9.

GAS TURBINES
9.1. INTRODUCTION:

A gas turbine is a prime mover from which we can get mechanical work or
power. It is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine regarding continuous
and steady flow of working medium and similar to an I.C. engine regarding its working
medium and combustion. (Closed cycle gas turbine has external combustion).
A simple gas turbine plant consists of 3 main components, a compressor, a
combustion chamber and a turbine. Air is taken from atmosphere and compressed in a
compressor. To get high pressure of working fluid for expansion, a compressor is
required. The quantity of working fluid and speed required are more, so, generally a
centrifugal or axial flow compressor is employed. The compressor is coupled to the
turbine shaft and is driven by the turbine.
The compressed air is then passed to a combustion chamber where fuel is burnt and
products of combustion are made to impinge and expand over rings of turbine blades with
high velocity and work is produced. The combustion chamber is required to get a higher
temperature of the working fluid.
If there were no losses in either compressor or turbine, then power developed by the
turbine would be just equal to that absorbed by the compressor which is coupled to the
turbine and work available would be zero. But, power developed by the turbine can
be increased by increasing the volume of the working fluid at constant pressure or
increasing the pressure keeping the volume constant. Either of these may be done by
adding heat so that the temperature of the working fluid is increased after compression.
In an actual turbine, about 2/3 of the work produced by the turbine is absorbed
by the compressor and the remaining 1/3 is the useful work output available.
Commonly liquid fuels are used in gas turbines. Gaseous fuels are used where they
are available in natural form or as by-product. Solid fuels also can be used in pulverised
form.
Gas turbines are used in air craft's and industrial power generation. These are also
used in combined gas-steam cycles, for crude oil pumping etc.
9.2. CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINES:
Gas turbines may be classified in different ways on the basis of the following:
1. According to the Process of Combustion:
(a)Constant pressure or continuous combustion type. The cycle working on this
principle is called Joule or Brayton cycle
(b)Explosion or constant volume type. The cycle working on this principle is
called Atkinson cycle.
2. According to Action of Expansion:
(a) Impulse turbine
(b) Impulse-reaction turbine

3. According to Path of Working Fluid:

(a) Open cycle gas turbine
(b) Closed cycle gas turbine
(c) Semi closed gas turbine
4. According to the Direction of Flow:
(a) Axial flow
(b) Radial flow
A gas turbine in which air is heated in the combustion chamber at constant volume
is known as constant volume combustion or explosion type gas turbine and was known
as Holzworth gas turbine. This type entailed the use of valves and consequent
intermittent operation. So, they became obsolete.
A gas turbine in which air is heated in the combustion chamber at constant
pressure is known as constant pressure gas turbine. All most all the turbines
manufactured today are constant pressure type.
An open cycle gas turbine is one in which working fluid enters from atmosphere
and exhausts to atmosphere. A closed cycle gas turbine is one in which the working
fluid is confined within the plant.
A semi closed cycle gas turbine is a combination of 2 turbines. One working on
open cycle and other on closed cycle. The open cycle gas turbine is used to drive the
main generator. The closed cycle gas turbine is used to drive the air compressor. Now a
days, these are not used on commercial basis.
9.3. SIMPLE OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE (CONSTANT PRESSURE HEAT ADDITION):
The Joule or Brayton cycle is the most idealized cycle for the simple open cycle
constant pressure gas turbine. In this gas turbine, the entire flow comes from atmosphere
and returns to atmosphere.
Atmospheric air is compressed from pressure p1 to a high pressure p2 in the
compressor and then delivered to the combustion chamber where fuel is injected and
burned. The source of energy is the combustion of fuel. The fuel is burnt in the air stream
and products of combustion become part of the working fluid. Due to combustion,
heat is added to the working fluid from T2 to T3 The products of combustion are
expanded in the turbine (Generally reaction type) from p2 to atmospheric pressure and
then discharged into atmosphere. The mass of the gas flowing through the turbine is
more than that flowing through the compressor by the mass of fuel added.
Very high air-fuel ratios (of the order of 60:1 to 200:1) are used in gas turbines and
so, mass of fuel added can be neglected to simplify the analysis. So, the gas stream after
combustion may be considered to be having the same properties as that of air.
The Fig.9.1(a) and (b) show a simple open cycle gas turbine plant.

Fig.9.1: Simple open cycle gas turbine

This turbine is also called as continuous combustion gas turbine as combustion of

fuel takes place continuously.
With the absence of heat exchangers, and advantage of direct combustion, (Heat to
working fluid is transferred by direct combustion of fuel in combustion chamber), these
are less bulky and less inexpensive. These are suitable for transport and peak generating
sets etc. The Fig.9.2 shows the P-V and T-S diagrams for the cycle.

Fig.9.2: Open cycle gas turbine

In the open cycle gas turbine, the products of combustion are left into atmosphere
and cannot be used again. So, the cycle is assumed to be completed by cooling the
exhaust gases at constant pressure to original temperature.
In the diagrams, the line 4-1 has no meaning. It does not represent any process
in any component.
As the turbine and compressor are mechanically coupled, the net work available is
equal to the difference between work done by the turbine and work consumed by the
compressor.
In actual cycle, the turbine blades are cooled by bleeding compressed air from
compressor to increase the life of the blades. In air standard cycle, cooling is not
considered.
A gas turbine is started using a motor and is allowed to obtain some minimum speed
called coming in speed before the fuel is turned on. When turbine starts running, the
motor is cut off.
When a gas turbine is used in a power plant, whole of the expansion takes place in
the turbine and the generator mounted on the shaft generates electricity. When it is used
in jet engines, the gases are expanded partially in turbine so that the turbine output is just
enough to drive the compressor and its accessories. Rest of the expansion takes place in a
nozzle put in the exhaust of the turbine to produce a high velocity jet for propulsion of air
craft (to get thrust) in the opposite direction of jet according to Newton's third law of
motion.
9.4. CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBIE (CONSTANT PRESSURE HEAT ADDITION):
This turbine also works on Joule's or Brayton's cycle. The Fig.9.3 shows a closed
cycle gas turbine plant.

Fig.9.3: Closed cycle gas turbine plant

In this turbine, the working substance is confined within the plant and the same
substance having specified mass flows continuously within the system.

As the same working fluid circulates continuously within the system, gases of
higher density than air must be used as working fluid, the heat must be supplied through a
heat exchanger (generally called - Air heater) from an external source and heat must be
rejected from the system through another heat exchanger called cooler. As fuel burns
externally this is an external combustion engine.
The Fig.9.4 shows P-V and T-S diagrams of the cycle.

Fig.9.4: Closed cycle gas turbine

At point 1, cold gas enters the compressor and shaft work is done on compressor to
raise the pressure and temperature. At point 2, the gas passes to a heater where heat is
supplied and temperature of gas raises further. At point 3, hot gases enter the turbine
where it expands to a lower pressure. The shaft work flows in 2 directions - part of the
work serves to run the compressor and the remaining is the useful power. At point 4,
the exhaust gases flow to cooler where heat is rejected and the gas is restored to its
initial conditions. Now this gas or air is again made to flow into compressor.
In the cycle, compression and expansion are isentropic, heat addition and rejection
take place at constant pressure.
In flow through heater, the effect of friction or turbulence may lead to pressure
loss and consequent available energy loss. Thus, for ideal performance, heating is
assumed to be at constant pressure.
There is no point in wasting heat from turbine. So, this component is made to be
adiabatic. For ideal performance, expansion is assumed to be reversible adiabatic or
isentropic.
In cooler, our aim is to cool but avoid any pressure loss. So, ideal process is constant
pressure cooling.

The closed cycle gas turbine plant is similar to steam turbine plant as follows:
STEAM TURBINE
Boiler
Condenser
Feed Water Pump
Turbine

GAS TURBINE
Air Heater
Pre Cooler
Compressor
Turbine

9.5. SEMI CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE:

When some part of the working fluid is confined to the plant and another part flows
into and from the atmosphere, it is called semi closed cycle gas turbine.
The Fig.9.5 shows a semi closed cycle gas turbine plant.

Fig.9.5: Semi closed gas turbine plant

It is basically a high pressure system. For same power output, the component
parts are smaller than an open cycle. It gives a better load performance compared to open
system.
The basic working medium is air. Compressed air from auxiliary compressor and
exhaust air of turbine driving compressor passing through the pre-cooler enters the
high pressure air before entering the air heater splits in 2 parts, one part serving the
power turbine is used for internal combustion in the air heater and another part which
does not mix with the fuel is heated by the heat of external combustion so that all the
time this part of air may be circulated in a closed system. The exhaust of power turbine
goes to atmosphere.
9.6. CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE VERSUS OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE:
The following are the advantages of closed cycle plant:

1. These are external combustion plants. Because of external firing, a wide variety of
cheaper fuels can be burned. The product of combustion does not come in direct
contact with turbine blades and so there is no fouling of blades and heat transfer
surfaces. The working fluid does not contain combustion products, the parts are not
subjected to carbon deposits and remains relatively clean. The compressor also
remains free of dust and other foreign deposits as the working medium is cleaned
before putting into the system. With this, life of plant increases.
2. For same temperature limits, the thermal efficiency is higher.
3. In closed cycle plant, the working fluid is placed in the system under an initial
overall high pressure. So, size of the plant is reduced.
As the working medium is not involved in combustion, gases of higher density
and higher specific heat than air such as xenon, krypton, argon etc. can be used as
working fluid.
With increased density of working fluid, size of all parts can be reduced for same
power output. It also permits use of higher temperature.
4. The open cycle plant must necessarily operate on air. The closed cycle plant may use
any gas (generally monoatomic gases such as krypton argon etc.) which gives
increased plant efficiency and power output.
5. In open cycle gas turbine, the gas from turbine is exhausted into atmosphere.
In closed cycle gas turbine, the exhaust from turbine passes into a cooling
chamber and reused again.
6.In open cycle gas turbine plant the part load efficiency is low because load regulation
is achieved by varying turbine inlet temperature.
In closed cycle gas turbine, operating at constant speed, load regulation is
achieved by changing the pressure level in the system through varying quantity of
working fluid in the cycle, temperature remaining constant. This results in
improved part load performance.
The following are the disadvantages of closed cycle:
1. In closed cycle paint, a coolant is required for turbine exhaust, before it enters the
compressor. In open cycle gas turbine, atmosphere acts as sink and so no coolant is
required.
2. The load control of closed system is complex and costly. As the initial pressure compressor inlet pressure is high, and working fluid is other than air, the system has to
be gas tight and strong enough to resist higher pressures.
3. The maintenance cost is high.
4. The system is complicated.

5. Overall gas to gas heat transfer coefficients are of low magnitude and hence a relatively
larger heater is required which is relatively in efficient.
6. In closed cycle plant, the advantage of efficient internal combustion is eliminated.
9.7. ACTUAL BRAYTON CYCLE: REAL GAS TURBINE CYCLE:
The actual gas turbine cycle differs from theoretical cycle in the following main respects.

Fig.9.6: Ideal and Actual Gas turbine cycle

Fig.9.6.shows the ideal and actual gas turbine cycles on P-V and T-S diagram.
Because of high fluid velocities in the system, friction occurs among molecules of
air and between air and the casing. This causes internal generation of heat.
1. Due to frictional losses in the compressor and turbine, the compression and expansion
processes are not frictionless but take place with some increase in entropy.
(Irreversible adiabatic processes) In ideal case, the compressor and turbine efficiencies
are 100% but in actual practice, the efficiencies are less.
2. The fluid velocities are high in turbo machinery, hence the change in kinetic energy
between inlet and outlet of each component should be considered. This may be taken
care of considering stagnation values of properties instead of static values.
3. The mass of gas flowing through the turbine is (1 + F/A) times the mass of air
flowing through the compressor where F/A represents Fuel-Air ratio.
4. A small pressure loss occurs in the combustion chamber and exhaust hood to
turbine which can be neglected for simplification of problems.

P2
P1

P3
P4

this pressure drop occurs due to fluid friction.

5. The specific heals of the working fluid vary throughout the cycle due to changes of
temperature and chemical composition. The specific heal of products of combustion is
slightly higher than that of air.
6. Some power is lost in transmitting power between turbine and compressor due to
bearing and windage friction and in driving the ancillary components as fuel and oil
pumps.
In the diagram, p3 - p2 represents the pressure loss in the combustion chamber. In this
cycle,
1-2
:
Ideal isentropic compression
1-2 :
Actual compression
3-4
:
Ideal or Theoretical expansion
3-4 :
Actual expansion
Analysis of open cycle gas turbine can be taken up in the same way as closed cycle
gas turbine. Equations derived for closed cycle gas turbine can be used for open cycle gas
turbine also. Similarly, whatever modifications we do to an open cycle gas turbine to
improve its efficiency, can be done on closed cycle gas turbine also.
9.8. ANALYSIS OF CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE (JOULE OR BRAYTON CYCLE):
The Fig.9.7. shows P-V and T-S diagrams of a closed cycle gas turbine

Fig.9.7: Joules or Brayton cycle

Generally, the following assumptions are made in the analysis of an ideal gas turbine
cycle:
1. The compression and expansion processes in the compressor and turbine are
reversible and adiabatic i.e., isentropic.
2. The kinetic energy of the working fluid doesnt change between inlet and outlet of
each component
3. There is no loss of pressure anywhere in the ducts. Also, there is no loss of pressure in
combustion chamber, and heat exchangers. (Intercooler, reheater etc.).
4. The working fluid is a perfect gas with constant specific heats and has the same
composition throughout the cycle. Also, mass flow of gas is constant throughout
the cycle.
5. If used, the heat exchanger is of counter flow type and has 100% efficiency. The
temperature rise on cold side is maximum possible and exactly equal to temperature
drop on hot side.

Referring to the figure,

1-2
:
Isentropic compression in compressor
2-3
:
Constant pressure heat addition in combustion chamber
3-4
:
Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1
:
Constant pressure heat rejection
For the flow of 1 kg of working fluid,
Heat supplied during the cycle : Qsup = (h3 - h2) = Cp (T3 - T2)
Heat rejected during the cycle : Qrej = ( h4 - hl ) = Cp (T4 - T1)
Work done by the turbine
: WT = (h3 - h4) = Cp (T3 - T4)
Work absorbed by the compressor: WC= (h2 - h1) = Cp (T2 - T1)
Net work = (Work done by turbine - Work absorbed by the compressor)
= WT - WC

= {Cp (T3 - T4) - Cp (T2 - T1)}

Net heat = (Heat supplied during the cycle - Heat rejected during the cycle)
= Qsup - Qrej
= {Cp (T3 - T2) - Cp (T4 - T1)}
From the first law of thermodynamics for a cycle (joule's experiment),
W= Q

Wnet = Qnet
Wnet= Qsup - Qrej = {Cp (T3 - T2) - Cp (T4 - T1)}
NET WORK OUTPUT
HEAT SUPPLIED

Thermal efficiency = =

W net
Q

Q Qrej
Q
C P ( T 3 T 2 ) C P ( T 4 T 1 )

=
=

C P (T 3 T2)
C P (T 4 T 1)

= 1-

CP( T3 T 2)

We know that
Compression and expansion processes are isentropic processes (pv= c)
p1v1= p2v2 and p3v3= p4v4
T2
T1

1/

( p2 / p 1)

T3
T4

and

1 /

( p3 / p 4 )

p1= p4 and p3= p2

Let

rp = pressure ratio =
T2
T1

p2 / p 1 =

p3 / p 4

( p2 / p 1) 1/

T3
T4

T2
T1

T3
T4

= r p1/

Now cycle efficiency,

( p3 / p 4 ) 1 / = r p1/

 = 1-

C P (T 4 T 1)
CP( T3 T 2)
T4 1

T1
T4

T3 1

T2
T3

(
(

= 1-

= 1-

T4
T3

= 1-

1
T 3 /T 4

)
)

= 1- r 1 /
p
So, we observe from the above equation that thermal efficiency or efficiency of
Brayton cycle is same as that of Otto cycle. For the turbine and compressor work, we
have neglected the change in kinetic and potential energies. We assume that change in
energies is negligibly small compared with changes of enthalpy.
The efficiency increases progressively with increasing value of pressure ratio as
shown in Fig.9.8.

Fig.9.8: Thermal efficiency vs. Pressure ratio

When a gas turbine is used in electricity generating plant, whole of the expansion of
gas takes place in turbine and the generator mounted on the shaft of turbine generates
electricity. Such turbine is known as power turbine.

When it is used in jet engines, the gas is expanded partially in the turbine to
drive the compressor and accessories and rest of the expansion takes place in a nozzle
placed immediately after turbine, to produce high velocity jet for propulsion of air
craft, it is known as Aviation or aircraft turbine.
The ideal efficiency of the cycle is independent of maximum and minimum cycle
temperatures and depends on pressure ratio only. The work ratio depends upon the
pressure ratio as well as temperature ratio.
However, the thermal efficiency or efficiency of actual cycle with irreversibilities in
compression and expansion processes depends on maximum and minimum temperatures
of the cycle and the pressure ratio. Minimum temperature is fixed by atmospheric
temperature and maximum temperature depends upon the metallurgical state of the
compressor and highly stressed turbine blades.
The value of optimum pressure ratio for maximum thermal efficiency is small. So,
the plants are generally designed for optimum pressure ratio for maximum specific work
output. With higher temperature, the optimum value of pressure ratio for both maximum
thermal efficiency and specific work output increase.
9.9. MACHINE EFFICIENCIES:
In a gas turbine plant, the compressor and turbine have individual efficiencies.
Turbine efficiency =

Compressor efficiency =

Actual turbine work

Isentropic work
Isentropic work
Actual compressor work

These definitions are based on internal work or dont take into consideration
(a) Bearing losses
(b) Transmission losses
(c) Auxiliary equipment power
All these losses follow different laws from thermodynamic laws being function of
speed rather than rate of flow and none of them return energy to the gas. So, they are
mentioned as - Mechanical losses.
When these efficiencies are taken into account, the T-S diagram gets modified as
shown in Fig.9.9.

Fig.9.9: Closed cycle gas turbine

Referring to the diagram,
1-2: Isentropic compression
1-2: Actual compression
3-4: Isentropic expansion
3-4: Actual expansion
Turbine efficiency =

=
=

Compressor efficiency =

=
=

Actual turbine work

Isentropic work
C P (T 3 T 4' )
C P (T 3 T 4)

( T3 T 4' )
(T 3 T 4 )
Isentropic work
Actual compressor work
C P (T 2' T 1)
C P (T 2 T1)

( T2' T1)
(T 2 T1)

9.10. CYCLE AIR RATE

The Thermal efficiency is a measure of fuel economy. In many applications,
especially in aviation, size of plant is also important. The size of plant depends on the
rate of flow of air in relation to useful power output.
Air rate is defined as the air flow required in kgs. per kwh output. Thus,

Air rate

Mass of air required

kwhoutput

AR =

The reciprocal of air rate is termed as specified power. Air rate is the criterion of the
size of the plant. Lower the air rate, smaller the plant size.
9.11. WORK RATIO
It is the ratio of net work obtained from the plant to the turbine work.
Work ratio rw =

net work output

Gross total turbine work

Turbine work Compression work

Turbine work

W T W C
WT

C P ( T 3 T 4 )C P ( T 2 T 1 )
C P (T 3 T 4 )

= 1-

(T1)
( T4 )

= 1-

( T1)
( T3)

r p1/

A good gas turbine should have high thermal efficiency, low air rate and high work
ratio. The cycle efficiency is a function of pressure ratio only whereas work ratio is a
function of pressure ratio and temperature ratio, of the cycle. Thus, in actual plants, the
efficiency depends upon both pressure ratio and temperature ratio. Hence, to increase
work ratio and consequently the plant efficiency, the inlet temperature to compressor T1
should be as low as possible and the temperature at the end of compression T3 should be
as high as possible.
In practice, the lower temperature is normally the atmospheric temperature and
higher temperature is decided by the metallurgical conditions - The temperature the
material of the compressor can withstand.

To increase work ratio either compressor work should be decreased or turbine work
should be increased.
9.12. METHODS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY AND SPECIFIC OUTPUT OF
SIMPLE CYCLE:
The efficiency and work ratio of simple gas turbine are very low. These may be
increased by the following methods.
1. Regeneration
2. Increasing the turbine output
3. Reducing the compressor input
Regeneration is done by preheating the air with the exhaust of the turbine thus saving
fuel.
The turbine output may be increased by:
(a) Reheating: The whole expansion in the turbine is carried out in 2 or more stages and
reheating of gas is done after each stage.
(b) Increasing the value of maximum cycle temperature. This requires better quality of
fuel, materials which can withstand higher temperatures and methods to cool the blade
material.
The compressor input can be reduced by:
(a) Intercooling: Whole compression is carried out in 2 or more stages and the air or gas
is cooled after compression in each stage.
(b) Water Injection: By injecting water at inlet to compressor, work output and efficiency
can be increased.
By designing the turbine and compressor efficiently, turbine work can be increased and
compressor work can be decreased to some extent.
9.12.1. GAS TURBINE CYCLE WITH HEAT EXCHANGER OR
REGENERATOR:
The exhaust gases from a gas turbine carry a large quantity of heat with them
as their temperature remains still high. To achieve fuel economy, the heat from hot
exhaust gases from turbine can be used. The heat of exhaust gases can be transferred to
air before going to combustion chamber; thereby reducing the mass of fuel supplied in the
combustion chamber. In the plant, the air delivered by the compressor passes through a
heat exchanger (Regenerator) through which exhaust gases from turbine flow in opposite
direction. Essentially it is a counter flow heat exchanger. As there is a saving in fuel
consumption by employing a heat exchanger, the thermal efficiency will be higher

accordingly. The net work is not affected by the addition of regenerator, but only amount
of heat required to be supplied is decreased.
The Fig.9.10 shows an open cycle gas turbine plant with a regenerator.

Fig.9.10: Open cycle gas turbine with regenerator

The Fig.9.11 shows corresponding T-S diagrams of actual and ideal cycle

Fig.9.11: Open cycle gas turbine with regenerator

The process 1 -2-x-3-4-y-1 shows the ideal cycle, The high pressure air at state
(2) from compressor passes through the regenerator where it is heated at constant
pressure by exhaust gases and consequently, the temperature of exhaust gases drops
down.
With perfect heat exchange in the regenerator, in ideal case, theoretically it is
possible to raise the temperature of the compressed air from T2 to Tx = T4 and lower the
temperature of gas leaving the turbine from T4 to Ty = T2 In other words, temperature of
air leaving the heat exchanger will be equal to temperature of exhaust gas entering the
regenerator and the temperature of exhaust gas leaving the regenerator will be equal to

temperature of air entering the regenerator. The air from regenerator at temperature 4
then passes through the combustion chamber where it is heated from Tx to T3.
The amount of heat required from external source is reduced by Qx. So, heat
required from external source to raise the temperature to T3 is only:
Qx = (h3 hx) = Cp (T3 Tx) = Cp (T3 T4)
The maximum temperature to which the air could be heated in the heat exchanger is ideally
that of exhaust gases, but less than this is obtained in obtained in practice because a
temperature gradient must exit for an unassisted transfer of energy. The effectiveness of the
heat exchanger is given by :
Effectiveness =

Actual heat transferthe heat exchanger

Maximum possible heat transfer
C P (T x T 2')
C P (T 4 T 2)

( T x T 2' )
(T 4 T 2)

A regenerator improves thermal efficiency but does not improve the work ratio. The
work ratio may be increased either by decreasing the compressor work or by increasing
the turbine work.
9.12.2. GAS TURBINE CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLER:
First, the atmospheric air is compressed in the first stage compressor (also called as
low pressure compressor) to some intermediate pressure pi. The temperature rises from
T1 to T2. Now, this compressed air passes to an intercooler. In ideal intercooler, the
compressed air is cooled to its original temperature (T3 = T1) but keeping the pressure
constant pi. Now, this cooled, compressed air is again compressed in the second stage
compressor. (Also called as High pressure compressor) to final pressure p2 and after
second stage compression, the compressed air goes to combustion chamber.
The Fig.9.12 shows an open cycle gas turbine plant with an intercooler.

Fig.9.12: Open cycle gas turbine with intercooler

The Fig.9.13 shows corresponding T-S diagrams of actual and ideal cycle with inter
cooling.

Fig.9.13: Open cycle gas turbine with intercooler

On T-S diagram, near origin, the pressure lines are close and they get separated
widely with increasing values of entropy. So, it is obvious from the idea! T-S diagram that
vertical intercept 3-4 is smaller than 2-a. So, it is obvious that work done on compressor
is decreased with intercooling at intermediate pressure.
If the whole compression is carried out in a single stage from 1 to a: (from p1 to p2)
then heat supplied in the combustion chamber would be (h5 - ha) only. But, by
employing
intercooling, heat supplied is increased by (ha-h4). Heat supplied in the intercooler is a
complete loss as it is not converted into useful work. So, the effect of intercooling is
to decrease the thermal efficiency.
The specific work output is maximum when pressure ratios of both the compressors
are equal (p2/p1 =P4/P3) unless a regenerator is employed, the efficiency reduces.
In case of ideal cycle, thermal efficiency

Thermal efficiency = =

NET WORK OUTPUT

HEAT SUPPLIED

Heat supplied during the cycle : Qsup = (h5 h4') = Cp (T5 T4')
Heat rejected during the cycle : Qrej = ( h6' - hl ) = Cp (T6' - T1)
Work done by the turbine
: WT = (h5 h6') = Cp (T5 T6')
Work absorbed by the compressor: WC = WLPC + WHPC
Low pressure compressor work = WLPC = (h2' - h1) = Cp (T2' - T1)
High pressure compressor work = WHPC = (h4' h3) = Cp (T4' T3)
Work absorbed by the compressor: WC = (h2' - h1) + (h4' h3)
= Cp (T2' - T1) + Cp (T4' T3)
Net work = (Work done by turbine - Work absorbed by the compressor)
= WT - WC

= {Cp (T3 - T4) [Cp (T2' - T1) + Cp (T4' T3)]}

W net
Q

C P ( T 3 T 4 )[C P ( T 2 ' T 1 ) +C P ( T 4 ' T 3 ) ]

C P (T5 T 4' )

For perfect intercooling; T1 = T3 After first stage compression, if the air can be
cooled back to original atmospheric tempeature, then it is called perfect intercooling.
For minimum compressor work;
Pressure ratio ( rp ) =

p2
p1

Intermediate pressure = p2 =

p4
p3

p 1 p4

For minimum compressor work and perfect intercooling, work input for 2 stages is
equal or work is equally shared between 2 stages.
When intercooling is to be employed, supply of cooling water is a must. Intercooled
compression is generally not used because of bulk and large quantity of cooling
water requirement.

9.12.3. GAS TURBINES WITH REHEATING:

The output of a gas turbine plant can be increased considerably by expanding the
hot gases in 2 or more stages of turbines with a reheater between 2 stages.
The Fig.9.14 shows an open cycle gas turbine plant with a reheater.

Fig.9.14: Open cycle gas turbine with a reheater

The Fig.9.15 shows actual and ideal T-S diagram

Fig.9.15: Open cycle gas turbine with reheating

The hot gases from the combustion chamber are expanded partially in first stage
turbine (3-4) and then heated again in a device called - reheater at constant pressure
and then finally expanded in the second stage turbine. (5-6). the first stage turbine is
also called as High pressure turbine and second stage turbine is called as Low pressure
turbine.
In case of ideal cycle, thermal efficiency
Thermal efficiency = =

NET WORK OUTPUT

HEAT SUPPLIED

Heat supplied during the cycle : Qsup = (h3 h2') = Cp (T3 T2') + Cp (T5 T4')
Heat rejected during the cycle : Qrej = ( h6' - hl ) = Cp (T6' - T1)

Work done by the compressor : WC = (h2' h1) = Cp (T2' T1)

Work absorbed by the turbine : WT = WLPT + WHPT
Low pressure turbine work = WLPT = (h5 h6') = Cp (T5 - T6')
High pressure turbine work = WHPT = (h3 h4') = Cp (T3 T4')
Work absorbed by the turbine

: WT = (h5 h6') + (h3 h4')

= Cp (T5 - T6') + Cp (T3 T4')

Net work = (Work done by turbine - Work absorbed by the compressor)

= WT - WC

= {[Cp (T5 - T6') + Cp(T3 T4')] - Cp (T2' T1) }

W net
Q
C
[ P ( T 5 T 6' ) +C P ( T 3 T 4 ' ) ]C P ( T 2 ' T 1 )
C P ( T 3 T 2 ' ) +C P ( T 5 T 4 ' )

In reheat cycle, the compressor work remains constant but turbine work increases.
The verticle distance (3 - b) is less than (3 - 4) + (5 - 6). So, by expanding the gases in 2
stages, turbine work is increased.
For ideal reheating, T3 = T5. This temperature being maximum in the cycle has
certain limits due to material of nozzle and highly stressed turbine blades - Metallurgical
conditions of the materials. The reheating can be extended to more than 2 stages but
seldom done.
If index of expansion is same for both stages and reheating is perfect; then for
maximum work of turbine;
p3
p
Pressure ratio ( rp ) =
= 5
p4
p6
Intermediate pressure = p4 =

p 3 p6

Pressure ratios for both the turbines are equal. This indicates that for maximum
work, temperature drops are equal in both turbines and work output from both
turbines is equal.
With reheating, specific work output and work ratio increase but thermal efficiency
decreases due to higher exhaust temperature. This reduction in efficiency becomes
less severe as maximum cycle temperature is increased.

Although network is increased by reheating, heat supplied is also increased. If work

is not obtained proportionately for the extra amount of heat supplied during reheating,
then the net effect may be reduction in thermal efficiency.
9.13. GAS TURBINE WITH COMBINED PROCESSES:
The following figures show arrangement of different components and T-S diagram
when the above said processes are combined in open cycle gas turbine. The above
processes can be implemented in case of closed cycle gas turbines also.
9.13.1. GAS TURBINE WITH INTERCOOLING AND REGENERATION:
The Fig.9.16 shows an open cycle gas turbine plant and its corresponding T-S
diagram

Fig.9.16: Open Cycle Gas Turbine with Intercooling and Regeneration

By using intercooling and regeneration systems, the output and thermal efficiency
are increased. The output is increased due to intercooling and efficiency due to
regeneration.
9.13.2. GAS TURBINE WITH REHEAT AND REGENERATION:
The Fig.9.17 shows an open cycle gas turbine plant with reheat and regeneration
corresponding T-S diagram.

Fig.9.17: Open Cycle Gas Turbine with Reheating and Regeneration

The reduction in thermal efficiency due to reheat can be overcome by combining it
with regenerator because the higher exhaust gas temperature is fully utilised in the heat
exchanger.
The efficiency of heat exchange cycle is more with reheat than without reheat.
9.13.3. GAS TURBINE WITH INTERCOOLING AND REHEATING:
The Fig.9.18 shows open cycle gas turbine plant with intercooling and reheating a
corresponding T-S diagram.
The output of this cycle is much more but thermal efficiency is less compared to
simple cycle as there is no regenerator to increase the thermal efficiency.

Fig.9.18: Open cycle gas turbine with intercooling and reheating

9.13.4. GAS TURBINE WITH INTERCOOLING, REGENERATION AND

REHEATING:
The Fig.9.19 shows an open cycle gas turbine with intercooling, regeneration and
reheating and corresponding T - S diagram.
The power output as well as thermal efficiency of this cycle is much greater than
simple cycle. Power output is increased due to reheat and intercooling while thermal
efficiency increases due to regeneration.
Note: For solving problems on gas turbines, it is important to know the temperatures at all
states in the cycle.

Fig.9.19: Open cycle gas turbine with intercooling, regeneration and reheating
9.14. EFFECT OF OPERATING VARIABLES ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY:
The thermal efficiency of an actual, simple open cycle gas turbine depends on the
following variables:
1. Pressure ratio (p2/p1)
2. Turbine inlet temperature (T3).
3. Compressor inlet (T1).
4. Turbine efficiency.
5. Compressor efficiency.

9.14.1. EFFECT OF PRESSURE RATIO AND TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE:

Fig.9.20: Variation of thermal efficiency with turbine inlet temperature and

pressure ratio
The Fig.9.20 shows the variation of thermal efficiency with turbine inlet
temperature and pressure ratio. When other variables are kept constant, thermal
efficiency increases as the turbine inlet temperature increases. For each value of turbine
inlet temperature, there exists an optimum pressure ratio which gives maximum thermal
efficiency. For lower values of turbine inlet temperature, the thermal efficiency
increases first and then after reaching a maximum value, drops rapidly. For higher
values of turbine inlet temperature, the peaks of the curves are flatter and give greater
range of optimum value of pressure ratio. The turbine inlet temperature is limited by the
blade material to withstand high thermal stresses.
As the pressure ratio increases, the thermal efficiency also increases to a maximum
value and then drops with further increase of pressure ratio.
9.14.2. EFFECT OF COMPRESSOR INLET TEMPERATURE OR
TEMPERATURE OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR:
The Fig.9.21 shows variation of thermal efficiency with compressor inlet
temperature.
As the temperature of the air (atmospheric air) at compressor inlet reduces, the
thermal efficiency increases.

Fig.9.21: Variation of Thermal efficiency with compressor inlet temperature

9.14.3. EFFECT OF TURBINE AND COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCIES:
The Fig.9.22 shows variation of thermal efficiency with turbine and compressor
efficiencies.

Fig.9.22: Variation of thermal efficiency with efficiency of turbine and compressor

The thermal efficiency is very sensitive to changes in the efficiencies of compressor
and turbine. As these efficiencies increase, the thermal efficiency increases. There is a
particular pressure ratio for each set of component efficiency.
9.15. GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS
The basic components in a gas turbine plant are:
1. Compressor
2. Combustion chamber
3. Turbine.
For proper and efficient running of the plant, there are auxiliary systems, like
cooling, lubrication etc. The overall efficiency of the plant depends upon its
component efficiencies.
9.15.1. COMBUSTION CHAMBERS:
The combustion chamber plays a vital role in a gas turbine plant. It has to burn large
amount of fuel with extensive volume of air supplied by the compressor and has to
release the heated air to give a smooth steam of gas at uniform temperature at all
conditions required by the turbine. In open cycle gas turbine, the air - fuel ratio varies
from 50:1 to 200:1 to get efficient combustion.
In open cycle gas turbine plant, the function of combustion chamber is to
satisfy many requirements - high combustion efficiency, lower pressure drop, stability
and efficiency at all air-fuel ratios, high degree of mixing, low emission of pollutants,
reliability and durability etc. The requirements may vary depending upon the application
of gas turbine. For aviation purposes, small size and low weight are important while for
industrial applications, long life is important. In some applications, multi fuel capability
may be desired.
The main function of a combustion chamber is to effect the chemical combustion of
oxygen present in the air with carbon and hydrogen components of fuel.
The requirements of a combustion chamber are:
1. Primary requirement is efficiency, satisfactory combustion.
2. The transfer of energy should be with minimum pressure loss.
3. The combustion efficiency should be high.
4. Flame stability should be maintained at all air-fuel ratios, range of pressures and
inlet temperatures.

5. There should be high degree of mixing (cold air with hot products of combustion)
and no deposits of carbon.
6. It should have minimum size, weight and frontal area.
7. The heat loss due to friction, turbulence and radiation should be minimum.
8. It should have maximum life, high reliability and minimum maintenance.
Types of combustion chambers:
There are 3 important types of combustion chambers:
1. Tubular or can type combustion chamber.
2. Annular combustion chamber
3. annular or turbo annular combustion chamber. These are shown in Fig.9.23.

Fig.9.23: Types of combustions chambers

In type (a), a cylindrical liner is mounted concentrically inside a cylindrical casing.
These are most suitable for air craft gas turbines using centrifugal compressors because
the air stream is already divided by the diffuser vanes.
In type (b), an annular liner is mounted concentrically inside an annular casing. The
combustion chamber is made up of 4 concentric surfaces surrounding the axis of the
rotor forming 3 chambers on either side of the rotor. The middle casing acts as a tube for
flame, the inner and outer casings act as air casing. Working is similar to that of can type
combustion chamber. At the front end, a series of burners are provided on a support plate.
Type (c) is a modification of annular chamber. The air casing is a common annular
chamber. Independent flame tubes are provided in the air casing. A group of
cylindrical liners is arranged inside a single annular casing. It combines the compactness
of annular chamber with the advantages of tubular system- It gives better agitation of gas.
Combustion process:
The combustion of a fuel involves.
1. Breaking of heavy hydrocarbons into lighter ones.

2. Thorough mixing of these molecules with oxygen molecules.

3. Vaporization of droplets.
4. Chemical reaction between the molecules.
Air from compressor enters the combustion chamber at a high velocity of about 175
m/sec. At this speed of air, combustion can't be initiated and sustained properly. So, the
combustion chamber must diffuse it - reduce the velocity and raise its static pressure. It is
achieved with a diffuser.
The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio in the combustion chamber is about 16:1 while the
operating ratio is about 100: 1 to 120:1. So, for combustion, the air should be introduced
in stages - i.e., the fuel must be burned with part of entering air. This is achieved by
means of a flame tube (combustion liner) that has various devices for air distribution
along the chamber.
The air enters the combustion chamber in 3 stages - primary, secondary and teritary
(dilution). Around 15 - 20 % of air (primary) enters first for combustion. Air -fuel ratio in
the primary zone is around 15: 1. About 30% of total air then enters the secondary zone
through the holes in the flame tube. For high combustion efficiency, the air must be
introduced carefully to avoid dropping down of the temperature of the flame reducing the
reaction rate. Finally, in the dilution zone, remaining air is mixed with the products of
combustion to cool them to the temperature required at the turbine inlet. Sufficient
turbulence should be provided so that cold air steam mixes thoroughly with hot
products of combustion to give uniform outlet temperature distribution.
A spark initiated by spark plug initiates combustion and for this purpose, an ignition
system is provided.
Can type combustion chamber:
The Fig.9.24 shows a typical can type combustion chamber.

Fig.9.24: Can type combustion chamber

In this, the air leaving the compressor is split into several streams and each stream is
supplied to a cylindrical can type combustion chamber. In this chamber, the air - fuel ratio

varies from 60: 1 to 120: 1. Air velocity at entrance to combustion chamber is limited to
75 m/sec. usually, the fuel is refined kerosene.
The primary air is introduced directly into fuel burner and the secondary air enters
the annulus round the flame tube.
The main function of primary air is to mix with the atomised fuel forming a turbulent
mixture and get ignited. Other functions of primary air are:
1. It keeps preventing carbon formation on burner tip.
2. It is passed through swirl vanes which cause reversal of gas flow. It helps in
stabilization of flame - extinction of (lame by high velocity air is prevented.
3. It produces an envelope around the flame and prevents the flame touching the walls.
The secondary air cools the upper portion of flame tube and then enters the
secondary or combustion zone. It helps in complete combustion through dilution holes.
It keeps the gas agitated forming a homogeneous mixture, preventing hot spots in the
flame tube. Dissociation losses are recovered.
For flame stability, there is a limit for air - fuel ratio and the limit is taken at flame
blow out. Unstability of flame results in rough running with consequent effect on the life
of combustion chamber. To prevent heat loss from the combustion zone, the flame tube is
often provided with a refractory lining.
Comparison of combustion chambers
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of different types of
combustion chambers
Table.9.1. Comparison of combustion chambers

Factors affecting performance of combustion chamber:

The following factors affect the performance of a combustion chamber
1. Pressure loss
2. Outlet temperature distribution
3. Combustion stability
4. Combustion efficiency
5. Combustion intensity.
The pressure loss in a combustion chamber is due to 2 reasons
(a) Skin friction and turbulence
(b) Rise in temperature due to combustion.
A uniform outlet temperature distribution helps in reducing hot spots and thermal
stresses in the blades.
Stability of combustion refers to smooth burning and ability of flame to sustain over a
wide operating range. Beyond certain limits of air- fuel ratios (rich and weak), the flame
becomes unstable.
9.15.2. COMPRESSORS:

A gas turbine compressor must be able to handle large volumes of the working
fluid at considerable high pressure with highest possible efficiency. Also, it must function
well when coupled to the gas turbine which runs at very high speed. - about 40000 RPM.
To meet these requirements, only centrifugal or axial flow compressors can be
employed. Reciprocating compressors can't be used with gas turbines.
(For details of compressors, kindly refer Thermal engineering - I of the same publishers).
9.15.3. TURBINES
The turbines used in the gas turbine plant are of radial flow type or axial flow type
similar to steam turbines. Radial flow turbine has limited applications and used only in
small engines axial flow turbine is widely used in many applications. Similar to steam
turbines, the gas turbines also may be of impulse or reaction types.
In aviation, small size and low weight of turbine are essential at the cost of
operating life. Generally 2 stages of expansion are employed and remaining expansion
takes place in a nozzle to produce jet thrust.
In industrial applications, fuel economy and long life are important. Large number
of stages is employed in these turbines.
* Analysis of gas turbines is similar to steam turbines.
9.16. PERFORMANCE OF GAS TURBINES:
The Fig.9.25 shows the typical performance characteristics of gas turbines.

Fig.9.25: PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS TURBINES

9.17. APPLICATIONS OF GAS TURBINES:
The most important application is in aviation. On land, they have wide application in
oil fields. Main advantages of gas turbines are: Simplicity, high power/weight ratio,
smooth running, high reliability, suitability for combined cycle etc. The applications are:

Aviation: Compared to reciprocating I.C. engines, for same power, gas

turbines are smaller in size and lower in weight. So, widely used in aviation.
Central Stations: For electric generating stations, gas turbines are used for both
base load regeneration and for peak loads. Low initial cost, quick starting and
possibility of remote control make gas turbines very useful. In case of total
breakdown of electrical supply, gas turbines are still capable of starting - They can
operate completely independent of main electric supply.

An open cycle gas turbine doesn't require a source of water and so they have
very useful application in power stations having limited water resources.
Combination with Steam Plant: Exhaust of gas turbine is about 400C and
temperature of flue gases in steam plants is about 200C. The energy can be
recovered to
o Generate low pressure steam for different purposes
o To preheat air or feed water for the boiler.
By combining with steam plant, the overall efficiency can be increased.

Industry: Gas turbines have been used for transport of natural gas, crude oil
pumping, chemical processing, refineries, power supply for laboratories, blast
furnace air etc.

Transportation: Gas turbines can be used on locomotives and cars. Advantages of

gas turbines in vehicles;
o Uniform torque and absence of vibrations. Smooth operation and better
comfort.
o Compact and light
o Reduced pollution due to complete combustion
o Cheaper fuels can be employed.
o Easy to control and less maintenance
o Easy cold starting and less lubrication.
Disadvantages are - Poor part load efficiency, braking is not easy, initial cost, delay
in acceleration due to high inertia of parts.

Marine: In marine field, gas turbines have limited applications. War ships are
powered by gas turbines. Although the specific fuel consumption is poor in this
field, they give higher speeds.

Space: Gas turbines can be used in turbojet and turbo prop for providing thrust.

9.18. COMPARISON OF GAS TURBINES WITH STEAM TURBINES:

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of gas turbines over steam turbines:

Advantages:
1. No feed water system is required
2. Components in the system are less
3. Maintenance cost is less as generally the working fluid is air (closed cycle gas
turbine may use other gases).
4. No condensing plant.
5. No boiler is required.
6. It is quick to start
7. It has low power/weight ratio - advantageous in aviation.
8. Operating pressure is low
9. The initial and operating costs are less.
10. With changing load conditions, it is easy to control.
11. It requires less space for installation.
Disadvantages:
1. The part load efficiency is poor.
2. Although cooled, the life of turbine is less due to high temperature.
3. Thermal efficiency is slightly lower.
4. Air rate is higher.
9.19. COMPARISON OF GAS TURBINES WITH I.C. ENGINES
The following are the advantages of gas turbines over I.C. engines:
Advantages:
1. For unit power, the specific weight is lower and size is smaller - important for
aviation
2. Installation and running cost is less
3. Efficiency is higher.
4. Balance is better due to absence of reciprocating parts.
5. Torque produced is uniform and so no flywheel is required.
6. Lubrication and ignition systems are simple.
7. It can run at very high speed.
8. The pressures are comparatively low.

9. The exhaust is free from smoke and less polluting.

10. Simple gas turbines require no cooling. Even modified cycles require little cooling.
11. In gas turbines, expansion is carried out upto atmospheric pressure which increases
the work done. Due to absence of reciprocating parts, its mechanical efficiency is also
higher. (95 - 97%) compared to I.C. engines (85%).
12. In gas turbines, the processes take place in different components and so they can be
designed, tested and developed individually. This allows greater variation in the
arrangement depending upon duty, desired performance and space.
13. Gas turbine is a simple plant, needs less maintenance.
14. Gas turbine is a rugged machine and so it can be left uncared for a long period.
15. Gas turbines especially closed cycle gas turbines can burn almost any type of fuel
without affecting the efficiency too much.
16. The capacity or output of I.C. engines is limited by poor volumetric efficiency at
high speeds. Detonation and knocking also limit their capacity. In gas turbines, the
flow is steady and continuous and so there's no problem of detonation and
knocking.
Disadvantages:
1. I.C. engines are much more efficient than gas turbines.
2. The maximum pressure and temperature are low compared to I.C. engines. The
tempera- tures in gas turbines are kept in limit due to metallurgical limitations of
turbine blades.
3. Gas turbines have poor part load efficiency.
4. Gas turbines are sensitive to component efficiencies. Reduction in the efficiency of
one component affects the overall efficiency of the plant.
5. In gas turbines, mass flow rate is very high which results in large exhaust losses.
6. To obtain high efficiency closer to that of I.C. engines, gas turbines should be
provided with regenerator etc. which increase complexity and cost of the plant.
7. Gas turbine is not a self starting unit. Power required to start it is high.
8. For gas turbines, cost of manufacture is high due to use of high resistant materials
and special manufacturing processes for blades.
9. Gas turbines are slow in response to acceleration.
10. Gas turbines run at high speeds and so a costly reduction gear has to be used for
normal industrial applications.
9.20. CONSTANT VOLUME COMBUSTION TURBINE

The Fig.9.26 shows the typical performance characteristics of gas turbines.

Fig.9.26: Constant volume combustion gas turbine cycle

In a constant volume combustion turbine, the compressed air from an air compressor C is
admitted into the combustion chamber D through the valve A when the valve A is closed, the fuel is
admitted into the combustion chamber by means of a fuel pump P. then the mixture is ignited by
means of spark plug S. the combustion takes place at constant volume with increase of pressure. The
valve B opens and the hot gases flow to the turbine T, and finally they are discharged into
atmosphere. The energy of hot gases is thereby converted into mechanical energy. For continuous
running of the turbine these operations are repeated.
The main demerit associated with this type of turbine is that the pressure difference and
velocities of hot gases are not constant; so the turbine speed fluctuates.