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2.4 Raising the Rockies

Figure C2.35: Mount Michener has complex folds within its beds of shale and limestone.

The Rocky Mountains are truly spectacular. Your eyes may at first be drawn to the peaks and the overall beauty of the
surrounding landscape. As you take in the view, your eyes may start to notice some of the finer details. For example, you
may begin to appreciate the beauty of the patterns within the rock layers. Note the complex folds within the beds of shale and
limestone in the photo of Mount Michener in Figure C2.35.
You earlier discovered that shale is a sedimentary rock originally laid down in nearly horizontal layers of fine sediment at
the bottom of tropical seas. The fossil evidence from sites such as the Burgess Shale supports this idea. So, how does the floor
of a tropical sea get raised up to become a mountain? How can such massive layers of rock become folded into such intricate
designs? What forces could produce these incredible effects? The answers have a lot to do with plate tectonics. In this lesson
youll see that there is much in common with the mechanisms that caused both The Alaska Earthquake of 1964 and the
raising of the Rocky Mountains about 170 million years ago.

Locating Plate Boundaries

Before returning to the Alberta of ancient times, it is important to develop a better understanding of plate tectonics and the
mechanisms capable of building mountains. Finding the current boundaries of Earths tectonic plates is a good place to begin.
It was the years of built-up stress between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate that gradually accumulated a
huge amount of stored energy along the southern coast of Alaska in the early 1960s. The sudden release of this energy caused
The Alaska Earthquake of 1964 in March of that year. Since earthquakes usually occur at the boundaries of crustal plates, it
makes sense to plot the locations of major earthquakes on a world map to locate the edges of the major plates.
A case can also be made for plotting volcanoes on a world map. In Chapter 1, it was stated that Earths crust is comprised
of a series of rigid crustal plates that move over the asthenospherea zone of partially molten rock. The asthenosphere is the
source of magma for volcanoes. Volcanoes usually occur at a boundary where two plates move apart, or at a boundary where
one plate is pushed under another plate. Even though volcanoes sometimes occur at places not close to plate boundaries,
plotting the locations of the worlds active volcanoes can still provide valuable insights for mapping out the edges of crustal
plates. In Mapping the Edges of Crustal Plates, you will have an opportunity to use the Internet to collect information about
the locations of active volcanoes and earthquakes.
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Unit C: The Changing Earth

Mapping the Edges of Crustal Plates

Purpose
You will use the Internet to determine the locations of active volcanoes and earthquakes. You will record your results on a
world map and label the plates from a provided list of names.

Materials
You will need access to a computer. You will also need a copy of the World Map on the Science 20
Textbook CD to record the locations of volcanoes and earthquakes.
You may decide to print this map and record your findings on the print copy with different pensone
colour for earthquakes, another for volcanoes. Alternatively, you could electronically paste a copy of the map
into another software application that would allow you to electronically add your colour-coded findings to the
map before printing your finished map.

Science Skills
Initiating and Planning
Analyzing and Interpreting
Communication and Teamwork

Figure C2.36: A copy of this map can be found on the Science 20 Textbook CD.

Procedure
step 1: As with any Internet search, your success will largely depend upon your ability to choose appropriate
combinations of key words to enter into the search engine. You should also consider the time frame you used to
limit the scope of your search. For example, do you search for earthquakes that occurred in the last year, the last
five years, or the last 100 years?
step 2: Transfer the results of your Internet search to your map by using one colour to represent an earthquake and
another for the location of a volcano.
step 3: You should start to notice that the dots will form a pattern of lines that corresponds to the edges of the
crustal plates. If the dots are too far apart and too random to form a clear pattern, return to step 1 and modify
your search techniques either by changing the key words or by modifying the time line in your search. On the
map you created in step 2, record the modifications that improved your results.
step 4: Repeat steps 1 to 3 until you have a clear pattern of plate boundaries.

Analysis
1. Your map now needs labels to be added for the larger plates. Select your labels from the following list:

North American Plate

South American Plate
Pacific Plate
African Plate

Antarctic Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
Eurasian Plate
Arabian Plate

There are many smaller plates, but many do not have recognizable names. For example, the Nazca Plate lies to the
west of the South American Plate, and the Cocos Plate is west of Central America. Add these names to your map.

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Utilizing Technology

Use this information to add arrows that show

where the northern section of the Pacific Plate is
being subducted.

Figure C2.37: Depending on where theyre viewing an arc of volcanoes from,

observers will have different opinions on what type of curve they see.
The ring of volcanoes looks
concave, so this plate is
over-riding the other plate.

direction of
Pacific Plate
subduction

The arc of volcanoes

looks convex, so this
plate is being subducted
down into the mantle.

3. Refer to your answer to question 2. Infer a reason why the perimeter of the North Pacific is called the ring of fire.
Does the direction of the arrows imply the Pacific Ocean is growing or shrinking?

Evaluation

Further Evidence for Plate Tectonics

ID

4. It is helpful to share your findings with other students. Compare your map with the work of other students. Are there
major differences in the labelled maps produced? If you had to do a similar exercise again, what would you have
done differently?

O
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2. Lines of volcanoes are generally found in places

where one plate is being pushed under another
plate. The volcanoes are located on the over-riding
plate. As shown in Figure C2.37 of Alaskas
Aleutian Islands, an arrow can be added to show
the direction of the down-going Pacific Plate
relative to the over-riding North American Plate. A
pattern has been noticed by geologists concerning
the type of curve in the arc of volcanoes. If an
observer looks at the arc and it appears convex
the middle of the curve is the closest part to the
personthen that observer is on the down-riding
plate being subducted. If an observer looks at the
arc and it appears concavethe middle of the
curve is the farthest part from the personthen
that observer is on the over-riding plate.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) can be

used to very accurately determine your position on
Earths surface. The
United States Geological
Survey uses GPS in
Southern California and
other places to measure
movement along the
many fault lines that
mark the edge of the
tectonic plates. GPS is
also used near volcanoes
to record the uplifting of
surface rock due to the
motion of magma deep
beneath the surface.

354

Unit C: The Changing Earth

In Chapter 1 you saw how paleomagnetism from the bottom

of the Atlantic Ocean provided evidence for the theory of
plate tectonics. In Mapping the Edges of Crustal Plates,
you saw how the location of earthquakes and volcanoes can
produce a world map showing crustal plate boundaries.
Pangaea: a single
supercontinent that formed
in the late Paleozoic Era

Some of the strongest evidence for the theory of plate

tectonics emerges from the end of the Paleozoic Era.
Geologists think Earths land masses formed a single
gigantic continent called Pangaea at that time. The name
Pangaea was coined by Alfred Wegener in 1915 when he
first proposed his theory of continental drift, which is a
forerunner to the theory of plate tectonics.
In Plate Tectonics on page 355, you will consolidate
your understanding of plate tectonics by watching an applet
on the Science 20 Textbook CD.

Plate Tectonics
Purpose
You will have an opportunity to collect further
evidence that supports the theory of plate
tectonics by watching Plate Tectonics on the
Science 20 Textbook CD.

Science Skills
Performing and Recording
Procedure
Preview the questions in Analysis before watching
the applet. When information presented addresses a
particular question, pause the applet and concisely
record your answer.

Analysis
1. Sketch a diagram of two continents that illustrates
the jigsaw-fit argument for plate tectonics.
2. Identify one example of places on Earth that are now
widely separated by ocean waters but were once
part of a common geological formation.
3. A mesosaurus was
Figure C2.38: A
a small freshwater
mesosaurus might have
reptile that lived in
looked similar to this.
the late Paleozoic
Era. The illustration
in Figure C2.38
is an artists
conception of what
a mesosaurus
might have looked
like, based upon
the current fossil
evidence. Concisely
explain how the
distribution of
mesosaurus fossils supports the existence of both
Pangaea and the theory of plate tectonics.

Alberta Becomes Part of Pangaea

It was during the Devonian Period that beds of organic
matter were being laid down to form part of Albertas future
economic wealth in the form of petroleum. In terms of
crustal plate movement, the Devonian Period saw Greenland
and eastern Canada colliding with northern Europe to
begin the process of forming a single northern land mass.
Geologists believe the result of this collision was the
mountain chain referred to in the Plate Tectonics applet.
Africa, India, Australia, and South America were already
joined as a huge southern land mass. The spaces between the
pieces of this ancient continental jigsaw puzzle were closing.

Figure C2.39: Earth may have looked like this 350 million years ago at the
beginning of the Carboniferous Period.

As the continents continued to creep toward their eventual

merger, the fossil evidence shows that life was continuing
to diversify. In the Carboniferous Period, swamps covered
much of eastern North America. The lush vegetation that
flourished at this time would eventually become the raw
material for current coal beds. This vegetation also played
a key role in creating an environment to allow insects and
the first vertebrates to live on land. The fossil record shows
evidence of early amphibians and the first reptiles in the
Carboniferous Periodthey were small lizard-like creatures.
Fossil evidence suggests these early reptiles were the
ancestors of future dinosaurs, birds, and mammals.

Figure C2.40: Dimetrodons were fierce carnivores.

During the Permian Period, reptiles began to diversify

into a wide variety of forms. Fierce carnivores, such as
Dimetrodons, were thought to have roamed the equatorial
landscape in search of prey. The fossil record shows that life
during this time reached a rich level of diversity on both land
and sea. By the end of the Permian Period, the huge northern
and southern continents
250 million years ago:
had begun to form
supercontinent (Pangaea)
Pangaea and life was
starts forming
flourishing.

Figure C2.41: Continents may have appeared like this 250 million years ago at
the end of the Permian Period.

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Utilizing Technology

Causes of the Permian Extinction

The fossil record contains evidence of six mass extinctions

or large-scale extinctionsin a short time period. The end
of the Permian Period 250 million years ago is marked by
the greatest extinction of life in the fossil record. It occurred
at the end of the Paleozoic Era. At this time, about 90% of
ocean species and approximately 70% of land animal species
became extinct.

Just what could have caused such a massive extinction event

250 million years ago? There is evidence that widespread
glaciation occurredthere are glacial deposits dating back
to the Permian Period in some areas of what was Pangaea.
If there was a major glaciation at the end of the Permian
Period, the sea level would have dropped. Also, shallow water
surrounding the land would disappear. There would also be a
lower average global temperature.
Another possible cause could be the formation of
Pangaea. When the continents collided, the shallow seas
between them would be greatly reduced and the coastline
area would decrease. This would cause an increasing
competition among the organisms in that environment.
However, the formation of Pangaea occurred in the middle
of the Permian Period. The mass extinctions took place at the
end of the Permian Period.

Mass Extinctions in 540 Million Years

Percentage of Marine Species
Made Extinct (%)

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The Empty Sea

100
80

60
40
20
0
500

400

300

200

100

Time
(millions of years ago)
Figure C2.42: The six largest extinction events recorded in the fossil
record are identified with the letters A through F.

At the end of the Paleozoic Era, species of animals that

had existed since the Cambrian Explosion died or had
their numbers greatly reduced. The marine invertebrates
were the hardest hit. The simple colonial corals and all
trilobite species became extinct. Through the fossil record,
scientists have known about the Permian Extinction since
the eighteenth century.

Practice
19. Recall your work with the Geological Time Scale
in Chapter 1. Is it a coincidence that the largest
extinction event occurred at exactly the same time
as the end of the Paleozoic Era and the beginning
of the Mesozoic Era?
20. Why are trilobites an excellent index fossil for the
Paleozoic Era?
21. Use the Geological Time Scale on page 312 to
determine the boundaries between eras and periods
that correspond to each of the extinction events
labelled A through F in Figure C2.42.

356

Unit C: The Changing Earth

Figure C2.43: This is an artists representation of an asteroid colliding with Earth.

A deep impact caused by a comet or a very large asteroid

colliding with Earth is another possibility for the extinctions.
Scientists speculate that this kind of an event would have
worldwide implications similar to the aftermath of a nuclear
war, such as massive firestorms and enough dust blasted
into the atmosphere to block out sunlight for months. The
evidence is growing that the mass extinction event that
marked the end of the Cretaceous Periodlabelled as mass
extinction F on Figure C2.42was primarily caused by such
a collision. Researchers are currently looking for evidence
that a similar event caused the Permian Extinction.

Geologists have also suggested that the Permian Extinction

was due to massive volcanic activity. In what is now Siberia,
massive volcanic eruptions and lava flows covered thousands
of square kilometres to a depth of more than 3000 m in some
locations. Radioactive dating indicates that the eruptions
happened about 250 million years ago, which is the same
time that the Permian Extinction occurred.

The twentieth centurys largest volcanic eruption took place on Mount Pinatubo in
the Philippines, but it was a small disruption compared to the eruptions at the end of
the Permian Period. Mount Pinatubo caused a 0.5C reduction in the average global
temperature a year after the eruption because of the more than 20 million tonnes of ash
ejected into the atmosphere. The eruptions in ancient Siberia consisted of lava flows
and a large amount of ash deposits. Geological evidence indicates that lava erupting
from the Siberian volcanoes was very explosive and that these eruptions lasted for
hundreds of thousands of years. Given that the ash was believed to be explosive it was
likely to have been blasted high into the upper levels of the atmosphere. Sunlight was
Figure C2.44: Mount Pinatubo, a subductionblocked from reaching the surface, and this caused a global drop in temperatures.
related volcano, erupted in the Philippines in 1991.
Ash from modern volcanoes has been known to circle Earth for years before
settling out. Perhaps the most recent notable climate change caused by a volcano took place in 1815 when Mount Tambora
erupted in Indonesia. The next year, 1816, was known as the year without a summer due to a cool spring and summer and
the early arrival of fall. The growing season for crops in both Europe and North America was shortened, and some regions
suffered a famine.

Practice
22. Identify four of the possible causes of the Permian Extinction.
23. Some geologists suggest that glaciation may, in fact, be a spinoff effect of either the deep impact of a very large
meteor or massive Siberian volcanic activity. Explain how each of these causes of the Permian Extinction could also
trigger a period of glaciation.
24. Reconsider Figure C2.42. Carefully examine the event labelled D that corresponds to the Permian Extinction and the
event labelled F that corresponds to the Cretaceous/Tertiary Mass Extinction.
a. How does the shape of the graph that describes these mass extinctions suggest that the event was more sudden
than gradual in these cases?
b. Given your answer to question 24.a., which of the possible causes of the Permian Extinction seems most likely?

The Mesozoic Era

210 million years ago:

dinosaurs begin to flourish

The Triassic Period was the first part of the Mesozoic
Era. During this time, the North American Plate
continued its movement to the north and west. As
Alberta moved, portions of the plate were alternately
above and below sea level. When the Pacific Ocean
retreated from Alberta, swampy areas and forests
grew in the low-lying coastal areas. Fossil evidence
indicates that the first mammals inhabited these
forests. Over geological time, vegetation from these
forests and swamps became coal deposits.
By the time the Triassic Period ended, Pangaea
was coming apart. Geologists believed that this
caused sea levels to rise once again and that much of
the North American continent was again submerged.
Geological evidence suggests that this event,
Figure C2.45: The dinosaurs
combined with possible collisions by meteorites,
were ready to take over.
triggered another mass extinction that marked the
end of the Triassic Period. This corresponds to the mass extinction labelled E on Figure C2.42. A group of creatures took
advantage of the vacancies left in the food chainthe age of the dinosaurs was about to begin.
Dinosaurs developed rapidly during the Jurassic Period. Their fossils show the relationship between the land masses
during the Mesozoic Era. Fossils of similar, early Jurassic dinosaurs are found all over the world.

Chapter 2: A Tropical Alberta

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The Effects of Volcanoes

on
:C

tin e n

ts m ay ha

ve appeared like th

is 15

0m

ill

io n
In the middle of the Jurassic Period the break-up of Pangaea continued.
ye
Co
a
C2
North America continued to drift to the west, away from Africa. Arcs of
volcanic islands began colliding with the western shore of the North
American Plate. These fragments were about to become the western
cordillera of the North American continent, so they are labelled Co on
Figure C2.46.
The tectonic plate carrying these islands was subducted under the
westward advances of the North American Plate. This caused the western margins
of the North American Plate to be lifted, folded, and thrusted to the east. You should be able to see the similarities between
the geological processes at work in present-day southern Alaska and in late Mesozoic Alberta. Geologists suspect that the
margins of western Alberta must have been a land of earthquakes and volcanoes at that time.
The slivers of continental crust making up these islands had no place to go, so they became welded to the western coast of
North America. Alberta was losing its Pacific coast line, and the continental crust that was to become present-day
British Columbia was being added to the North American continent. The volcanic activity that is characteristic of subduction
took place as rivers of magma poured onto the surface. The mountain ranges that stretch from western Alberta, and through
British Columbia to the Pacific coast, are the remains of several processes. These include raising ocean beds, welding island
arcs, and flowing magma from volcanic activity that all began in the Jurassic Period.

ur
e

.4 6

rs

sediment eroded from

rising Rocky Mountains

o.

Fi g

ag

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Building the Rocky Mountains

sediment from exposed

Precambrian Shield
cordillera: an extensive chain of
mountain ranges that forms the
principal range of a continent

170 to 55 million years ago:

formation of the Rocky Mountains

thrust fault
inland sea

compression

buried Precambrian Shield

Figure C2.47: It took millions of years
for the Rocky Mountains to form.

You will notice in Figure C2.47 that an inland sea was created on the east side of the mountains. The great weight of these
mountains caused Earths crust to sag. This allowed ocean water to rush into this sea from both the north and south. Over
millions of years, sediment flowed into this sea from the Precambrian Shield to the east and from the rising mountains to the
west, but this effect was offset by the gradual sinking of the basin due to the weight of rock sheets being added from the west.
In the late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, these sediments created a vast network of deltas, swamps, and forests that became
home to a variety of different dinosaurs. By the late Cretaceous Period, another round of plate collisions on the west coast
caused another period of compression.
The net effect was that the inland sea was uplifted and drained; the existing mountains were pushed up even higher; and
the main ranges, front ranges, and foothills were formed. Huge faults moved slabs of rock more than 100 km and, in some
cases, stacked older rocks on top of younger rocks. The folded rock layers you can see in many of the mountains near Banff
and Jasper are the visible result of the compression caused by the collision of the two plates. By the late Cretaceous Period,
the Atlantic Ocean was widening and the continents were starting to move toward their modern positions.

main ranges

front ranges

foothills

plains

thrust fault

Figure C2.48: The Rocky Mountains became even higher.

358

Unit C: The Changing Earth

Figure C2.49: Scientists believe Earths continents were

positioned like this during the late Cretaceous Period.

25. A geologist predicts that the effects of subduction in present-day southern Alaska are likely to have also occurred in
Mesozoic Alberta.
a. Concisely describe the nature of these effects and how they are caused by subduction.
b. Identify what principle the geologist is using when comparing the geological processes at work in
southern Alaska today to those that took place in Mesozoic Alberta.
26. Although the process of subduction was at work, geologists suspect there were some differences between the
process currently underway in southern Alaska and the method at work when the Rockies were formed.
Figure C2.50 and Figure C2.51 illustrate some of the differences in these two processes.
Mesozoic Alberta

Southern Alaska

oceanic crust
lithosphe

re

astheno

Rocky M

h
trenc

rc
nic a

volc
continenta
l crust
lithosphe
re

oceanic crust
lithosphe

re

astheno

sphere

sphere

astheno

sphere

Figure C2.50: This model shows subduction occurring in present-day

southern Alaska.

ountains

h
trenc

continenta

l crust
lithosphe
re

e
pher
enos

asth

Figure C2.51: This hypothetical model reveals subduction that

occurred 70 million years ago in Mesozoic Alberta.

a. Compare the process of subduction illustrated in both models.

b. Use features of the models to concisely explain why volcanic activity and mountain building occurred further
inland for the building of the Rocky Mountains.

The Cretaceous/Tertiary Mass Extinction

The Cretaceous Period is the last period of the Mesozoic Era. Like the Triassic Period, the Cretaceous Period is marked by a
mass extinction. The fossil record indicates that very nearly every land animal with a mass greater than 25 kg became extinct.
In the oceans, this marked the end of the line for ammonites and the extinction of nearly half of the different varieties of
plankton. The extinction of some plankton species is thought to have caused the collapse of some oceanic food chains.

2.4 Summary
Plate tectonics provide an essential context for many of the significant geological
events that took place in both Paleozoic and Mesozoic Alberta. Boundaries between
the current positions of the tectonic plates can be determined by plotting the locations
of earthquakes and volcanoes on a world map. Geological evidence suggests that in
the late Paleozoic Era, Earths continental crust was fused into a single supercontinent
called Pangaea.
When Pangaea began to break up in the Mesozoic Era, the North American Plate
drifted toward the west and collided with arcs of volcanic islands riding on the
Pacific Plate. The mountainous terrain of British Columbia and western Alberta are
thought to be the direct result of these collisions. The fossil record indicates that the
formation and eventual break-up of Pangaea occurred during the two largest mass
extinctions in Earths history. The possible causes for these mass extinctions remains an
area of intense research.

Chapter 2: A Tropical Alberta

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Practice

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2.4 Questions
Knowledge
1. Describe the two types of plate boundaries often characterized by volcanic activity.
2. List probable causes for the mass extinction that occurred at the end of the Paleozoic Era. Identify which cause (or causes)
is most likely, given data trends on Figure C2.42.
3. Consider the following statement: It was a mass extinction that gave dinosaurs an opportunity to flourish, and it was a
mass extinction that marked their demise. Refer to the Geological Time Scale on page 312 as you explain this statement.
Applying Concepts
4. There is a Pacific Plate but no Atlantic Plate. Refer to Pangaeas break-up to explain the origins of the Atlantic Ocean.
5. Earlier in Chapter 2 you saw a photo of the folded layers of shale and limestone on the side of Mount Michener. Concisely
explain how these layers of sedimentary rockoriginally laid down in horizontal layers at the bottom of a shallow sea
became twisted and intricate designs far above sea level on the side of a mountain.
6. Explain how the Cretaceous/Tertiary Mass Extinction created an opportunity for the rapid diversification of mammals.

Chapter 2 Summary
In this chapter you studied life in the Paleozoic Era, and
you learned how the remains of plant and animal life can be
preserved for millions of years. You have seen not only how
scientists can determine the underground structure of Earth
through the application of science and technology, but how
they use this information in the search for natural resources.
You have seen how seismic waves can be used to locate the
epicentre of an earthquake and to provide clues about the
internal structure of Earth. In the Mesozoic Era, Alberta was
a land of earthquakes and volcanoes as the Rocky Mountains
formed due to crustal plates moving under the influence of
plate tectonics. The fossil record indicates that life diversified,
flourished, and also fell victim to mass extinctions during
both of these eras.
In Chapter 3 you will learn about the rise of mammals and the continued cooling of Alberta. These developments led to
a series of continental glaciations commonly called the Ice Age. You will see that people now live in what is known as an
interglacial period, which is a time between glacial periods. You will be introduced to evidence suggesting that climate, for the
first time, may be influenced by people.

Summarize Your Learning

In Chapter 2 you learned many new terms and concepts. Many of the concepts are related, and you will have an easier time
recalling them if they are organized into patterns.
Since the patterns have to be meaningful to you, there are some options about how you can create this summary. Each
of the following options is described in Summarize Your Learning Activities on pages 552 and 553. Choose one of these
options to create a summary of the key concepts and important terms in Chapter 2.
Option 1:
Draw a concept map
or a web diagram.

360

Option 2:
Create a point-form
summary.

Unit C: The Changing Earth

Option 3:
Write a story using key
terms and concepts.

Option 4:
Create a
colourful poster.

Option 5:
Build a model.

Option 6:
Write a script for a skit
(a mock news report).

Photo Credits and Acknowledgements

All photographs, illustrations, and text contained in this book have been created by or for Alberta Education, unless noted herein or
elsewhere in this Science 20 textbook.
Alberta Education wishes to thank the following rights holders for granting permission to incorporate their works into this textbook.
Every effort has been made to identify and acknowledge the appropriate rights holder for each third-party work. Please notify Alberta
Education of any errors or omissions so that corrective action may be taken.
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352 Dave Birrell/www.peakfinder.com 355 (mr) 2005-2006 www.
clipart.com 356 (mr) NASA (b) Photodisc/Getty Images 357 (t) U.S.
Geological Survey 359 (br) Copyright 2006 Alberta Education and its
licensors. All rights reserved.