Advance
Decisions
About
Operationalizing
The
Study.
___________________________________________________________________
6.2.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS:

Experimental studies are the ones concerned with testing the causal hypotheses. This study
reduces bias, increase reliability and will permit drawing inferences about causality.
Prof. R.A. Fishers name is associated with experimental designs. Experimental designs
have its origin in agricultural research. Prof. Fisher found that by dividing fields or plots into
different blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever
information is collected and inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact
inspired him to develop experimental designs.
PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS:

Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
o The principle of replication;
o The principle of randomization; and
o Principle of local control.

Principle of replication states that the experiment should be repeated more than once.
The principle of randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment,

against the effects of extraneous factors by randomization.
Under the principle of local control, the known source of variability, is made to vary
deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the
variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
IMPORTANT EXPERIMENT DESIGNS:

Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as such there
are several experimental designs. Experimental designs can be classified into two categories:
o Informal experimental design, and
o Formal experimental design
Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of
analysis based on differences in magnitudes. Informal experimental designs can be divided as
follows:
o Before and after without control design.
o After only with control design.
o Before-and-after with control design.
Before-and-after without control design: In such a design a single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured
before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again after the
treatment has been introduced.
After-only control design: Two groups or areas are selected and the treatment is introduced
into the test area only in this design.
Before-and-after with control design: Two areas are selected and the dependent variables
are measured in both the areas for an identical time-period before the treatment in this design.
The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is
measured in both for an identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment.
Formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures
of analysis. Formal experiments can be divided as:
o Completely randomized design.
o Randomized block design.
o Latin square design
o Factorial design
Completely randomized design: It involves only two principles viz., the principle of replication
and the principle of randomization of experimental designs. The essential characteristics of this
design are that subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments.
Completely randomized designs can again be divided into two types:
Two-group simple randomized: In this group all the population is defined and then from the population a sample is selected randomly.
Random replications design: In this design the effect of differences are minimized.
Randomized block design: It is an improvement over the completely randomized design. In
the randomized block design the principle of local control can be applied along with the other
two principles of experimental designs.
In the randomized block design, subjects are first
divided into groups. The variable selected for grouping the subject is one that is often related to
the measures to be obtained in respect of the dependent variable.
Latin squares design: It is an experimental design frequently used in agricultural research.
The conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried out are different from other
studies
In L.S. design the field is divided into many blocks as there are varieties of fertilizer and
then each block is again divided into as many parts as there are varieties of fertilizers in such a
way that each of fertilizer is used in each block.
Factorial designs: These are used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one
factor are to be determined. Factor design is also divided into two types:
o Simple factorial design and
o Complex factorial design.
Experimental research is similar to descriptive research. It is causal. It is based on the premise of one event. The researcher designs
experiments to test various hypothesis, or educated guesses, about the event.
5.2.4 FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN:

The features of a good research design are as follows:
o The design, which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed, is considered a good design.
o The design, which gives the smallest experimental error, is supposed to be the best design
in many investigations.
o A design, which yields maximum information and provides an opportunity for considering
many different aspects of a problem, is considered an efficient design.
o A good design contains a clear statement of research problem, procedures and techniques
to be used for gathering information, the population to be studied and methods to be used in
processing and analyzing data.
5.3
SUMMARY:
o We discussed here that design means planning.

o The process of data collection, sampling and analysis of the collected facts are to be
organized as per the basis of the design.
o Media research is studied in a great variety of allied disciplines.
o There are four phases of research design viz. the sampling design, the observational design,
the statistical design and the operational design.
o There are four types of research design viz. Exploratory studies, descriptive studies,
diagnostic studies and experimental studies.
o There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance his planning.
o Experimental researchers observe present circumstances under controlled conditions.
o Empirical researchers observe, describe, and explain the relationships between events.
5.4
KEY WORDS:
Variable: A concept that can take on different quantitative values is called a variable.
Continuous variable: Phenomena, which can take on quantitatively different values even in
decimal points, are called continuous variables.
Discrete variable: A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct
gaps is called a discrete variable.
Validity: It refers to measuring what you intend to measure.
Liability: It refers to consistency stability or repeatability of measures.
Empirical research: This term is often applied to investigations of a quantitative nature.
Control: The term control is used when we design the study minimizing the effects of
extraneous independent variables.
Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.
Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem is known as experiment.
Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are
used, are known as experimental units.
Such experimental units must be selected very
carefully.
Treatments: The different conditions under which experiment and control groups are put are
usually referred as treatments.
5.5
1. Briefly explain the meaning of research design.

2. Prepare a research design to study the problem of Indian language newspapers.
3. Discuss some features of experimental design.
4. What are the different types of research design? Explain each of them briefly.
5. Explain the meaning and importance of each of the following in research:
o Control
o Research hypothesis
o Treatment
o Good design
5.6

o Communication Research: Strategies and Sources (2nd ed) by Rubin, R.B., Rubin,
A.M. and Piele, L.J. Belmont, CA, (Wadsworth)
nd

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 6
QUESTIONNAIRE:
PREPARATION & ADMINISTRATION
Writer: Prof. Sunil Kant Behera
Dept of Mass Communication, Berhampur University, Berhampur, Orissa.

Dept of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

Faculty Member, Dept of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall provide an introduction to Questionnaire as a tool of research. We shall start with the definition of questionnaire.
This will be followed by Questionnaires and Schedules Differentiation, Types of Questionnaire, Elements of Questionnaire,
Preparation of Questionnaire, Aspects of Questionnaire Preparation, Physical Form of Questionnaire, and Pre-testing a Questionnaire.
Finally, we shall try to understand the Merits and Demerits of a Questionnaire. The lesson structure shall be as follows:
6.0
6.0
Objectives
6.1
Introduction
6.2
6.2.1
Definition of Questionnaire
6.2.2
Questionnaires and Schedules
6.2.3
Types of Questionnaire
6.2.4
Elements of Questionnaire
6.2.5
Preparation of Questionnaire
6.2.6
Aspects of Questionnaire Preparation
6.2.7
Physical Form of Questionnaire
6.2.8
Pre-testing a Questionnaire
6.2.9
Merits & Demerits of a Questionnaire
6.3
Summary
6.4
Key Words
6.5
6.6
OBJECTIVES:
In the previous lesson, we have comprehensively discussed about research design. In this
lesson we will thoroughly discuss about the preparation and administration of questionnaires.
After reading this lesson, the students will be able to know:
The objectives of this lesson are as follows:
o
To Know About Definitions of Questionnaire,
To Know About the various Types of Questionnaire
To Know About the difference between Schedules and Questionnaire,
To Know About the various Elements of Questionnaire
To Know About the Preparation of a Questionnaire
To Know About the various Aspects of Questionnaire Preparation
o To Know About the Physical Form of Questionnaire
6.1
To Know About Pre-testing a Questionnaire, and
To Know About the Merits and Demerits of a Questionnaire
INTRODUCTION:
The third step of research is data collection. Data can be divided into two types viz., primary
data and secondary data. The primary data are collected afresh and for the first time. It is
original, while the secondary data have already been collected.
In an experimental research, researchers collect primary data. The other name of primary data may be survey research or
field work. There are two basic procedures or methods for data gathering:
o Census Method, and

o Sample Method.
In case of census, information is gathered from all the units of the population or universe. And
in the case of sample, only selected units are observed. In both sample survey and census
survey we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication
with respondents or through personal interviews. Hence there are some methods of collecting
primary data and questionnaire method is one of them.
The main difference between the interview and the questionnaire method is that the
former involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal response,
and the questionnaire method involves presentation of written-verbal stimuli and return of written
verbal response.
A popular and common method of collecting primary data is through questionnaire. It
allows great facilities in collecting data from large, diverse and widely scattered groups of
people. It is used in gathering objective, quantitative data as well as for securing information of a
qualitative nature.
6.2

o
Definitions of Questionnaire,
Types of Questionnaire
Schedules and Questionnaire Differentiated
Elements of Questionnaire
Preparation of a Questionnaire
Aspects of Questionnaire Preparation
o Physical Form of Questionnaire

o
Pre-testing a Questionnaire, and
Merits and Demerits of a Questionnaire
6.2.1 QUESTIONNAIRE DEFINED:

A questionnaire is a Performa containing a sequence of questions to elicit information from the interviewees. It is an instrument of
data collection. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order of a form. The form(s) are usually mailed
to the respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and reply to them in writing in the relevant spaces
provided for the purpose on the said form(s). The respondent has to answer the questions on his own, i.e., totally unaided. John
Galtung has summarized the characteristics of the questionnaire as written-verbal stimulus and written-verbal response. It is used
in gathering objective, quantitative data as well as for securing information of a quantitative nature.
In case of big inquiries questionnaire technique is used to collect data. In this method
several variables are measured.
6.2.2
QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULES:
In research survey both questionnaire and schedule methods are applied to collect data. There
is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods but in the practical point of view there
is difference between the two. The important differences are given below:
The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as
specified in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The
research worker or the enumerator, who can interprete the questions when necessary, generally
fills out the schedule.
Questionnaire method is relatively cheap, as it doesnt need field staff as schedule while
collecting data.
Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire.
Personal contact cant be possible in case of questionnaire while incase of schedule it is
possible.
Questionnaire methods used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in
case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be
illiterate.
Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under questionnaire
method but in case of schedule there is some difficulties to send enumerators over a wider area.
Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the
questionnaire method when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of
schedules, the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can
remove the difficulties, if any, faced by the respondents in correctly understanding the
questions.
6.2.3 TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE:

The types of questionnaire vary widely. Questionnaire may be classified on a number of different bases. The classification of
questionnaires used below is based on the variable of structure:
o Structured/standardized questionnaire
o Unstructured/non-standardized questionnaire
Structured questionnaires are those in which there are definite, concrete and pre-ordained
questions with additional questions limited to those necessary to clarify inadequate answers or
to elicit more detailed responses. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording,
and in the same order to all the respondents. Fixed alternative questions are given here.
Unstructured questionnaires are not the same to all the respondents. The characteristics
of structured questionnaire are absent here.
6.2.4 ELEMENTS OF A QUESTIONNAIRE:

The information sought by the questionnaire may be classified as:
Identifying information:
The following items may be included under this category: cross-
reference questionnaire number, name of survey, name of sponsoring the survey, name of
individual or family interviewed, sex of informant etc.
Social background and factual data: Here the age of the family members, marital status,
education, religion, occupation, income etc. are given.
Subject matter of the survey: The informant may be asked a direct question on the facts, as
he understands them. Straightforward questions are also asked for certain information.
Information question, seeking advice and exploratory questions are asked here.
6.2.5 PREPARATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE:

Questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence it should be constructed carefully. The questions must be
clear, simple and to the point. They must be well organized from the point of view of the respondent and be formulated in such a
manner as to provide the data in so far as possible in the desired form. This is especially true of a mail questionnaire, which
essentially has to speak for itself. If it is not clear, not only the replies may be vague and of little value but many potential respondents
may not bother returning the questionnaire at all.
Several considerations should be borne in mind while designing a questionnaire. Careful

planning, the physical design of the questions, careful selection and phrasing of the questions
definitely affect the number of returns as also the meaning and accuracy of the findings.
The following facts should be considered while designing a mailed questionnaire.

o The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the co-operation the researcher
receives. Hence an attracted questionnaire is a plus point.
o While preparing the questions the standards of the respondents should be considered.
o The choice of words is an important consideration. The informant must grasp the spirit of
the question rather than its precise wordings.
o Sequence of the items should be given attention.
o The purpose of the question is an important consideration. It may be to ascertain facts,
to test the knowledge of the informant or discover his beliefs or attitudes. If opinions are
desired, care must be exercised to see that the questions do not just bring out only the
points of fact.
Before using questionnaire method, it is advisable to conduct pilot study (pilot survey) for testing the questionnaires. In a big inquiry
the significance of pilot survey is felt very much. Pilot survey is the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being
conducted by experts, brings to the light the weakness of the questionnaire and also of survey techniques. From experience gained in
this way, improvement can be effected.
6.2.6 ASPECTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE PREPARATION:

There are three main aspects of a questionnaire are:
o General Format,
o Question Sequence, and
o Question Wording
Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a
questionnaire:
GENERAL FORMAT:
The form of a questionnaire will depend partly on the type of data being sought and partly on the
data collection method to be used. The choice lies between two extremes. On the one hand,
there is the highly structured questionnaire in which all questions and answers are specified and
comments in the respondents own words are held to a minimum. At the other end is the
unstructured questionnaire in which the interviewer is provided with a general brief on the sort of
information to be obtained but the exact question is largely his own responsibility.
The unstructured questionnaires are useful in carrying out in depth interviews where the
aim is to probe for attitudes and reasons. They may also be effectively employed in pre-testing,
the result of which can be used as a basis for constructing a structured questionnaire at a later
stage. Thus, in order to ascertain the expectation of the television viewers about a programme
interviews may be conducted with unstructured questionnaires. The resulting range of answers
may then be used to prepare a structured questionnaire for use on the main part of the study.
The main disadvantage with an unstructured questionnaire is that it requires personal
interview. It cant be used in the mailed questionnaire method of data collection.
A structured questionnaire usually has fixed alternative answers to each question. They
are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyze.
The questionnaires have,
however, their limitations. It is not possible to record the responses made by the respondent in
their own words. They are considered inappropriate in investigations where the aim happens to
be to probe for attitudes and feelings.
QUESTION SEQUENCE:
In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A
proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being
misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly moving, meaning thereby
that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with
questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The introduction to the
questionnaire should be as short simple and easy to answer. The first few questions are
important, as they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his
desired cooperation. The opening question should warm up and arouse human interest.
As a general rule, questions that put too great strain on the memory or the intellect
should be reserved till later. Likewise, questions relating to personal wealth and personal
character should be avoided in the beginning.
The questions that are vital to the interview come following the opening questions.
Question sequence can be rearranged here. The question sequence should go from general to
the more specific. The question sequence should confirm the respondents way of thinking. With
structured questionnaire the best that can be done is to determine with pre-testing the question
sequence, which is likely to produce good report with most people.
QUESTION WORDING:
Great care is required in formulating the questions. Reliable and meaningful returns depend to a
large extent on this process. The wording of the questions should be impartial to avoid a biased
picture of the true state of affairs. Adjectives and descriptive phrases should be avoided.
Though multiple-choice questions are used in the structured questionnaires various open-ended
questions are also inserted with it to provide a more complete picture of the respondents
feelings and attitudes.
Words should be properly chosen for smooth understanding of the respondents. Simple words are always welcome while
preparing questionnaire. Words with ambiguous meanings, danger words, catchwords or words with emotional connotations should
be avoided.
All questions should meet these standards viz.

o Should be easily understood;
o Should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondents way
of thinking; and
o Should be simple.
More importance is also to be given for specific question formulation and pre-test question.
Biased questions and slant-side questions should be avoided. Never try to harm the
prestige of the informant.
6.2.7 PHYSICAL FORM OF A QUESTIONNAIRE:

The process of constructing questionnaire is divided into following types:
o Information to be sought.
o Type of questionnaire to be used.
o Writing a first draft.
o Re-examining and revising questions
o Pre-testing and editing the questionnaire
o Specifying procedure for its use.
The physical form of a questionnaire is as follows:
Size: The size of a questionnaire depends upon the scope of the survey. One side of the form
should be used. Adequate space should be left. Enough background materials should be given
to encourage the informant. Sometimes booklets should be sent if the questionnaire is large.
Quality of the paper: The paper, on which the questionnaire is written, should be durable.
Colour papers may be used in questionnaire to attract the attention of the informant.
Arrangement of items on the questionnaire: Questions, which belong together, should be
arranged together. When the question is dependent upon the answer to the preceding one, it
should be given a subordinate place.
6.2.8 PRE-TESTING A QUESTIONNAIRE:

The pre-testing of questionnaire consists of selecting, approaching and interviewing a small segment in the same manner to be
followed in the full-scale operation and then analyzing the results in the light of the objective of the study.
Pretest is done for the smooth understanding of the informants. The ambiguous question
and complex phrasing are avoided.
The pre-test is a valuable indicator of the effectiveness of a questionnaire to collect data.
Whether the respondents are misinterpreting any question is known from pre-test. The results
obtained in a pretest can suggest new ideas or hypotheses for further study.
Before the pre-test the questionnaire should be prepared well to avoid the test
repeatedly.
6.2.9 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD:

The merits of questionnaire method are as follow:
o Wider and more representative coverage is possible at the same cost.

o No field staff is required.
o Cost per questionnaire relatively low.
o No bias of interviews
o Respondent can answer questions directly
o The respondents have a greater confidence that they will not be identified as holding
a particular view or opinion.
o The questionnaire places less pressure on the respondents for immediate response.
The demerits of questionnaire method is given below:
o High degree of non-response
o Questions, which require probing, cant be asked
o Slowest of all methods of data collection
o Assumes that the respondent is educated
o Respondents often misinterpret a question
We decide to use survey research to answer the research question. A well-administered questionnaire prepared by self is considered
the most appropriate survey technique. We can conduct survey that includes several scales to measure our variables in the study.
The survey questionnaires should begin with a brief introduction to the study. Each
section should include basic instructions about completing the question. The sections should be
arranged systematically to prevent earlier questions from biasing answers to later questions.
Careful planning of the physical design of the questions, careful selection and phrasing of
the questions affect the number of returns and the meaning and accuracy of findings.
Questionnaire method is essential in media research. To test the various aspects of the
source, the message, the channel and the receivers of the media system it is used. Media
exposure can be measured by this method.
6.3
SUMMARY:
o A questionnaire is a performa containing a sequence of questions to elicit information from

the interviewees.
o A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order on a form.
o Questionnaires are either personally administered or sent to the respondents by post or email.
o There are two types of questionnaire: Structured and Unstructured questionnaire.
o There are three main aspects of questionnaire viz. (i) The general form, (ii) The question
sequence, and (iii) The question wording.
o Physical forms of the questionnaire should be attractive.
o Pre-testing is necessary to check the effectiveness of the questionnaire.
o Questionnaire must contain simple but straightforward directions for the respondents so that
they may not feel any difficulty in answering the question.
o Questionnaire form is essential while measuring media exposure.
6.4
KEY WORDS:
Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a performa containing a sequence of questions to elicit

information from the interviewees. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in
a definite order on a form. Questionnaire must contain simple but straightforward directions for
the respondents so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the question.
Questionnaire Administration: Questionnaires are either personally administered or sent to
the respondents by post or e-mail.
Types of Questionnaire: There are two types of questionnaire: Structured and Unstructured
questionnaire.
6.5
1. What is questionnaire? Explain briefly how to design a questionnaire.
2. What are the main aspects of a questionnaire? Write the advantages and disadvantages of a
mailed questionnaire.
3. Prepare a questionnaire to measure the media exposure of literate adults in your locality.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Pre-testing
b. Structural questionnaire
c. Physical form of questionnaire
5. What are the basic differences between a schedule and a questionnaire?
6. Define a target group and design questions to collect information on the following topics:
i. Political party affiliation.
ii. Attitudes towards television soap operas
iii. Attitudes towards newspaper editorials.
iv. Attitudes towards the frequency of television commercials
v. Public television viewing habits.
6.6

nd

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 7
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Writer: Prof. B. K. Kuthiala

Chairperson, Dept of Mass Communication, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.

LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall provide an introduction to the . We shall start with the . Finally, we shall try to understand the. The lesson structure
shall be as follows:
7.0
7.0
Objectives
7.1
Introduction
7.2
7.2.1
Content Analysis- An Introduction
7.2.2
Aspects of Content Analysis
7.2.3
Reasons Behind Studying Media Content
7.2.4
Process of Content Analysis
7.2.5
Limitations of Content Analysis
7.3
Summary
7.4
Key Words
7.5
7.6
OBJECTIVES:
7.1
To get an Introduction to Content Analysis
To Know About the various Aspects of Content Analysis
To Know About the Reasons Behind Studying Media Content
To Know About the Process of Content Analysis
To Know About the Limitations of Content Analysis
INTRODUCTION:
Content analysis is one of the most important methods of communication research. It is unique
to communication study and one of the most important research techniques in social sciences.
The broad purpose of content analysis is to analyze data within a given context in view of the
meanings given to them.
Most research techniques are concerned with observing stimuli and resistances,
describing the behaviours, differentiating individual characteristics, quantifying social variables
and thus testing hypothesis. Content analysis on the other hand is outside the physical vehicle
of communication and analyses the symbolic qualities of the content to trace the antecedents,
correlates or sequences of communication and therefore, making the unobserved context of

data more clear.
7.2
The content of this lesson is presented as follows:
o Content Analysis- An Introduction

o Aspects of Content Analysis
o Reasons Behind Studying Media Content
o Process of Content Analysis
o Limitations of Content Analysis
7.2.1 CONTNT ANALYSIS- AN INTRODUCTION:

Barnard Berelson describes content analysis as scientific description of the content of
communication. In this regard, the often-referred formula is Harold Lasswell's formula: Who says
What to Whom in What channel with What effect? Accordingly, content analysis answers the
question about WHAT i.e. the content of the channel. In other words, content analysis can be
called message analysis.
But content analysis does not confine itself to the content of the media. It also deals with
the other questions of Lasswell's formula namely "Who (source), Whom (audience), channels,
and effects".
Content analysis also encompasses other communicative circumstances and contexts such as psychological conditions
institutional and cultural variables. In order to understand the clear meaning of content analysis let us illustrate with some examples
SOME EXAMPLES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS

o How much space is given to advertising in newspaper?
o What percentage of the total time do ads, news, current affair programmes, films, etc., on
television, consume?
o How many news stories appear about the rural development in newspapers? What is
proportion of the space they occupy?
o How many times Prime Minister and the Leader of Opposition are mentioned in
newspapers, radio and television?
7.2.2
ASPECTS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS:
Content analysis became popular during the Second World War when intelligence units on both
the sides monitored the broadcasts on radio. Analysis of the content of the broadcasts helped to
monitor the movement of the troops of the enemies. For example, it was possible to trace the
movement of German troops in occupied countries by studying the popular music played over
radio stations in particular areas.
If a radio station suddenly changed to music that appealed to German soldiers it was
concluded that Germans have occupied the area. The American agencies had broken the secret
code of Japanese transmission and thus were able to provide useful information to the fighting
troops.
After the war the procedures for analyzing the content of the newspapers, radio, cinema
and television broadcast and indeed, any form of communication were more completely
developed. Today content analysis is a set of systematic and objective procedures for the
quantitative study of messages. Content analysis can be used to study any form of message,
from telephone gossip to religious scriptures. Textbooks, novels, slogans, election manifestos,
advertisements, speeches, procedures of the researches etc. are some of the subject matters of
content analysis. It is mainly a tool of research, which can reveal the hidden messages of the
content that media are presenting to the audiences.
All the steps involved in the use of scientific research are followed in content analysis.
The research topic is selected, objectives designed, information about the topic collected,
observations made, data processed and analyzed, conclusions derived and results reported.
The major difference is at the stage of making observations. The observations are not made on
people but on the content of the communication.
DATA OF CONTENT ANALYSIS:
The material for content analysis includes the context to which meanings are attributed. These
may include verbal discourse, written documents and visual presentations. The verbal discourse
may include interpersonal talk, group discussions, public speeches, and spoken words on radio,
cinema and television.
The written documents include personal letters, official documents,
newspapers, magazines, books, etc.

Visual presentations include doodling while thinking or talking, freehand drawings by the
children, paintings, photographs, graphic art, shots and sequences (cinema and television) and
full programmes of television and cinema.
In fact content analysis can be compared to the analysis of food we eat. A food analyst
may tell us the quantity of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins, etc. that are
contained in a given food item. Similarly the content of the communication that we consume
can be considered as the food that our mind takes.
We are
so careful about what is the content of the food that we give to our body; it
would be appropriate also to keep a watch on what is the content that we give to our mind. If
keeping our body healthy is important, perhaps, equally or more important is to keep our mind in
good health.
Most of the content analytic studies pertain to the analysis of newspapers, magazines,
books, radio broadcast, films, comics and television programmes. However, the method is
increasingly applied to situations like personal letters, official documents, talks of children,
recording of the negotiations, accounts of the witnesses in the courts etc. The new areas, which
will render themselves to content analysis, are the chats on Internet.
Social scientists have also content analyzed postage stamps, motifs on ancient pottery,
dreams, wall writings and graffiti written in public toilets, trains, buses and tourist spots, etc. The
slogans written on the back of vehicles have also been content analyzed and have revealed
interesting data.
OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESIS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS:
There are two broad objectives of any content analysis study. These are:
(i) To study the degree of freedom a media organization exercises in relation to the society and
also the degree of freedom within the organization.
(ii) To study how the media-organizational processes and procedures that influence the
selection and processing of the content.
Communication researchers have proposed five broad hypotheses for content analysis.
o Content reflects the social reality: Mass media can be seen as the mirror images of the
society and whatever important happens in the society is contained in the various media.
Thus the users of media in fact witness whatever is happening around them through the
media. Thus content analyses of media will be an indicator of the events and value
systems of the society of whose media are analyzed.
o The content of mass media is influenced by the socialization and attitudes of the media
workers: The manner in which the content of the media is selected or rejected and also
processes vary from media to media but at operational levels it is more or less an
individual decision. This decision of acceptance or rejection of an item and the manner in
which the content is presented depends upon the training, attitude, opinion, bias, etc. of
the media person who is involved in the process.
o Experiments have shown that same information given to different sub-editors leads to a
wide variety of news reports. Similarly different reporters witnessing the same event
reported differently. Sociological research reveals that individual characteristics of the
media persons play an important role in deciding the content of the media.
o Content is influenced by media organizational routines: Every media organization has its
own work culture. We are all familiar with the stylebooks of news organizations. Each
news organization has its own stylebook and this influences the presentation of the
content. A traditional newspaper will cover events up to late evening only. But a more
dynamic newspaper can even take up events that happened late in night. The editorial
policies or the content policies of the media organizations also influence the content a
great deal.
o Content is influenced by social institutions and forces: Media organizations do not
function in isolation. They are the sub -systems of the social, political and economic
system of the society. The broad systems are bound to influence the sub -systems and
hence the content of the media is also determined by the priorities of the socio- economic
values of the society.
o Content of the media is a function of ideological positions and maintains the status quo:
According to the Cultural Ratification Theory of the media effects the content of media is
such that it helps to maintain the status quo. In other words, nothing goes in media, which
is drastically challenging or revolutionary to the existing structure and function of the
society. The content of the media helps to maintain the status quo.
7.2.3 REASONS FOR STUDYING MEDIA CONTENT:

Media became the subject matter of analysis for two reasons. Firstly while studying the effects
of mass communication it was found necessary to study the stimuli provided by the media.
These stimuli come in the form of the content. Secondly, on the part of the media professionals
and also media researchers there is a need to understand the appeal of the content i.e. the
strength of the message and its nature. Thus these need to be studied. This has to be studied
more from the point of view of the audiences.
Both the above-mentioned reasons have practical basis from the point of view of mass
communication and they have gradually expanded to embrace many related issues as well.
Early study of content dealt with mainly the informational content of news. Now the portrayal of
crime, violence, sex, female body, stereotypes, use of media as propaganda, and minority and
caste biases in media have become the subjects of study for content analyses.
STUDY OF MEANINGS:
Communication has also been conceived as the transfer of meanings rather than the transfer of
messages.
It means that it is important to understand the meaning given to a particular
message or text because we know that the receivers will interpret the same message or text in
different manners.
Therefore, communication is really what the receivers understand by it.
Thus content analytical studies do not restrict to the analysis of the texts only. It also goes to
possible range of meanings or intrepretation by the receivers.
In other words we can say that content analysis also studies what is' between the lines' or
it distinguishes between the intended message and the received message.
For example, the denotation of Bofors is a 'gun produced by a company with given
specifications'. But the implied meaning of the word is something to do with corruption and
embezzlement.'
In ads the use of the derived meanings is a very common occurrence. When we use a
model in an ad we relate the product to the model. Both model and product take added
meanings.
Denotative meaning is fixed for all while connotative meanings involve both variable
meanings according to the recipient and the elements of positive or negative evaluation. If the
media content consists of large amount of texts, then, it is necessary to investigate the latent
meanings as well.
7.2.4 PROCESS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS:

Once the researcher has decided the objectives of the research, the second step is to identify
the units of analysis. While doing the content analysis of a newspaper the news items, articles,
features and editorials, photographs, etc. can be the units of analysis.
While studying the
portrayal of sexual behaviour, shots and sequences portraying sex may be the units of analysis.
Words, sentences, paragraphs, pages can also be the units of analysis.
Similarly
programmes on radio and television can also be units of analysis. The units of analysis depend
upon the nature of investigation that is being carried out.
The next step is to decide the categories of analysis. For example, while doing a
content analysis study of the dateline of the news stories of a newspaper the categories can be:
national, capital, state capitals, other metropolitan cities, big cities, district headquarters, towns,
villages, capitals of foreign countries.
Similarly, in the same study UNI, PTI, Reuters, Correspondent, Staff Reporter, Stringer,
or combination of these may be the categories of analysis. While doing the content analysis of
television programmes, News, Current Affairs, Chat Shows, Count Down Programmes, Films,
Film Based Programmes, Science Programmes, etc. can be the categories.
While analyzing the objectivity of news items the categories can be 'fully balanced', '
partly balanced', ' not balanced', etc. can be the categories of analysis.
The units of analysis and various categories of the units of analysis are given symbols
either in the form of alphabets or numerals.
This information, the units, the categories of
analysis and the symbols given to them are organized in a systematic manner in the form of a
Code Book.
The Code Book is a reference document, which is standardized for a given study and
used uniformly by all researchers at the stages of coding and tabulation.
CODING IN CONTENT ANALYSIS:
With Code Book as a guide, the qualitative data content in the media is converted into different
symbols, which are placed on a coding sheet. The code sheet is generally a paper on which
rows and columns are drawn so that it contains a number of boxes.
Each box has a column number and a row number. Each unit of analysis is given a fixed
column number and the data about a given variable of all the units of analysis is coded in a box.
For example, in the Code Book we decide that column nos.10-11 will contain information about
the placement of the news and categories and codes are:
Category
Codes
First lead story------------------
91
Second lead story--------------
92
Third lead story-----------------
93
Other stories on front page---
94
The number of page on which

the story appears----------------
02
Now if we are analyzing a story on third page then we write 03 in column numbers 10 and 11 of
the code sheet, which have been already specified, for page numbers. While analyzing the next
item, which appears, say on page 16 we will put 16 in the specified columns. Coding is very
meticulous and time-consuming task. It needs lot of concentration on part of the researcher. It
has to be done very carefully otherwise the whole research study may get spoiled. Sometimes
we use more than one person to perform this task of coding. In such cases there is a possibility
of variation between the coders.
For example one coder may think that the story is balanced and the other coder may
think that it is partly balanced. Therefore, in content analysis study it is of utmost importance
that all the units of analysis as also the categories are explicitly defined and explained so that
they are mutually exclusive.
Another method of managing the variation of perception of the coders is to check the
inter-coder differences and then quote them in the report of the study. A very high variation in
the coding perceptions will lead to distorted results. Generally another researcher checks the
coding done by one researcher so that the errors can be minimized. Communication
researchers have also evolved formula to measure inter-coder differences.
TABULATION
Once the coding has been done and checked, the data has to be tabulated. Tabulation means
counting of similar codes and also cross tabulating of two or more variables. If the data is small
the tabulation can be done mainly by counting or by tally marks (IIII, IIII). But it is advisable that
computers carry out the tabulation. There is much software available for such analysis.
The most commonly used is SPSS (Special Programme for Social Sciences). The first
step of analysis is frequency tabulation where the numbers and percentages of each category
are given in a tabular form. The second step is cross tabulation where two variables that are
likely to influence each other or dependent upon each other are put across each other.
For example, the place of the dateline and whether the story is political in nature can be
cross tabulated to determine whether most of the political stories arise from national, capital or
state capitals. Once the tabulated data is available it is interpreted and conclusions drawn.
ILLUSTRATION OF CONTENT ANALYSES:

Content analysis appears to be a tedious task, but clear understanding makes it not only easy
but very interesting also. In order to make you understand a real example is given below:
Subject of research: Content analysis of editorials of three leading newspapers.
Objectives: The objectives are to determining the comparative importance given to Prime
Minister and the Leader of Opposition. This study aims to find out the nature of treatment given
to Prime Minister and leader of Opposition in the editorials of three leading newspapers.
Units and Categories: In this study the units of analysis are the editorials of three selected newspapers. Let us say that the researcher
has decided to analyze the newspaper of one-month say for example April 2000. Thus all the editorials appearing in the selected
newspapers in the month of April will constitute the units of analyses of the study.
Code Book: Next step is to prepare the Code Book. The following Code Book can be used (this
is only an illustration and can be expanded according to the requirement of the study).
CODE BOOK
Col No.
01-03
Item
Sr.No.
Category
Sr.No.
Code
001
04
Source
05-06
Space
Times of India
Hindustan Times
The Hindu
Total space given
to the edtorial
each
1
2
3
Actual space
in col. cm
07
PM's
name
No. of times P.M.'s

name mentioned
in the editorial
Not mentioned
Once
Twice
08
Leader of
opposition
No. of times
Leader of
opposition's name
mentioned
Not mentioned
at all
Once
Twice
09
Reference
Remarks
Give Sr.No.to
editorial
Measure the
space in col.cms.
with a scale
0
1
2
0
1
2
Highly positive
Positive
1
2
Neutral
3
Negative
Highly negative
4
5
This can be expanded and continued according to the need of study.

A TYPICAL CODING SHEET
1
10
11
12
13
1_______________________________________________________________________________________
2_______________________________________________________________________________________
3_______________________________________________________________________________________
4_______________________________________________________________________________________
5_______________________________________________________________________________________
6_______________________________________________________________________________________
7_______________________________________________________________________________________
8_______________________________________________________________________________________
9_______________________________________________________________________________________
10______________________________________________________________________________________
11______________________________________________________________________________________
12______________________________________________________________________________________
13______________________________________________________________________________________
14______________________________________________________________________________________
15______________________________________________________________________________________
16______________________________________________________________________________________
17______________________________________________________________________________________
18______________________________________________________________________________________
19______________________________________________________________________________________
20______________________________________________________________________________________
21______________________________________________________________________________________
22______________________________________________________________________________________
23______________________________________________________________________________________
24______________________________________________________________________________________
25______________________________________________________________________________________
A Typical Code Sheet

SAMPLING:
Sometimes when the units of analysis that we are covering for content analysis is very large we
resort to sampling. Sampling means selecting a random representative sample. In such a case
it is not required that all the units should be analyzed but a small selected sample can be
analyzed and the results would reveal the properties of the entire universe under study.
In case of newspapers and magazines the two procedures of sampling are used which
can be used in isolation or in combination with each other.
Firstly all the days of which the newspapers are to be analyzed can be listed and the
sample selected randomly. For example, if we want to analyze the newspapers of one year then
there would be 365 issues. We can select 50 issues out of these 365 by using random number
tables or by creating random number on the computers. Each issue is given a number from 001
to 365 and the numbers that come in the random selection are selected.
The second method is to construct a week and /or to take a regular week. Out of the 52
weeks in the above proposal we can select any four weeks and those four weeks newspapers
can be analyzed. Alternatively we can decide to take Monday of the first week of January,
Tuesday the first week of February, Wednesday of the first week of March and so on. Any
method can be used for selecting the random sample, which has no inbuilt bias of selection in it.
Similarly all the programmes of the day on television can be listed and given numbers
and the sample selected randomly. The same random selection can be done for all the items in
a newspaper or of all the programmes on radio and television. But care must be taken that the
sample should be sufficiently large and selected randomly without any prejudice or bias.
7.2.5 LIMITATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS:

The process of content analysis as a research tool has some inherent limitations. Content
analysis is in fact a process of converting qualitative data into quantitative data.
This
quantitative data is likely to be treated for statistical analysis. But the conversion of quality into
quantity may not be very standardized and therefore statistical analysis may be misleading.
Secondly, as mentioned earlier the coding process is quite subjective and can have the
influence of the coder. This makes the content analysis not replicable. In recent years soft
wares have been developed to computer analyze the content. This to some extent avoids the
subjectivity of the coder.
Lastly, content analysis is also expected to contribute to social theory.
But the
categories for content analysis are obtained from the very material being analyzed and
therefore, the findings may not be generalized.
By categorizing the content we may be
excluding much of the symbolic richness and uniqueness of the data.
7.3
SUMMARY:
o Content analysis is the scientific description of the content of communication. Content

analysis answers the question about WHAT i.e. the content of the channel. In other words,
content analysis can be called message analysis.
o Most of the content analytic studies pertain to the analysis of newspapers, magazines,
books, radio broadcast, films, comics and television programmes. However, the method is
increasingly applied to situations like personal letters, official documents, talks of children,
recording of the negotiations, accounts of the witnesses in the courts etc. The new areas,
which will render themselves to content analysis, are the chats on Internet.
o Social scientists have also content analyzed postage stamps, motifs on ancient pottery,
dreams, wall writings and graffiti written in public toilets, trains, buses and tourist spots, etc.
The slogans written on the back of vehicles have also been content analyzed and have
revealed interesting data.
o Content analysis is in fact a process of converting qualitative data into quantitative data. But
the conversion of qualitative data into quantitative data may not be very standardized and
therefore statistical analysis may be misleading.
Secondly, the coding process is quite
subjective and can have the influence of the coder.
7.4
KEY WORDS:
Content Analysis: Content analysis analyses the symbolic qualities of the content to trace the
antecedents, correlates or sequences of communication and therefore, making the unobserved
context of data more clear. It is unique to communication study and one of the most important
research techniques in social sciences. The broad purpose of content analysis is to analyze
data within a given context in view of the meanings given to them.
Study of Meanings: Communication has also been conceived as the transfer of meanings
rather than the transfer of messages. It means that it is important to understand the meaning
given to a particular message or text because we know that the receivers will interpret the same
message or text in different manners. Therefore, communication is really what the receivers
understand by it. Thus content analytical studies do not restrict to the analysis of the texts only.
It also goes to possible range of meanings or intrepretation by the receivers.
Coding in Content Analysis: With Code Book as a guide, the qualitative data content in the media is converted
into different symbols, which are placed on a coding sheet. The code sheet is generally a paper on which rows and
columns are drawn so that it contains a number of boxes.
7.5
1. Write a detailed note on content analysis.

2. Discuss the various aspects of content analysis with examples.
3. Discuss the process of content analysis.
4. Discuss the importance of coding in content analysis.
7.6

A.M. and Piele, L.J.. Belmont, CA, (Wadsworth)
nd

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 8
ADVERTISING RESEARCH
Writer: Sh. Mihir Ranjan Patra

Vetter: Sh. Sushil K. Singh

LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall start with an introduction to advertising research. We shall then discuss about the reasons why advertising research
is done. Next we shall discuss advertising pre-testing and post-testing. Finally, we shall try to understand some major methods of
advertising research. The lesson structure shall be as follows:
8.0
8.0
Objectives
8.1
Introduction
8.2
8.2.1
Advertising Research- An Introduction
8.2.2
Reasons Behind Advertising Evaluation
8.2.3
Advertising Pre-testing
8.2.4
Advertising Post-testing
8.3
Summary
8.4
Key Words
8.5
8.6
OBJECTIVES:
8.1
To Have an Introduction to Advertising Research
To Know About the Reasons Behind Advertising Evaluation
To Know About Advertising Pre-testing
To Know About Advertising Post-testing
INTRODUCTION:
Advertising is omnipresent. It is everywhere. Advertising is often considered omnipotent. It is

thought to be very powerful. Vance Packard once called advertising the 'hidden persuader'.
Others say that advertising is a powerful tool of business and marketing. Some others say that
advertising manipulates our needs and makes us buy things, which we did not want. Advertising
is considered so powerful that doing business today without advertising is like winking at a girl in
a dark room.
Countering claims about this powerful persuasive nature of advertising is one of the most
notorious saying in the world of advertising, "I know half the money I spent on advertising is
wasted; but I can never find which half"? Advertisers spend huge amounts of money on
advertising.
A big question that arises here is whether all the money are well spent? That is are
advertisements really as effective as they are claimed to be? The vast amounts spent on
advertising necessitate systematic and objective inquiry into the role of advertising, its
effectiveness and its overall contribution.
This systematic and objective inquiry is called advertising research. It is also called
evaluative research, advertising evaluation, or advertising effectiveness research. Whatever
name it is given, advertising research helps avoid costly mistakes. It helps to predict the relative
strengths of alternative strategies and to increase the efficiency of advertising in general.
Measurement of advertising effectiveness helps maximize the contribution of advertising.
8.2
In this lesson, we shall discuss about the various facets of advertising research. Hers we shall first discuss about the reasons behind
advertising evaluation. Then we shall focus on pre-testing and post-testing. The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows:
o Advertising Research- An Introduction

o Reasons Behind Advertising Evaluation
o Advertising Pre-testing
o Advertising Post-testing
8.2.1
ADVERTISING RESEARCH- AN INTRODUCTION:
Measuring advertising effectiveness in quantitative terms is very difficult. The simplest reason
being the workings of human brains cannot be quantified. Also advertising is not the sole means
of promotion. Nor is it the only sole source of information and influence. We buy a product or
adopt a service or idea because of so many factors. These include word of mouth channels,
retailer push sell, public relations and so many other factors in addition to advertising.
However, over the last few decades, a lot many methods have been devised to measure the effectiveness of advertising. A
lot of these hypotheses have been derived from wide ranging areas of psychology and behavioural sciences like motivation, learning,
conditioning, and of course, communication. These methods do not try to relate advertising effectiveness with sales figures. This is
because before contributing to sales, advertising has to fulfill its communication objectives like:
o Informing target audience through exposure,

o Reminding them,
o Creating and reinforcing an idea or image,
o Motivating or conditioning the customers to buy, while
o Creating brand preference, or
o Reassuring to create brand loyalty.

The effectiveness of advertising to achieve these objectives eventually contributes to its sales
effectiveness.
Measurement of effectiveness of advertising may be based on a single advertisement, on
an entire campaign, or on a particular portion of a campaign. Also effectiveness evaluations may
be undertaken at a single point of time or compiled over short or extended periods of time.
8.2.2 REASONS BEHIND ADVERTISING RESEARCH:

A big question often arises in the minds of advertisers: Why Evaluate? Here is the answer.
Advertising involves huge spending. These spendings are considered as investments. Thus
advertising is accountable in terms of returns. To find out the efficiency and efficacy of the
money spent, the effectiveness of advertising needs to be measured.
For advertising to make full contribution to sales and profit, well-planned and executed
research is essential to pinpoint areas within the advertising effort that are successful, and that
need improving. Otherwise mistakes or shortcomings in advertising will badly affect sales while
eating away sizable amounts of money.
Often sales measurements are thought to be a major yardstick for advertising
effectiveness. This would be true only when advertising is the dominant contributor to sales, and
where sales response is immediate (like in 'sale' advertisements). But since advertising does not
work alone, sales records cannot be the sole measure of advertising effectiveness. So
evaluative methods of measuring advertising effectiveness are adopted.
Another question then arises: When to evaluate? Measuring or testing of advertising
effectiveness may take place at any stage of the advertising process - from the planning stage
to execution to the post-campaign stage. Often advertisers and advertising agencies face the
critical dilemma of when to test - before the ads are placed in the media, during the campaign or
after the campaign is over.
Evaluative research before the ads are placed in the media or pre-testing can assist in
the development of more effective advertisements. The most important thing here is that
mistakes or shortcomings can be found out and improved upon before media costs have been
incurred. However, the limitations of pre-testing include the lack of real or actual conditions as
such tests are conducted under simulated situations and with a limited representative audience.
Also often the ads being tested are not in final shape. But evaluative research as the ads are
placed in the media, concurrent testing, and evaluating ads after the campaign is over, posttesting, are conducted in real situations and actual conditions.
However, both concurrent testing and post-testing are more expensive in terms of money and time spent than pre-testing.
Also many advertisers prefer post-testing only. Very few opt for concurrent testing.
8.2.3 ADVERTISING PRE-TESTING:

Such research attempts to predict the performance of specific ads in terms of liking, motivation
etc. of audience members. Different types of copy, length of copy, types of visuals, various
appeals and the various types of approaches will work differently for different products and
different target audiences. So advertisers want to finalize the best possible options that are likely
to produce better results than others.
Pre-testing is a kind of insurance against bad mistakes. It finds out the appropriateness of the ads and their individual
components like headline, visuals, body copy and layout etc. It cannot, however, show what kind of sales response ads can elicit.
Such tests are confined to the communication of the advertising messages. Major methods of pre-testing include:
o Consumer Jury,
o Storyboard Tests,
o Laboratory Tests (Tachistoscope, Pyschogalvanometer, Eye camera, Pupil Dilation)
o Attitude Tests (Projective Techniques and Depth Interviewing).
CONSUMER JURY:
Here a representative cross section of the target audience is selected as jury members to judge
the advertisements being tested. These persons are most likely to be exposed to the final ads.
The response of such a jury is totally different from those of advertising personnel who, on one
hand, over estimate their knowledge of prospective buyers, while on the other hand, are too
concerned with technical aspects like copy, visuals, layout, filming etc.
Respondents in a consumer jury test are asked to evaluate one or more ads by some
special criteria as attention getting power, believability of claims etc. They are asked to rank the
ads in the order of merit. To create real and life-like situations, print ads are inserted in
magazines or TV ads are shown with some recorded programme.
Such tests usually help separate very weak ads from very strong ads. Also these tests do
not involve much time or money. However, such studies have some disadvantages too. The
rating of the respondents may be based on unimportant details. Consumer jury tests provide
only the conscious evaluation and not subconscious evaluation, which plays an important role in
buying behaviour. Also as the respondents often play the role of experts they provide subjective
evaluations, and not objective evaluations based on their own reactions.
And such tests are mostly confined to the noticeability of the ads while ignoring other
aspects. Also such studies do not provide much control as everything is in the hands of the
respondents.
STORYBOARD TESTS:
Such tests are used for TV ads. Before TV ads are shot, storyboards (series of important shots
drawn in the comic strip fashion) are created. These storyboards are transferred on to filmstrips
and the audio part is recorded. The selected audience is shown the synchronized version of the
filmstrips and audio tape in the slide and sound format. These way television ads can be
evaluated even before they are prepared.
Storyboard testing is a cost saving evaluation method, but it is far distanced from the
actual experience of watching TV ads. So it is not the most effective method of evaluation. Also
it excludes features like brightness, loudness and most importantly movement that add life to TV
ads.
LABORATORY TESTS:
When we come across an advertisement, we react and respond in many ways - like raising of eyebrows, dilation of pupil, other eye
movements, facial expressions and body movements. Special laboratory conditions are created to measure such bodily responses.
These conditions provide the researcher a highly controlled environment to conduct the test.
Such tests can measure attention, comprehension, and retention of the ad message. A wide variety of instruments and
devices are used for this purpose. These include:
The Tachistoscope: This is basically a slide projector, which can be operated under varying
conditions of speed and illumination. This device helps find out how fast or slow the respondents
perceive and respond to the advertising message. The tachistoscope, however, helps measure
only the initial response after watching the ads for the first time and not the response to ads
after multiple viewing.
The Psycho Galvanometer: This device is used to measure the bodily responses while the
respondent is watching an ad. This highly complex device uses electrodes that are attached to
the respondent's body to measure the electrical resistance (which is the manifestation of the
response).
Eye camera: This is one of the most widely used devices. It measures the actual viewing
behaviour of the respondents. This camera is fitted with high power lenses and is focused on
the eyes of the respondents. It records continuously the activities of the eye as it moves
horizontally and vertically while the respondent is watching pictures on a screen. This device
helps find out where the respondent looked at any moment, how the eye moved over the
picture, and how long it concentrated on a point. The eye camera is used to test print ads,
posters, TV ads etc.
Pupil Dilation: This method measures the changes in the size of the pupil of the eye as the
respondent watches or sees an ad. Larger or expanded pupil means stronger interest and
smaller or constricted pupil means lower interest.
All these mechanical devices used for laboratory testing can only measure how
respondents react to an advertisement while watching it. These devices can not measure
attitude changes that take place long after the first viewing. Neither can such studies predict the
respondents' buying behaviour.
Another problem with laboratory tests using mechanical devices is that such tests involve
very small samples of the target market. Then there is the problem of the alien and artificial
environment of the laboratory, which is entirely different from real life situations.
ATTITUDE TESTING:
Attitudes are viewpoints or opinions that are characterized by a predisposition or state of
readiness to act or react in a particular way to certain stimulus. Here ads are the stimuli. And
through a clever mix of information and images, advertising tries to create a favourable
disposition or attitudinal change towards the product among the target audience. Attitude testing
tries to measure the degree and extent of these attitudinal changes as created by
advertisements. Here direct questioning is not used. Rather attitude scales are used. The
attitude scale measures the position of an individual's attitudes along a continuum varying form
wholly favourable at one end to wholly unfavourable at the other.
Here respondents are given a number of relevant statements and their attitudinal
positions on the scale for these statements are obtained. From these scores, the favourability of
respondents towards the product is measured.
However, providing respondents with statements and asking them to rank these statements on
the attitude scale puts the respondents in the role of experts. This leads to a lot of biased and
subjective judgement. To overcome such problems, projective techniques and depth
interviewing are used.
Projective techniques: These techniques are used to overcome the barriers of rationality,
logicality and politeness, which often play an important role in case of direct questioning. In
direct questioning people often tend to give politically correct answers that are considered right
by many. Also they try not to hurt the researcher and thus avoid negative answers.
In case of projective techniques, an indirect approach is adopted. Instead of asking
questions, the respondents are subjected to different tests. These include the association test,
sentence completion test, and thematic appreciation test (TAT).
Association tests attempt to get an immediate response to a stimulus such as a word or
picture by asking the respondent to say the first thing that comes to his mind. Sentence
completion tests are an extension of the association test. Here the respondents are given
incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Thematic appreciation tests (TAT) use
pictures, which are shown to respondents. They are asked to tell stories about the pictures.
These descriptions and interpretations are analyzed to find out about their attitudes.
Depth Interviewing: Here the respondent is first put at ease by the researcher while he tries to
build up a rapport with the respondents. Then the respondent is asked leading or probing
questions to bring out his underlying subconscious reaction to the brand or organization
advertised. The questions are never structured and the interview is always conducted in a free
and cordial manner. The flexibility and freeness brings out many facts, which usually are hidden
beneath the conscious mind of the respondent.
Depth interviewing needs to be conducted by highly skilled and trained psychologists to
be able to fully explore the attitudes of respondents.
8.2.4 ADVERTISING POST-TESTING:

One often faces the problem of "artificiality' while conducting pre-testing. This problem is easily
overcome during post-testing. Post-tests attempt to measure the 'actual effect of real
advertisements in real situations'. This is a more practical approach to measure the
effectiveness of advertisements. Also, post-testing measures total advertising effectiveness,
while pre-testing only measures the effectiveness of specific aspects of advertisements.
Different types of tests are conducted as part of post-testing advertisements. These include:
o Recognition Tests
o Recall Tests
o Persuasion Tests
o Purchase Behaviour Tests or Sales Tests.
RECOGNITION TESTS:
Whatever the purpose of an advertisement, its first task is to be seen, read, or heard. Every
advertisement uses some means or other to get attention and hold it. Here comes the first big
hurdle - recognition. This is simply a matter of identifying an advertisement that one has seen
before. Recognition is a necessary condition for effective advertising. If an advertisement cannot
pass this hurdle, it will probably not be effective. Recognition tests are usually used for print ads.
While many types of recognition tests have been designed, Daniel Starch of StarchINRA-Hooper Company developed the most widely used of such tests. The Starch Recognition
Test sends newspaper or magazines to respondents and then sends interviewers to conduct the
tests. Starch tests usually find out the 'recognition rates' of various elements of the ads like the
visual or illustration, headline, logo, body copy, colour, size, shape etc. Such tests provide
information regarding
o The percentage of readers, who remember seeing the advertisement (Noted),
o
The percentage of readers who recall seeing or reading any part of the advertisement identifying the product or brand, the
company name, or logo (Associated),
o The percentage of readers who reported reading at least one part of the advertisement
(Read most).
One big advantage of the Starch Test is that it is simpler as it uses easy questions and
can be conducted quickly. Also Starch test has evolved over the last few decades into a highly
precise method that covers many product categories. The Starch test has proved highly reliable
too.
For television advertisements, there is the Bruzzone-Test developed by the Bruzzone
Research Company. This test is conducted through mail. Respondents are sent questionnaires
that show scenes from TV ads with the script, but without the brand name. Respondents are
asked whether they remember having seen the commercials before. If the answer is 'yes', then
they are asked to identify the brand. This is followed by a ranking of the ads by the respondents
on the basis of a list of adjectives. In addition to measuring recognition of TV ads, this test also
provides assessment of liking, preference and purchase etc. of the brands.
Another company that has developed Recognition tests for TV and radio ads is the
Communis Company. Communis tests involve showing brief and edited (5-10 seconds) TV ads
without the brand and company identification. The respondents are then asked to indicate if they
have seen the ad, identify the brand and point out elements of the ads, which have been edited
out.
The advantages of recognition tests (particularly the Starch test) include that these tests
answer the following questions for an advertiser:
o To what extent is my advertisement seen or/and read?
o Are my present advertisements better read or watched than my previous ads?
o Are my advertisements better read than those of my competitors?
o Is the reading of the ads of my current campaign increasing or decreasing?
o How can I present my sales message that it will be better read?
The greatest benefit of the recognition tests is that it measures what an advertisement has
achieved under normal (real) conditions. While response from the audience in terms of
recognition does not necessarily bring about sales, the achievement of attention and interest by
an advertisement is an important step that often leads to purchase. Another important aspect of
the recognition test is its ability to measure effectiveness of ads in all kinds of media and both in
real and laboratory situations. In addition, being a low cost method, it is used by most
advertising researchers.
Recognition tests, however, are not final measures of advertising effectiveness. In fact,
recognition is very easy to achieve by using attention-getting devices like catchy visuals,
unusual headlines, bizarre or odd shapes, flashy and vivid colour etc. And recognition alone
does not ensure purchase by consumers. So advertisers conduct other types of tests also in
addition to recognition tests.
RECALL TESTS:
The recall test is a kind of a memory test that attempts to measure the impression or penetration made by an advertisement on the
readers' or viewer's mind. It evaluates the memorability of an advertisement by contacting audience members and asking them what
they remember about it. As a test of memory, recall is more demanding and difficult than recognition. Various recall tests differ in the
subject matter they deal with and the aid-to-memory they provide. Some deal with print ads while others deal with broadcast ads.
Some recall tests use aids to help audience members to remember while others do not use any such aids.
These tests try to answer questions like:
o How many people recall seeing or hearing the ad?

o How much and what do they remember about it?
Some other methods deal with campaign themes and slogans and answer questions like:
How fast and how widely is the theme (idea) registering?
Some other tests try to evaluate advertisements before they are placed in the media and answer
the question:
How well are the 'test' advertisements recalled after controlled exposures in dummy
magazines or while being shown along a set of different ads with recorded programmes?
Other recall test methods try to find out what people have learned about the product, the
service or the company advertised. The aid-to-memory or the amount of help provided to the
respondents ranges from very little clues like the product category to a complete series of clues
designed to draw out the very last detail of the advertisement. According to the presence or
absence of clues or aids, recall tests are divided into two types - aided recall and unaided recall.
Whatever the method used, the final objective of recall tests is to find out whether the
respondent has established a strong connection between the brand name and the sales
message.
Day-After-Recall Test (DAR):
The day-after-recall test is a common method to evaluate television commercials. Noted researcher George Gallup first devised this in
the early 1940's. Gallup was then working with the Young and Rubicam advertising agency. Later he joined the Burke Marketing
Research Company, where he further developed this method.
The Gallup Recall method involves telephoning 150 to 300 programme viewers 24 hours after a particular television
commercial was broadcast. Some companies use a different time period, such as 48 hours or 72 hours. Respondents are asked if they
can recall any commercial telecast the previous day in a product category (to which the advertised brand belongs). This is unaided
recall, as the brand name or company name is not mentioned. If they cannot recall the advertisement being tested without any clue,
then they are given clues about it. This is aided recall.
Once they recall the advertisement, they are asked what they remember about the advertisement, what was said, what was
shown, and what the main idea was. They are also asked about the sales message, the story line, the plot, the some visual or audio
elements etc. After the interviewing over telephone is over, then the 'scores' are measured in terms of the following:
o A Proved Name Registration (PNR) score which is the percentage of audience members
who recalled the advertisement and proved recall by describing the ad accurately.
o An Idea Playback Profile which measures the level of sales message recall.
o A Favourable Buying Attitude score that measures its persuasiveness. These 'scores' are
then compared with proved norms or average scores of ads of similar length, similar
product categories, and similar brands. While the day-after-recall test is an 'on air' test in
which only those ads are evaluated which have been telecast and seen by people in real,
home situations.
Sometimes, the ad to be tested is shown on a local cable channel and viewers are told in advance to watch the programme on that
channel. This method saves a lot of money, time and efforts.
In addition to the Gallup Recall Test for TV ads, there are other methods also. The
Gallup-Robinson Test is specifically designed for print ads. Mapes and Ross Inc. tests recall for
both print and broadcast ads.
The main advantage of recall tests is based on the idea that if people recall the ad (or
any part of it) then they may buy it. This is because it is thought that top-of-the-mind-recall (the
first brand remembered when one thinks of buying a particular product) plays a crucial role in
the purchase behaviour. But the criticism is based on the arguement that do people buy a brand
if they remember it?
Another criticism is based as different rates of recall of 'thinking' ads (which provide a lot
of information, mostly used for SMCG's) and 'feeling' ads (which are image-based and appeal to
the heart, mostly used for low differentiating FMCG's). Feeling ads have high recall rates (more
than 40 per cent) while thinking ads have low recall rates (about 15 per cent). However, both
types of ads succeed in persuading buyers to purchase.
However, over the last six decades recall tests have proved valid and highly reliable than
most other tests and thus are used extensively.
PERSUASION TESTS:
Recognition and recall tests ask the questions - do you remember, and what you remember.
Persuasion tests ask - were you influenced? Persuasion tests are concerned with 'attitude shift'
on part of the audiences after they have seen the ad. Such tests evaluate the effectiveness of
an advertisement by measuring whether the ad affects the customers' intentions to buy a brand.
During persuasion tests, consumers are invited to a specific place usually to preview a
television programme. This is a pretence as the real motive is to show them the to be tested
advertisements in an almost 'real' situation and evaluate their effects. This is done to minimize
the artificiality of the situation that occurs in recognition and recall tests.
Before they are shown the programme and the ads, the respondents are asked about
their preferences for various brands. This is usually done by filling a questionnaire. Then they
watch the programme - complete with advertisements positioned before, during and after the
programme. These are a clever mix of existing and new (to be tested) ads. This way the
respondents are not aware about the real motive.
After the programme is over, the respondents are asked a mixed variety of questions,
which relate both the programme and the ads. These answers are compared with answers of
questions asked before the programmes to find out if there has been any change in the
respondents' attitude, liking, and preference towards the brands.
Horace Schwerin and Paul Lazarsfield introduced this kind of theatre-testing in the
1950's. Now such tests are being conducted by research organization like McCollum and
Spielman, ASI, and ARS. The pre- and post-preferences are measured by determining
o The favourite brand,
o The next preferred alternative,
o Those brands that would not be considered, and
o Those brands that are neither rejected nor accepted.
In addition, the following aspects are also explored:
o Comprehension of message or slogan,

o Communication of secondary copy ideas,
o Evaluation of demonstration and spokespersons etc,
o Perception of brand uniqueness or brand differentiation,
o Irritating or confusing elements, and
o Viewer involvement.
From these explorations, researchers find out the 'attitude shift' (AS) and 'awareness and communication' (AC) levels. One variety of
persuasion test used by some research organizations include double exposure of ads during the programme. Some organizations
conduct an additional interview about 72 hours to find out recall. Some use a control location for conducting the test, while some of
them use shopping complexes, big departmental stores or super bazaars as the venue for conducting the test.
The Mapes & Ross Company does not use the theatre-testing method. It broadcasts the
ads in a pre selected prime time position. Respondents are contacted over phone (200 in
number) and invited to participate in a survey. The respondents provide unaided brand name
awareness and are questioned about their brand preferences for a number of brand categories.
The next day (ie. after 24 hours of watching the ads), the respondents again answer questions
regarding brand recall and brand preference.
Persuasion tests work on the fact that an important function of advertising is to change (if
necessary), build and maintain a distinct and positive image for the advertised brand, or
company. This image is a composite mix of attitudes, feelings and perceptions so it is important
to measure if advertising exposure brings about changes in the attitudes, feelings and
perceptions through persuasion tests.
While most persuasion tests try to find out attitude shifts about specific brands, Terence
Shimp's research method concentrates on studying respondents' attitude to specific
advertisements. This kind of test is conducted for ads using the 'affective strategy, which try to
not to influence consumers' beliefs towards the advertised brand but to create favourable
attitudes towards the advertisement itself. Such ads usually try to create a positive feeling and
work on the principle that if the consumers like the ad, they will like the brand.
The biggest advantage of persuasion test is that it tries to measure attitudes, which are
much closer to purchase behaviour than simple recognition or recall. But critics of this method
say that like recognition and recall, mere persuasion may not directly lead to purchase.
PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR TEST:

Here researchers test the actual brand-choice in an in-store, real world setting to ascertain if
advertising exposure has resulted in any changes in purchase behaviour. Instead of asking
questions to respondents about recall, recognition or persuasion, such studies try to find out
their actual behaviour, i.e. if they are buying the brand after being exposed to the ads.
The problem with this method is that proper sampling cannot be done. Also purchase
behaviour is influenced by many factors and advertising is just one of these factors. Isolating the
effects of advertising from all other influences in quantitative terms is very difficult.
This problem is solved to some extent by using control groups - where only one group is
exposed to the ads and the other similar and comparable group is not exposed to the ads being
tested. Then changes in purchase behaviour of both the groups are measured. If the difference
between the exposed and the unexposed group is significant, then advertising is considered to
be effective.
Another alternative is to use small test markets to find out the effect of advertising on
purchase behaviour.
OTHER METHODS OF MEASURING AD EFFECTIVENESS:

In addition to the recognition test, recall test, persuasion test and purchase behaviour test, many
other methods of measuring advertising effectiveness are being practiced. These include:
Direct-Response counts or Inquiry tests, Communication tests, Focus groups etc.
DIRECT RESPONSE COUNTS:
Here the response of the consumers is measured through a feedback system. Here
advertisements request for direct response through different means. These include a toll free
number, a coupon or an offer made in the ad (print ad or TV commercial). Such ads include an
address, a phone number, or / and the e-mail address or web site. And instead of finding out the
recall or persuasion, the advertiser counts the number of readers or viewers who request for
more information or who actually buy the brand. This test sometimes is called the inquiry test,
but it is not completely accurate as this method counts even the actual sale.
One variation of this is a split-ad run, where two different versions of the same ad are
published in alternate copies of same issues of newspapers or magazines. These ads have
different numbers and addresses. From the responses to the different versions of the ad, their
effectiveness can be measured.
COMMUNICATION TESTS:
This test is for those advertisers who don't believe in the methods discussed earlier.
Communication test involves three questions:
o Did the ad deliver the message it was intended to deliver?
o Did the ad deliver any messages it was not intended to deliver?
o How did the representatives of the target audience (respondents) react to the message,
the characters, the situation, and the tone?
Answers to these questions are not definitive measures of advertising effectiveness, still these
questions are very important. Slowly more and more advertisers have started adopting this
method to measure advertising effectiveness.
FOCUS GROUPS:
Here very small (5 to 7 persons) groups are interviewed in depth in an informal manner about
specific advertisements. The views of the group members are analyzed to measure the possible
effects of the ads. Focus group studies are highly unreliable as different groups or even
individuals of one group may have different opinions. Such studies are often used for saving
both time and money. But for final evaluation of ads, focus group results are not reliable and
thus are not widely used.
In the end, it can be said that, while measuring effectiveness of advertisements is a high
priority area for advertisers, no full-proof method has so far been devised. Tests that are fast
and affordable have obvious defects. The safer methods are time consuming, highly expensive
and cannot be undertaken on a regular basis. Another big problem is the staunch opposition by
the 'creative people' in ad agencies towards such evaluative research.
However, while taking complex and hard decisions, evaluative research findings can provide effective guidance. Of course,
the advertiser has to use these research findings rationally depending upon the situation. Then leave it to the ultimate judges - the
customers. Because, an advertisement is not what the advertisers and ad agencies put into it, but is what the consumers think of it
and how they act on it.
8.3
SUMMARY:
o The vast amounts spent on advertising necessitate systematic and objective inquiry into the
role of advertising, its effectiveness and its overall contribution. This systematic and objective
inquiry is called advertising research. It is also called evaluative research, advertising
evaluation, or advertising effectiveness research. Whatever name it is given, advertising
research helps avoid costly mistakes. It helps to predict the relative strengths of alternative
strategies and to increase the efficiency of advertising in general.
o Measuring advertising effectiveness in quantitative terms is very difficult. The simplest
reason being the workings of human brains cannot be quantified. Also advertising is neither
the sole means of promotion, nor is it the only sole source of information and influence.
o Evaluative research before the ads are placed in the media or pre-testing can assist in the
development of more effective advertisements. The most important thing here is that
mistakes or shortcomings can be found out and improved upon before media costs have
been incurred. However, the limitations of pre-testing include the lack of real or actual
conditions as such tests are conducted under simulated situations and with a limited
representative audience.
o Evaluative research conducted when the ads are placed in the media, concurrent testing,
and evaluating ads after the campaign is over, post-testing, are conducted in real situations
and actual conditions. Both concurrent testing and post-testing are more expensive in terms
of money and time spent than pre-testing. Also many advertisers prefer post-testing only.
o
Major methods of pre-testing include: Consumer Jury, Storyboard Tests, Laboratory Tests (Tachistoscope, Pyschogalvanometer,
Eye camera, Pupil Dilation), and Attitude Tests (Projective Techniques and Depth Interviewing).
Attitudes are viewpoints or opinions that are characterized by a predisposition or state of readiness to act or react in a particular
way to certain stimulus. Here ads are the stimuli. Attitude testing tries to measure the degree and extent of these attitudinal
changes as created by advertisements.
o Projective techniques are used to overcome the barriers of rationality, logicality and
politeness, which often play an important role in case of direct questioning. In case of
projective techniques, an indirect approach is adopted. Instead of asking questions, the
respondents are subjected to different tests. These include the association test, sentence
completion test, and thematic appreciation test (TAT).
o Different types of tests are conducted as part of post-testing advertisements. These include:
Recognition Tests, Recall Tests, Persuasion Tests, and Purchase Behaviour Tests or Sales
Tests.
8.4
KEY WORDS:
Advertising Research: The systematic and objective inquiry about the role of advertising and
its effectiveness is called advertising research. It is also called evaluative research, advertising
evaluation, or advertising effectiveness research. Measurement of advertising effectiveness
helps maximize the contribution of advertising.
Advertising Pre-testing: It is a kind of insurance against bad mistakes. It finds out the
appropriateness of the ads and their individual components like headline, visuals, body copy
and layout, etc., before the ads are released in the media. This type of research attempts to
predict the performance of specific ads in terms of liking, motivation etc. of audience members.
Through pre-testing advertisers try to finalize the best possible options that are likely to produce
better results than others.
Pre-testing Methods: Major methods of pre-testing include: Consumer Jury, Storyboard Tests, Laboratory Tests (Tachistoscope,
Pyschogalvanometer, Eye camera, Pupil Dilation), and Attitude Tests (Projective Techniques and Depth Interviewing).
Consumer Jury: Here a representative cross section of the target audience is selected as jury
members to judge the advertisements being tested. These persons are most likely to be
exposed to the final ads. Respondents in a consumer jury test are asked to evaluate one or
more ads by some special criteria as attention getting power, believability of claims etc. They
are asked to rank the ads in the order of merit. To create real and life-like situations, print ads
are inserted in magazines or TV ads are shown with some recorded programme.
Storyboard Tests: Such tests are used for TV ads. Before TV ads are shot, storyboards (series
of important shots drawn in the comic strip fashion) are created. These storyboards are
transferred on to filmstrips and the audio part is recorded. The selected audience is shown the
synchronized version of the filmstrips and audiotape in the slide and sound format. These way
television ads can be evaluated even before they are prepared.
The Tachistoscope: This is basically a slide projector, which can be operated under varying
conditions of speed and illumination. This device helps find out how fast or slow the respondents
perceive and respond to the advertising message.
The Psycho Galvanometer: This device is used to measure the bodily responses while the
respondent is watching an ad. This highly complex device uses electrodes that are attached to
the respondent's body to measure the electrical resistance (which is the manifestation of the
response).
Eye camera: This is one of the most widely used devices. It measures the actual viewing
behaviour of the respondents. This camera is fitted with high power lenses and is focused on
the eyes of the respondents. It records continuously the activities of the eye as it moves
horizontally and vertically while the respondent is watching pictures on a screen.
Pupil Dilation: This method measures the changes in the size of the pupil of the eye as the
respondent watches or sees an ad. Larger or expanded pupil means stronger interest and
smaller or constricted pupil means lower interest.
Attitude Testing: Attitudes are viewpoints or opinions that are characterized by a predisposition
or state of readiness to act or react in a particular way to certain stimulus. Here ads are the
stimuli. Attitude testing tries to measure the degree and extent of these attitudinal changes as
created by advertisements.
Projective techniques: These techniques are used to overcome the barriers of rationality,
logicality and politeness, which often play an important role in case of direct questioning. In case
of projective techniques, an indirect approach is adopted. Instead of asking questions, the
respondents are subjected to different tests. These include the association test, sentence
completion test, and thematic appreciation test (TAT).
Depth Interviewing: Here the respondent is first put at ease by the researcher while he tries to
build up a rapport with the respondents. Then the respondent is asked leading or probing
questions to bring out his underlying subconscious reaction to the brand or organization
advertised.
Post-testing Methods: Different
types of tests are conducted as part of post-testing advertisements.
These include: Recognition Tests, Recall Tests, Persuasion Tests, and Purchase Behaviour
Tests or Sales Tests.
8.5
1. Write a detailed note on advertising research.

2. Discuss the various methods used for advertising pre-testing in detail.
3. Write a detailed note on the various methods used for advertising post-testing.
8.6

o Introduction to Communication Research by Reinard (Benchmark, 1994)
o Practical Marketing Research by Jeffery L Pope (Amacom, 1993)
o Introduction to Survey Research by Alreck & Settle (Irwin, 1995)
nd

MEDIA RESEARCH
MMC 205
Lesson: 9
STATISTICAL METHODS IN MEDIA RESEARCH

Writer: Dr. Ved Paul
Reader, Department of Business Economics, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

Chairperson, Department of Mass Communication, KU, Kurukshetra, Haryana.

LESSON STRUCTURE:
This lesson shall provide an introduction to the statistical methods used in media research. We shall start with summary measures.
Finally, we shall try to understand the Chi-Square Test as a Statistical Tool. The lesson structure shall be as follows:
9.0
9.0
Objectives
9.1
Introduction
9.2
9.2.1
Summary Measures as Statistical Tools
9.2.2
Chi-Square Test as a Statistical Tool
9.3
Summary
9.4
Key Words
9.5
9.6
OBJECTIVES:
o To Know About Summary Measures as Statistical Tools

o To Know About Chi-Square Test as a Statistical Tool
9.1
INTRODUCTION:
Media Research generates large amount of data. Meaningful information is to be drawn from
this data. Statistical methods help us in this process. First we shall discuss about some
summary measures used in research. The objective of this part is to make students familiar with
statistical methods of summarizing the data. With the help of summary measures we may put
the data into a single number to depict its characteristics. The second part of this lesson
includes chi-square test. This test is used to test the hypothesis regarding the characteristics of
the population, which is divided into different categories on the basis of some attributes.
These methods will also help to interpret the data in journalistic reporting.
9.2
o Summary Measures as Statistical Tools

o Chi-Square Test as a Statistical Tool
9.2.1 STATISTICAL METHODS (SUMMARY MEASURES):

Quantitative data show certain general characteristics, which can be briefly put together as
follows:
o They show a tendency to concentrate at certain values, usually somewhere in the centre
of the distribution. Measures of this tendency are called measures of central tendency or
averages.
o The data vary about a measure of central tendency. This refers to the variability
characteristics of the data, often called dispersion. A measure of variability is concerned
with quantifying the magnitude of spreadness of individual observations around the
central value.
o The data in a frequency distribution may fall into symmetrical or asymmetrical patterns.
The measures of this direction and degree of asymmetry are called measures of
skewness.
o Polygons in frequency distribution exhibit peakedness. Measures of peakedness are
called measures or kurtosis.
The purpose of these measures is to discover the characteristics of a set of data and hence to
facilitate comparison within a set of data or between sets of data. In this part we shall discuss
the measures of first two of the above-mentioned characteristics.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY/ AVERAGES:

The most important characteristics of a set of data is its measure of central tendency. For
example we may have data about the reading hours of the newspaper of different persons in a
certain city. Instead of dealing with reading hours data of individual a researcher may be
interested in ascertaining the average reading hours of the person in the city. Similarly in order
to ascertain the degree of power shortage the administrator in-charge of power will be interest to
know the average daily power demand and average daily power generation in a state.
What is the meaning of this term average? Generally speaking, when we talk about
average hours, or average power shortage, we are really looking for a central figure amongst a
number of observations, which is representative of the entire group. Similarly when we say he is
an average student what it means is that he is typical of the group of which he is a part. Thus,
an average is a single value, which is used to represent an entire set of data. This value permits
us to compare individual values in the data with it and also permits us to compare different sets
of data. The three principal measures of central tendency widely used in statistical analysis are
the arithmetic mean, median and mode.
ARITHMETIC MEAN:
The arithmetic mean, which is sometimes simply referred to as mean is the most commonly
used average. It is sum of the values observed divided by the total number of observation of the
data set.
Suppose x1, x2, , xn are the n observations contained in the sample.
Their Arithmetic mean is
X=
x1 + x2 ..xn = n/n
n
i=1
n = total number of observations

n
Here X = Arithmetic mean. Xi = Sum of all the values of the variable xi.e.x1 x2,
i=1
.., xn
In computing arithmetic mean with the help of this formula, we have two steps:
(i)
the observation of the data and Take the sum of all obtain Sx
(ii)
Divide this total by the total number of observation i.e.n.
Example : Find the arithmetic mean of hours of reading the newspaper per day of five persons.
Person
Nos. of Hours
.75
1.0
1.2.
.90
Solution
X (Nos. of Hours)
.5
.75
n
Arithmetic mean (X) = xi

i=1
1.0
1.20
.90
xi = .5 + .75 +1.0 +1.2 +.9 = 4.35

n=5
4.35
X=
-------
.87 hours
5
Hence the average hours per person is .87 hours.
If the data is given in the form of frequency distribution, the mean x is computed as :
k
X = 1 x1 + 2 x2 +..+k xk
k
=
1 + 2 +.k
i xi
i=1
i xi
i=1
Here i, 2,.. k are the corresponding frequencies of the values of x
Example: Find the arithmetic mean of the following data.

Monthly Expenditure on
20
30
50
60
70
100
150
10
16
20
30
22
12
20
30
50
60
70
100
150
30
22
12
Newspaper (Rupees)
Nos. of persons (f)
Sol :
Values of X
Frequencies
10
16
20
fx
200
480
1000 1800 1540 1200 1050
X, =
x =
7270 = Rs. 62.13

117
Thus, the average monthly expenditure of given persons on newspaper is Rs.62.13
THE ARITHMETIC MEAN OF GROUPED DATA:

If a frequency distribution of the data is given in the forms of classes we no longer have the
original values of the observations. Let us have the following data on the income of 100 workers.
Income (Rs.) Frequency
(f) m
mf
20-40
30
180
40-60
50
450
60-80
11
70
770
80-100
14
90
1260
100-120
20
110
2200
120-140
15
130
1950
140-160
10
150
1500
160-180
170
1360
180-200
190
1330
In this data, the actual values of the observations are not given to us.
Take the case of first class, it shows there are 6 workers whose incomes lies between Rs.20 to
Rs.40. Her actual income of these workers is unknown to us. Therefore to find the arithmetic
mean of this type of data, we have to deal with the representatives of each class. Within each
class, each item is assumed to have the value of the mid point of that class. The mid point in
each class has to be taken for each item in the class it represents. The mid points computed
from each class of the above data are shown by m. To compute the arithmetic mean of the
data, now multiply the values of m with corresponding frequencies and then take the total of
these products. Just as in the ungrouped data, we divide this total by the total number of
observations in the distribution to obtain the arithmetic mean. The method for computing
Arithmetic Mean is:
X, =
m =
11000 = Rs.110
100
So average income of the workers is Rs.110/In case of short-out method for computing arithmetic mean we use the following formula:
X=
Xd
Here Xd = assumed mean
d= deviations of mid points from the assumed mean i.e. Xd

If the class intervals are not uniform, the short method for computing the mean cannot be used.
MEDIAN:
The median of a collection observations is defined as the middle most observation in the sense
that one half of the number of observations is less than median while the other half of
observation is larger than the median. To determine the median, it is necessary to first array the
observation either in a descending or ascending order of magnitude and then count their
number. If the number of observation is odd, media is equal to (n+1)/2 the observation. If the
number is even, median is arithmetic mean of n/2 and n/2+1 the observations.
For example, the median of a series consisting five observations (5,8,10,11,14) is 10,
3rd, observation i.e. (5+1)/2 the observation. Had 16 been the sixth observations in the series,
the median would be (10+11)/2=10.5 i.e. arithmetic mean of 6/2th and (6/2)+1 th observations.
Median is also called positional average. The term position refers to the place of a value
in a series. Media is considered as a comparison of arithmetic mean when data consist extreme
values. For example if a data consist the following observations.
10, 12, 14, 16, 100.
The median of this series is 3rd observation i.e. 14. Now compute the arithmetic of this
series, which is equal to 30.4. It shows, arithmetic mean is not representative of this series. The
median M=14, on the other hand is a representative measure of the observations.
When the data is given in the form of frequency distribution, to find the median we use the
following procedure:
o Put the data in ascending or descending order of magnitude.
o Compute the cumulative frequencies i.e. take the summation of successive frequencies
corresponding to given values of the variable.
o Locate the median which is (n+1)/2
o From the column of cumulative frequency find that which is equal to (N+1)/2 or next
higher to that and determine the value of the variable corresponding to it. That will be the
value of median.
Sample: Compute the median by using the following data on the wages of the workers:
Wages (Rs.)
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
No. of Workers
10
11
16
20
25
15
Solution: First put the values of the variable into ascending order
Wages(Rs.) Nos. of workers (f)
Cumulative frequencies (cf)
20
21
10
18
22
11
29
23
16
45
24
20
65
25
25
90
26
15
105
27
114
28
120
Median N + 1 the Observation = 120+1 = 60.5 th observation

2
This value lies in the cumulative frequency whose value is 65. Corresponding to this cumulative
frequency the value of our variable is 24.
Thus Median = 24/-
THE MEDIAN FOR GROUPED DATA:

In grouped data, the individual observations have lost their identity, and the middle observation
cannot be found by counting. It is necessary to get inside a class to find the value that divides
the number of all observation in half. If we divide the number of frequencies (N) in two halves,
we find that the middle observation falls within a class. To locate this class, we cumulate
frequency until we reach the lowest class whose cumulative frequency is greater than N/2, This
class is called the median class. After that, we find the median value from the median class. The
method for this procedure is
Median
= l
+ N i
xi
2
med
Where e = the lower limit of median class
N
= the total frequency.
S fi = the sum of all frequencies accumulated before entering the median class.
med = the frequencies of the median class, and
i
= the width of the median class.
Example: Find out the median of the following data.

Marls 0-4
4-8
8-12
12-14 14-18 18-20 20-25 25-above
Nos. 10
12
18
Solution: First put the data in ascending or descending out and then find the median.
Marks
No. of student (f)
Cumulative frequency (c.f)
0-4
10
10
4-8
12
22
8-12
18
40
12-14
47
14-18
52
18-20
60
20-25
64
25-above
70
Median = size of N/2th item = 70/2 = 35 th observation.

Median lies in the class 8-12
= 10.88
so Median is 10.88 marks.
Median
=1 +
med
35
8+
22
18
MODE:
There are many situations in which arithmetic mean and median fail to reveal the true
characteristics of data. When we talk of average consumer average student, average size of
shoes or ready-made garments we have in mind mode and not the arithmetic mean or median.
Here average student means the type of student who is met most frequently with regard to
some quality. In statistics the value of variable, which occurs most frequently, is called mode.
THE MODE FOR UNGROUPED DATA:

Mode practically does not require any calculation in case of ungrouped data. All we have to do
is to find the value that occurs most frequently. For example in a set of observation consisting of
the values 9, 10, 11,11, 11, 15 modes is 11 because it occurs twice as compared to other
values, which occur only once. Arranging the observations in an array and counting the number
of times each observation occurs can conveniently find out the mode. If the data is given in the
form of frequency distribution, mode can be determined just by looking to that value of the
variable, which has corresponding highest frequency.
Example: Compute the mode of the following data
Shoes size
10
Nos. of persons (frequency)
17
22
Solution:
In this case the value 8 has occurred the maximum number of times i.e. 22.
Thus the mode is 8, which is most common size of shoes.
THE MODE OF GROUPED DATA:

To compute the mode of the grouped data we have to pass through he following steps:
o Find the class with most frequencies in the premodal class from of the number of
frequencies in the modal class.
o Subtract the number of frequencies in the premodal class from of the number of
frequencies in the modal class. The results is denoted by
o Subtract the number of frequencies in the post modal class from the number of
frequencies in the modal class. This is denoted by
o Divide ?1 by sum of ?1 and ?2 and multiply the quotient obtained by the size of the class
interval of the modal class.
o Add the result obtained by performing the operation in step (iv) above to the lower limit of
the modal class. This sum is the mode.
The method for this procedure is:
?1
Mode
11 +
?1
Xi
?1
?2
?2
Where l1= lower limit of the modal class.

= The difference between the frequencies in the modal class and pre-modal class.
= The difference between the frequencies in the modal class and the post modal class and
i = the size of the class internal of the modal class.
Example: Calculate the mode of the distribution given below:
Monthly
50-70 70-90 90-110
110-130
130-150
150-170
38
28
Wages in Rs.
No. of
44
workers
Solution:
Wages
Workers(f)
50-90
70-90
44
90-110
38
110-130
28
130-150
150-170
Maximum frequency is 44, corresponding to this, (70-90) is modal class:

?1
44-4
Mode = l1 +
40
xi = 70 +
?1
?2
x 20
44-4 + 44-38
= 70 +
20 = 87
46
Hence mode is Rs.87.4.
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABILITY:
The average is a representative of the collection of observation in the sense that it enables us to
identify the centre. But it does not reveal how the individual observations are spread out on each
side of the centre. The knowledge of variability of the individual observation around the average
is very important for testing the reliability of average. For example, suppose the average per
capita income of a country is very high. On the basis of this it may be concluded that living
standard of its people is very high. If there is strong variability in the incomes of the people and
income of the country is concentrated in the hands of few people, in this case our conclusion
based on average income may be wrong. Average is hardly fully representative of a collection of
observation unless we know the manner in which the individual observations scatter around it in
short a further description of the data is necessary if we want to know how representative the
average is. The measurement of the magnitude of scatterness of the individual observations
about the average is called a measure of variation or dispersion; it is this measure that tells us
how representative the average is as a description of the data. If the observations scatter in a
very narrow range, then average would appear to be highly representative.
There are five measures of dispersion named the range, quartile deviation, mean
absolute deviation, variance and standard deviation. In this part we shall take standard deviation
only, which is one of the most appropriate measure of dispersion.
STANDARD DEVIATION:
To compute the standard deviation of the ungrouped data, first find the deviation of each
observation of the data from the arithmetic mean of the data. After that the square these
deviation these deviation and obtain the sum of them. In next step, divide the sum of square of
deviation by the total number of observation and then take the under root of it, to get the
standard deviation. We denote the population standard deviation by Greek letter a (sigma),
while in case of sample it is denoted by s.
The formula of above procedure is:
s=
(xi x) =
(xi x) + (x2 x) + - + (Xn x)
Where (xi - x) = Sum of square of the values of x from its mean.

N = total number of observation.
2.1.1 The Standard Deviation of Ungrouped Data:
Suppose the data consist of the observation
3, 10, 9, 9, 4, 7, 14 then standard deviation is computed as:
Mean = x = 3+4+7+9+9+10+14 = 8
7
s=
(3-8)2 + (10-8)2 + (9-8)2 +(4-8)2 + (7-8)2 + (14-8)2

7
s=
25 + 4 1 +1 + 1 6 + 1 36
=3.46
7
If the data is given in the form of frequency distribution then following steps are taken to
compute the standard deviation.
i.
Take the deviation of each observation from the mean and then square it.
ii.
Multiply these deviation by the respective frequencies and obtain the total.
(X-X)2
iii. Multiply these deviation by the respective frequencies and obtain the total. The above
procedure could be summarized in the following formula :
s=
(X) X 2
THE STANDARD DEVIATION OF THE GROUPED DATA:

In case of grouped data to find the standard deviation, we adopt the following the procedure:
i.
Find the mid points of each class.
ii.
Take the deviation of these mid points from the arithmetic mean of the data.
iii.
Square the deviations and multiply them with the respective frequencies of each class
and obtain the sum.

iv.
Divide the total of above (iii) step by total number of observations and take the under root
of it to get. The formula of above procedure is

s=
(X X) 2
N
Example: Calculate the standard deviation of the following frequency distribution of marks
Marks 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39
No. of Student
10
22
35
15
10
Solution:
Marks No. of student
(f)
Mid point
(x)
fx
fx2
10-14 8
12
96
1152
15-19 10
17
170
2890
20-24 22
22
484
10648
25-29 35
27
945
25515
30-34 15
32
489
15360
35-39 10
37
370
13690
s=
(X X) 2
X 2 --
69255
2545
s=
100
= 6.69
100
9.2.2 CHI-SQUARE TEST:

Generally in real world we draw inference about population on the basis of sample. But sample
is a part of the population, so drawing inference about the population on the basis of this partial
information, may be right of wrong. Thus to know the reliability of inference drawn on the basis
of sample we take the help of some statistical tools called statistical tests. With the help of these
tests, we test whether the sample information is consistent with the characteristics of the
population for with any hypothesis about the population characteristics. it is no consistent with
our hypothesis about population, then we reject the hypothesis otherwise accept it.
For example we use t-test and z-test for testing whether sample mean is close to any
hypothesis about population mean. Rejection of hypothesis means results are significant i.e. our
sample is providing us significant information, which is deviation from our perception about the
population. On other hand accepting of hypothesis means our results are insignificant.
Chi-square test is used for testing the hypothesis regarding characteristics for the
population when the population is divided in to different categories on the basis of some
attributes. For example we can divide the population into different categories on the basis of
attributes like sex, education, employment, occupation etc. The principal use of chi-square is to
know whether there is any interdependence in the two attributes of population or not. For
instance, we may be interest in knowing the interdependence between sex and education, or
opinions of the people and their occupations, etc.
*Here hypothesis means null hypothesis.
TESTING PROCEDURE:
For testing the hypothesis with the help of chi-n square statistic we need a set of expected
frequencies corresponding to our observed frequencies. For examples, in tossing a coin 50
times, head appeared 20 times and tail appeared 30 times, here 20 and 30 are our observed
frequencies. If we expect that coin is unbiased i.e. there is no interdependence between head
and tail then we that coin is unbiased i.e., there is no interdependence between head and tail
then we expect that in tossing the coin 50 times, head and tail must appeared with equal
frequencies i.e. 25, these are our expected frequencies.
The measure of chi-square enables us to find out the degree of discrepancy between
observed frequencies and expected frequencies and thus to determine whether the discrepancy
so obtained is due to chance factor or due to inherent difference. let our population has n
categories and each categories, in a sample of particular size has O1 O2 O2 observed
frequencies respectively, if corresponding to these observed frequencies we have expected
frequencies e1 e2 --------------en, then chi-square (x2) statistics is:
( oi - ei )2
(o2 - e2) 2
X2 =
+
e1
X2 =
i=l
+ - +
e2
( oi
( on - en )2
- ei ) 2
ei
en
The whole process of testing of hypothesis by using x2 test has following steps.
o Indicate the hypothesis. In statistics we make two types of hypothesis. One is null
hypothesis and second is alternative hypothesis. Rejection of one hypothesis leads to
acceptance of other hypothesis and vice-versa.
o List the observed frequencies resulting from a given sample survey.
o Calculate the expected frequencies. We calculate these frequencies by assuming that
null hypotheses are true.
o Calculate the difference between the observed frequency and the corresponding
expected frequency for each class in the series. we express the square of the difference
as a fraction of the expected frequency concerned.
o Add together all fractions obtained from step (4)
o Add result of our x2 test is significant if the figure obtained from step (5) exceed the
appropriate critical value of x2 for the given degree of freedom at a certain level of
significance. Which means that in such a case null hypothesis is rejected, otherwise it is
accepted.
Illustration: For the purpose of illustration, let us consider the following problem. Suppose a
survey is conducted to ascertain the popularity of a film in different age group. A sample 450
people is taken consisting of 250 young, 130 middle aged and 80 old aged. Each person is
asked to give ones view whether they like, dislike or indifferent to the film. Further suppose that
the observations of the survey are given in the following table, which is also called contingency
table.
Contingency Table -1
Age Group
Reaction to the film

Like
Dislike
Indifferent
total
150
60
40
250
Middle Age 54
52
14
120
Old
28
27
25
80
Total
232
139
79
450
Young
In this table actual frequencies of difference categories are given to us like in case of young
categories out of 250, 150 like the film. Now we want to test whether there is any relationship
between age group and different types of reaction of the people regarding the film. For testing it
we follow the under given steps.
First make the hypothesis about the interdependence of these classes of the data
Null Hypothesis: there is null relationship between age group and reaction of the people.
Alternative Hypothesis: there is a relationship between these two attributes.
Decision criteria: In statistics generally we take level of significance equal to 5% or 1%.
Suppose in our case it is 5% i.e. a = 0.05.
Now we have to compute the value of x2 statistics. For this we have to calculate the expected
frequencies corresponding to observed frequencies given in the above table. Suppose we want
to find the expected frequency corresponding to young and like cell i.e. 150, for this wen use the
following methods.
RT x CT
e1 =
250 x 232
450
Where e1 = expected frequency.

RT = the row total for the row containing the cell
CT = the column total for the column containing the cell.
N = the total number of observations.
Similarly, by using above method we can compute the expected frequency of the other
cells of the contingency table.
CONTINGENCY TABLE II
Reaction to film
Age Group
Like
Dislike Indifferent
Young 1580(128.8) 60(77.22)

Middle age
Old
54(61.86)
28(41.71)
Total 232
139
79
40(43.88)
52(34.39)
27(24.71)
Total
250
14(21.06)
25(14.04)
120
80
450
In this contingency table corresponding to each observed frequency, expected frequencies are
given in brackets. Now by using these values we can compute the value of x2 statistics
(150-128.8) 2
(60-77.22) 2
(40-43.88) 2
(54-61.86) 2
x2 = ---------------- + --------------+ ----------------+ -----------------128.8
77.22
(52-34.39) 2
(14-21.06) 2
43.88
61.86
(28-41.24) 2
(27-24.71) 2
(25-14.0) 2
---------------- + --------------+ ----------------+ ---------------+------------128.8

x2 =
77.22
43.88
61.86
14.04
3.84+3.84+.343+998+9.017+2.36+4.25+.212+8.55 = 33.05
This is our computed value of x2 Now compare this value with table value of x2 corresponding
to degree of freedom (3-1) (3-1) = 4, at
Level of significance x = 5% = 0.05
Table value of x2 is 9.49
x2 > x2 (=049)
So reject the null hypothesis. It means our results are significant and there is interdependence
between age group and people liking about a film.
Degree of freedom = (number of rows-1) (number of columns-1).
9.3
SUMMARY:
o They show a tendency to concentrate at certain values, usually somewhere in the centre
of the distribution. Measures of this tendency are called measures of central tendency or
averages.
o The data vary about a measure of central tendency. This refers to the variability
characteristics of the data, often called dispersion. A measure of variability is concerned
with quantifying the magnitude of spreadness of individual observations around the
central value.
o The median of a collection observations is defined as the middle most observation in the
sense that one half of the number of observations is less than median while the other half
of observation is larger than the median. To determine the median, it is necessary to first
array the observation either in a descending or ascending order of magnitude and then
count their number.

o There are many situations in which arithmetic mean and median fail to reveal the true
characteristics of data. When we talk of average consumer average student, average
size of shoes or ready-made garments we have in mind mode and not the arithmetic
mean or median.
o We use t-test and z-test for testing whether sample mean is close to any hypothesis
about population mean. Rejection of hypothesis means results are significant i.e. our
sample is providing us significant information, which is deviation from our perception
about the population. On other hand accepting of hypothesis means our results are
insignificant.
o Chi-square test is used for testing the hypothesis regarding characteristics for the
attributes. For example we can divide the population into different categories on the basis
of attributes like sex, education, employment, occupation etc. The principal use of chisquare is to know whether there is any interdependence in the two attributes of
population or not. For instance, we may be interest in knowing the interdependence
between sex and education, or opinions of the people and their occupations, etc.
9.4
KEY WORDS:
Arithmetic Mean: The arithmetic mean, which is sometimes simply referred to as mean is the
most commonly used average. It is sum of the values observed divided by the total number of
observation of the data set.
Median: The median of a collection observations is defined as the middle most observation in
the sense that one half of the number of observations is less than median while the other half of
observation is larger than the median. To determine the median, it is necessary to first array the
observation either in a descending or ascending order of magnitude and then count their
number.
Mode: There are many situations in which arithmetic mean and median fail to reveal the true
characteristics of data. When we talk of average consumer average student, average size of
shoes or ready-made garments we have in mind mode and not the arithmetic mean or median.
Standard Deviation: To compute the standard deviation of the ungrouped data, first find the
deviation of each observation of the data from the arithmetic mean of the data. After that the
square these deviation these deviation and obtain the sum of them. In next step, divide the sum
of square of deviation by the total number of observation and then take the under root of it, to
get the standard deviation. We denote the population standard deviation by Greek letter a
(sigma), while in case of sample it is denoted by s.
Chi-square Test: This test is used for testing the hypothesis regarding characteristics for the
attributes. For example we can divide the population into different categories on the basis of
attributes like sex, education, employment, occupation etc. The principal use of chi-square is to
know whether there is any interdependence in the two attributes of population or not.
9.5
1. Discuss the various statistical methods used in media research.

2. Write a detailed note on the measures of central tendency.
3. Write a detailed note on Chi-Square test. .
9.6

o Communication Research: Strategies and Sources (2nd ed) by Rubin, R.B., Rubin, A.M.
and Piele, L.J. Belmont, CA, (Wadsworth)

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What are the different methods of media research discussed in the document?

What are the different methods of media research discussed in the document?

What are the different statistical methods mentioned for analyzing data in media research?

What are the different statistical methods mentioned for analyzing data in media research?

MEDIA RESEARCH (MMC- 205)

Prof. (Mrs) S. Gandhi

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Prof. (Mrs) S. Gandhi

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Methods & Practice of

Theory & Practice of

Prof. Sunil K. Behera

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Prof. Sunil K. Behera

About Writers and Vetters:

Dr. Ved Paul

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Dr. P. K. Jena, Lecturer,

Prof. (Mrs) S. Gandhi

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Prof. (Mrs) S. Gandhi

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Methods & Practice of

Theory & Practice of

Prof. Sunil K. Behera

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Prof. Sunil K. Behera

Prof. Manoj Dayal

Dr. Ved Paul

About Writers and Vetters:

Sh. M. R. Patra, Lecturer, Department of C M& T, GJUST, Hisar 125 001

M. A. Mass Communication (2 year)

Writer: Prof. (Mrs.) Sushma Gandhi

Chairperson, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar, Haryana.

Need, Role, and Importance of Research

Major Aspects of Research

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs)

To Have an Introduction to Research

To Know About the Need, Role, and Importance of Research

o To Understand the Major Aspects of Research

The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows:

Need, Role, and Importance of Research

o Major Aspects of Research

1.2.1 RESEARCH- AN INTRODUCTION:

1.2.2 NEED, ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH:

1.2.3 MAJOR ASPECTS OF RESEARCH:

research, which is concerned with the discovery of truth.

o All research is a quest for ordered or systematic knowledge. It may be an observational

o Good research must be purposive. It is carefully planned and timely executed.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs):

REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS:

M. A. Mass Communication (2nd year)

MEDIA RESEARCH - ROLE AND FUNCTIONS

2.2.1 Media Research: An Introduction

o To Differentiate Between Social Research and Media Research

The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows:

o What technology does it involve?

If we take radio, there can be several studies this medium.