Zener Diode

A zener diode is a special type of diode that is designed to

operate in the reverse breakdown region. An ordinary
diode operated in this region will usually be destroyed due
to excessive current. This is not the case for the zener
diode. A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the
reverse breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin
depletion layer. As a result, a zener diode has a sharp
reverse breakdown voltage VZ.
Symbol of Zener Diode:
We can identify the terminals of zener diode
by observing a black color ring at cathode terminal(refer
the first figure in this post). If it is a SMD component, then
a band will be available for cathode terminal.
By Identifying the Zener Diode Code marked over the
device, we can know the value it.
Operation of Zener Diode:
Zener diodes are normally used only in the reverse bias
direction.
It means that the anode must be connected to the negative
side of the voltage source and the cathode must be
connected to the positive side.
A main difference between zener diodes and regular silicon
diodes is the way they are used in the circuits.
It is primarily used to regulate the circuit voltage as it has
constant VZ.
A large change in IR will cause only a small change in VZ. It
means that a zener diode can be used as an alternate

current path. The constant VZ developed across the diode

can then be applied to a load.
Thus the load voltage remains at constant by altering the
current flow through the zener diode.
3 Zener diode applications
1. Zener Diode as a voltage
In a DC circuit, Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator or
to provide voltage reference. The main use of zener diode lies in
the fact that the voltage across a Zener diode remains constant
for a larger change in current. This makes it possible to use a
Zener diode as a constant voltage device or a voltage regulator.
In any power supply circuit, a regulator is used to provide a
constant output (load) voltage irrespective of variation in input
voltage or variation in load current. The variation in input voltage
is called line regulation, whereas the variation in load current is
called load regulation.

Zener Diode as voltage regulator

A simple circuit involving Zener diode as a regulator requires a
resistor of low value connected in series with the input voltage
source. The low value is required so as to allow the maximum flow
of current through the diode, connected in parallel. However, the
only constraint being, the current through zener diode should not
be less than minimum zener diode current. Simply put, for a
minimum input voltage and a maximum load current, the Zener
diode current should always be Izmin.

While designing a voltage regulator using zener diode, the latter

is chosen with respect to its maximum power rating. In other
words, the maximum current through the device should be:Imax = Power/Zener Voltage
Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known,
it is easier to choose a zener diode with a voltage approximately
equal to the load voltage, i.e. Vz ~=Vo.
The value of the series resistor is chosen to be
R =(Vin Vz)/(Izmin + IL), where IL = Load Voltage/Load resistance.
Note that for load voltages up to 8V, a single zener diode can be
used. However for load voltages beyond 8V, requiring Zener
voltages of higher voltage value, it is advisable to use a forward
biased diode in series with the Zener diode. This is because the
Zener diode at higher voltage follows the avalanche breakdown
principle, having a positive temperature of coefficient.
Hence a negative temperature coefficient diode is used for
compensation. Of course, these days, practical temperature
compensated Zener diodes are used.
2. Zener Diode as a voltage reference

Zener diode as voltage reference

In power supplies and many other circuits, Zener diode finds its
application as a constant voltage provider or a voltage reference.
The only conditions are that the input voltage should be greater
than zener voltage and the series resistor should have a minimum
value such that the maximum current flows through the device.
3. Zener Diode as a voltage clamper

In a circuit involving AC input source, different from the normal PN

diode clamping circuit, a Zener diode can also be used. The diode
can be used to limit the peak of the output voltage to zener
voltage at one side and to about 0V at other side of the sinusoidal
waveform.

zener diode as voltage clamper

In the above circuit, during positive half cycle, once the input
voltage is such that the zener diode is reverse biased, the output
voltage is constant for a certain amount of time till the voltage
starts decreasing.
Now during the negative half cycle, the zener diode is in forward
biased connection. As the negative voltage increases till forward
threshold voltage, the diode starts conducting and the negative
side of the output voltage is limited to the threshold voltage.
Note that to get an output voltage in positive range only, use two
oppositely biased Zener diodes in series.

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light
when forward biased. Light-emitting diodes are not made from
silicon or germanium but are made by using elements like
gallium, phosphorus and arsenic. By varying the quantities of
these elements, it is possible to produce light of different
wavelengths with colours that include red, green, yellow and blue.
For example, when a LED is manufactured using gallium arsenide,
it will produce a red light. If the LED is made with gallium
phosphide, it will produce a green light.
Symbol pdf
LED Operation
A light emitting diode (LED) is a type of semiconductor diode that
emits light when a current flows from anode to cathode across the
PN junction of the device. Hence, an LED requires a direct current
supply to forward bias the junction with a positive voltage for
normal operation. The voltage to current relationship of LED is
non-linear as shown in Figure 2, so the LED turns on at a lower
voltage and will rapidly draw much higher current as the voltage
increases.
Applications
LEDs are used in a wide variety of applications. Some typical
applications of LEDs include:
Traffic lights
Indication lights on devices, toys, clothing
Medical applications

 Signs and indicators

Optocouplers and opto-isolators

Symbol dsription pdf

Principle of operation (photo diod)
When a PN junction is illuminated with light, it ionizes covalent
bonds and new hole, electron pairs are generated in excess of
thermally generated pairs. If the photo generation occurs at a
distance of the diffusion length order or less depletion layer the
photo generated electron hole pairs are swept across by the
applied reverse bias field. This mode of operation of photo diode
is called photo conductive mode. The photo current varies almost
linearly with incident light flux or optical power. The mode of
operation of photo diode is called photo conductive diode. The
current equation of a Photo diode is given as
I = IS+ IO*(1-eV/ (*Vt))
Where is 1 for Ge and 2 for Si, Vt is voltage equivalent of
temperature, Is the short circuit current proportional to light

intensity, Io is reverse saturation current of diode, V is positive for

forward bias and negative for reverse bias. Photo current is
diffusion current.
There can be two types of photo excitations they are a) intrinsic
excitations b) Extrinsic excitations
Intrinsic excitations occur when an electron in valence band is
excited by a high energy photon to conduction band. Alternatively
a photon may excite an electron in donor level to conduction band
or a valence band electron may go into acceptor state. Such
excitations are termed as extrinsic excitations.
The minimum energy of light required for photo generation due to
intrinsic excitation is the forbidden gap energy EG. The
wavelength associated with this critical energy is known as critical
wavelength.
= 1.24/ EG (in eV)
Photons with wavelength greater than critical wavelength cannot
generate new charge carrier pairs.
Application pdf

Definition
Tunnel diode is a highly doped semiconductor device and
is used mainly for low voltage high frequency switching
applications. It works on the principle of Tunneling effect.
It is also called as Esaki diode named after Leo Esaki, who
in 1973 received the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering
the electron tunneling effect used in these diodes.
Circuit symbol

The tunnel diode is a two

terminal device with p type semiconductor acting as
anode and n type semiconductor as cathode. The circuit
symbol of tunnel diode is shown.
TUNNEL DIODE OPERATION:
Tunnel diode basically operates either in forward direction
or reverses direction. In forward bias operation, when the
voltage increases electrons at the first tunnel start to flow
through the narrow p-n junction barrier and got aligned
with empty valence band holes on the p-side of the p-n
junction. As voltage increases, this state becomes
misaligned and, as a result, current starts falling. The
region into which the current drops is known as negative
resistance region. By increasing voltage further, diode
begins to operate as a normal diode into which electrons
starts moving across the p-n junction through conduction
and no longer by tunnelling through the p-n junction
barrier. In Reverse bias operation, filled state on the pside of the junction becomes increasingly aligned with
empty states on the n-side. When they properly aligned

electrons starts tunnel through the p-n junction barrier in

the reverse direction. In the reverse direction, tunnel
diodes are known as back diodes and can act as fast
rectifiers with extreme linearity for power signals and zero
offset voltage.
Applications of tunnel diode
Some of the applications of Tunnel diode are

Tunnel diodes are used as very high speed switches

Used as high frequency micro wave oscillator

Varactor Diode
The varactor diode was named because of the variable reactor or
variable reactance or variable capacitor or variable capacitance
property of these diodes. A varactor diode is considered as a
special type of diode that is widely used in the electronics
industry and is used in various electronics applications. Varactor
diode is also a semiconductor microwave solid-state device, it is
frequently used in applications where variable capacitance is
desired which can be achieved by controlling voltage.
Varactor diode symbol
As the primary function of a varactor diode is as a variable
capacitor, its circuit symbol represents this. Sometimes they may
be shown as ordinary diodes, whereas more usually the varactor
diode circuit symbol shows the bar as a capacitor, i.e. two lines.

Varactor diode circuit symbol

Varactor diodes are always operated under reverse bias
conditions, and in this way there is no conduction. They are
effectively voltage controlled capacitors, and indeed they are
sometimes called varicap diodes, although the term varactor is
more widely used these days.
Varactor diodes, or as they are sometimes called, varicap diodes
are a particularly useful form of semiconductor diode. Finding
uses in many applications where electronically controlled tuning
of resonant circuits is required, for items such as oscillators and
filters, varactor diodes are an essential component within the
portfolio of the electronics design engineer. However to be able to
use varactor diodes to their best advantage it is necessary to
understand features of varactor diodes including the capacitance
ratio, Q, gamma, reverse voltage and the like. If used correctly,
varactor diodes provide very reliable service particularly as they
are a solid state device and have no mechanical or moving
elements as in their mechanical variable capacitor counterparts.

Varactor diode applications

Varactor diodes are widely used within the RF design arena. They
provide a method of varying he capacitance within a circuit by the
application of a control voltage. This gives them an almost unique
capability and as a result varactor diodes are widely used within
the RF industry.
Although varactor diodes can be used within many types of
circuit, they find applications within two main areas:
Voltage controlled oscillators, VCOs: Voltage controlled
oscillators are used for a variety of applications. One major
area is for the oscillator within a phase locked loop - this are
used in almost all radio, cellular and wireless receivers. A
varactor diode is a key component within a VCO.

 RF filters: Using varactor diodes it is possible to tune

filters. Tracking filters may be needed in receiver front end
circuits where they enable the filters to track the incoming
received signal frequency. Again this can be controlled using
a control voltage. Typically this might be provided under
microprocessor control via a digital to analogue converter.

What is a Shockley diode?

A shockley diode is a diode which is used primarily for switching

applications.
Unlike other types of semiconductor diodes, the shockley diode
has more than a single PN junction. Its construction includes 2 of
each type of semiconductor in an alternating pattern. So, where a
conventional diode can be described as PN, the shockley diode
will be described as PNPN. Because it is made up of four
semiconductor sections, it is also known as the four-layer diode. It
is the only diode which is composed of 4 layers of semiconductor
sections. However, like most other diodes, it has 2 terminals
endings, which will make connection to the circuit we are hooking
it up to. So it still fits the definition of a diode, as a two-electrode
deevice.
Symbol pdf

Application of the Shockley Diode

The application of the Shockley diode is a relaxation oscillator
circuit that is shown above. This circuit uses a Shockley diode,
that is connected across the power supply battery and capacitor.
When the voltage is applied to the circuit using the battery, then
the capacitor in the circuit charges through a resistor. When the
applied voltage across the capacitor is greater than the break
over voltage of the diode, then it activates and works as a
switch.This causes quickly to discharge the capacitor through the
Shockley diode. And when the current through the Shockley diode
is below the holding current of the diode, then the diode becomes
inactivated and again capacitor charges up.
Principles of Electronics
Working (i) When Shockley diode is forward biased (i.e., anode is
positive w.r.t. cathode), diodes D1 and D3 would be forwardbiased while diode D2 would be reverse-biased. Since diode D2
offers very high resistance (being reverse biased) and the three
diodes are in series, the Shockley diode presents a very high
resistance. As the *forward voltage increases, the reverse bias
across D2 is also increased. At some forward voltage (called
breakover voltage VBO), reverse breakdown of D2 occurs. Since
this breakdown results in reduced resistance, the Shockley diode
presents a very low resistance. From now onwards, the Shockley
diode behaves as a conventional forward-biased diode; the
forward current being determined by the applied voltage and
external load resistance. This behaviour of Shockley diode is
indicated on its V-I characteristic in Fig. 7.25.