ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

STUDENTS WORKBOOK

Joaquim Crisol
Llicncia D, Generalitat de Catalunya
NILE Norwich, April of 2011

Electronics

Table of contents

Table of contents
1

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS. ..................................................................... 2

1.1

Electricity and electronics. .................................................................................. 2

1.2

Past, present and future of electronics. .............................................................. 3

1.3

From analogue to digital electronic systems. ...................................................... 6

ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS. ................................................................................. 12

2.1

Resistors........................................................................................................... 12

2.2

Capacitors. ....................................................................................................... 20

2.3

Diodes. ............................................................................................................. 24

2.4

Transistors. ....................................................................................................... 28

2.5

Building real circuits. ......................................................................................... 33

2.5.1

Rectifier bridge. .......................................................................................... 33

2.5.2

Light regulator. ........................................................................................... 34

2.5.3

Timer. ......................................................................................................... 35

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS. ....................................................................................... 36

3.1

The binary numeral system. ............................................................................. 36

3.2

Boolean logic. Logic gates. ............................................................................... 38

3.3

Logic circuits. .................................................................................................... 42

3.4

Simulation work. ............................................................................................... 47

3.4.1

Logisim basics. .......................................................................................... 47

3.4.2

Logic circuits. ............................................................................................. 48

3.4.3

Adding and visualising. .............................................................................. 49

Revision. ................................................................................................................. 50

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Page 1

Electronics

1- Introduction

1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS.
1.1 Electricity and electronics.

Do you know the names of these objects?

Complete the definitions of electronic and electrical technology.

Electrical

technology

energy

Electronics

____________ is the branch of science and ____________ that deals with electrical
circuits applied to information and signal processing.
____________ technology deals with the generation, distribution, switching, storage
and conversion of electrical ____________.

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Page 2

Electronics

1- Introduction

Classify the objects from the first activity as electrical or electronic.

Electrical
Electronic

When you finish, check the answers with your partner. Don't look at their answer. You
can use these models.
Is a light bulb an electronic
or electrical device?

I think it is an electric device

because it converts electric energy.

I think it is an electronic device

because it processes information.

1.2 Past, present and future of electronics.

4

Match these pictures with their names and definitions.

Transistors

Integrated
circuits

Vacuum tubes

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A miniaturized electronic circuit

manufactured on a substrate of
semiconductor material.
A device used to amplify and
switch electrical signals by
controlling the movement of
electrons in a low-pressure tube.

A solid semiconductor device

used to amplify and switch
electronic signals.

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Electronics

1- Introduction

Find out what year these things happened by reading the text below.

a) _ _ _ _ Invention of the vacuum tube.

d) _ _ _ _ Start of radio broadcasting.

b) _ _ _ _ Invention of the transistor.

e) _ _ _ _ Start of black and white television.

c) _ _ _ _ First microchip.

f) _ _ _ _ First mobile phone in your family.

Place them on the timeline.

a)
1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

Summary of the history of electronics

Electronics originated from electrical science at the beginning of the 20 th
century.
In 1883, Thomas Alva Edison discovered the thermionic effect. Electrons
flow from one metal conductor to another through a vacuum. In 1904, T.
A. Fleming built the first vacuum tubes. These devices can amplify
electrical signals.
The first applications of electron tubes were in
radio communications. Vacuum tubes
made weak audio signals from radio
waves stronger. Radio broadcasting
grew in the 1920s.
Development of the television benefited from many improvements
made to radar during World War II. Television became widely
available in 1947.
After the war, electron tubes were used to develop the first computers, but they
were impractical because of the sizes of the electronic components. In 1947,
the transistor was invented by a team of engineers from Bell Laboratories. The
transistor works like the vacuum tube, but it is smaller, consumes less power, is
much more reliable, and is cheaper.
Around 1960, the first integrated circuits were made.
Integrated circuits are also called microchips, or IC. The typical IC
consists of resistors, capacitors, and transistors packed on a single
piece of silicon. Microcomputers, microwave ovens and mobile
phones are examples of devices made possible by integrated circuits.
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Electronics

1- Introduction

In 1971, INTEL manufactured the first microprocessor with 2300 transistors. By 2009,
the number of transistors in some microchips was more than 10 billion.
At the moment, scientists are working on molecular electronics, optical and quantum
computing. These and other emerging technologies will bring developments that we
cannot imagine.

Fill in the gaps with data from the text above.

Date

Invention

Applications

1904
Transistor
1960
Be ready to answer following this model:

The microprocessor was invented

in 1971. Its applications are .

Look at these pictures and listen to the text. Then answer the questions below.

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Electronics

1- Introduction

a) What is e-waste? E-waste is

b) Where does most e-waste go? Most e-waste is exported to

c) Do you think e-waste is toxic? ................................................................... because

electronic products contain

heavy metals such as lead and mercury and

hazardous chemicals.
d) E-waste will be a bigger problem in the future because more and more people
use more and more electronic devices and change them more often. Talk to your
partner and try to find a solution to the e-waste problem.
Governments should ...

We all should ...

Electronic products should ...

1.3 From analogue to digital electronic systems.

You already know that the function of an electronic system is to process information.
Any electronic device can be thought of as three linked parts input, process, output.
In electronics we use a block diagram to represent the parts of a system.

INPUT

PROCESS

OUTPUT

1. The input part takes in energy of some form and produces an electrical signal.
2. The process part modifies or does some calculations with the electrical signal.
3. The output part produces a new energy output from the processed electrical
signal.

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Electronics

1- Introduction

Label the objects by using the language bank below and identify the input and

output block for each one.

Input

Process

Output

MICROPHONE

ELECTRONICS

LOUDSPEAKER

It converts sound to
electrical signals.

Megaphone

It processes
electrical signals.

It converts electrical
signals to sound.

ELECTRONICS
_______________
_______________
______________

It processes
electrical signals.

________________
________________
_______________

ELECTRONICS
_______________
_______________
______________

It processes
electrical signals.

________________
________________
_______________

ELECTRONICS
_______________
_______________
______________

- Aerial

It processes
electrical signals.

________________
________________
______________

-Loudspeaker
- Digital thermometer
Loudspeaker
- Senses changes in temperature and produces
an electrical signal

- Takes in electromagnetic waves and produces an electric signal

- Calculator
- It transforms electrical signals to sound
- Push-buttons that generate electric signals
- Display screen
- keypad
- It gives a readout of temperature
- It converts electrical signals to visible
- Temperature sensor
numbers screen

- Temperature display

- Radio

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Electronics

1- Introduction

Check answers with your partner and be ready to answer following this pattern.
Object number 1 is a megaphone.
The microphone converts sound to electrical signal. This signal is
processed by the electronics and then the loudspeaker converts it to
sound.

Electronic signals can be analogue or digital.

An ANALOGUE signal continually changes and can have any value in a given
range.
A DIGITAL signal can only have certain, discrete values.
DIGITAL BINARY signals are a subgroup of digital signals that can have only
two states, ON (1) or OFF (0). There are no values in between.
Label these signals as analogue, digital or digital binary.
signal

signal

time

time

Match the sentences with arrows.

The dashed signal is
The continuous signal is
The dotted signal is

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digital binary
analogue
digital

because it has any value.

because it has only two values
because it has only certain values.

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Electronics

10

1- Introduction

We can think of objects as analogue or digital. Can you write the names of the

following objects in the diagram?

analogue
1)

2)

digital

d_ _ _ _ ay

binary

th _ _ _ _ _ et_ _
3)
s_ _ _ _ h

Check the answers with your partner.

What do you call object 1?
Is it analogue or digital? Why?

It is a....
I think it is............ because .....

11
The following text about noise has some blanks. Your teacher will give you a
text with half of the gaps filled in. Your partner will have the other half.
1. Copy them into your workbook.
2. Now dictate to each other to complete the text.
3. Agree on a heading for the text.
HEADING:____________________________________________________
Signals in nature are analogue. For example_____________________________ (a). It is
analogue because it can be any value.
______________________________________ (b):

They can be converted to numbers and easily ________________________ (a).

They are easy to store and to compress using mathematical algorithms.

Noise ________________________ (b) as much as to analogue signals.

When data is transmitted, processed or stored a certain amount of NOISE ________

____________________

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(a)

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Electronics

1- Introduction

With an analogue signal, noise cannot be _______________________________

(b)

. We

have distortion. In a digital signal, noise will not matter, as any signal close enough to a
particular value will be interpreted as that value.

Draw the original signal in colour.

time

time

Which one is more difficult to rebuild? The ....................... signal is easier to reproduce

because it can have only ..........................values.

12
Listen to the text about the analogue-digital conversion process. Fill in the gaps
and answer the final question.
Analogue signals are processed by analogue __________ and digital signals are
processed by __________ circuits. In between, we can use these electronic circuits to
_____________ from analogue to digital and vice versa.

ADC:

analogue-to-digital converters

DAC:

digital-to-analogue converters
001010101010111111.

Analogue
INPUT

ADC

Digital
PROCESS
OR
STORAGE

DAC

Analogue
OUTPUT

For example, we can get ___________ with a microphone and analogue electronics.
Then an ADC converts this signal to digital __________. This data can be __________
and stored in a digital format, such as ________.
Home electronics used to be analogue but nowadays everything is mainly digital. So,
we have digital TV, digital photography, digital ____________, etc.
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Electronics

1- Introduction

Circle the right answer:

a)
b)
c)
d)

13

DAC stands for analogue-digital-conversion.

Modern electronics is mostly digital.
To play mp3 music we have to use a DAC.
Sound is a digital signal.

Decide if these sentences are true or false. If they are false change them so that

they are true.

T / F A cassette tape is the digital evolution of a CD (compact disc).
..................................................................................................
T / F DVB (digital video broadcasting) has no noise because it is an analogue signal.
...........................................................................
T / F Analogue photography can be easily modified, compressed and transmitted.
..........................................................................................................................
T / F An ADC converts digital signals to analogue.
.......................................................................
T / F Digital electronic systems are older than analogue systems.
...............................................................................................
T / F All digital signals are binary signals.
.........................................................

Self assessment:

In the next unit you are going to learn more about analogue

electronic circuits. Before you move on make sure that you can answer yes to these
questions.
QUESTION

No

More
or less

Yes

Can I order the main developments in electronics and say

what decade they happened?
Do I know what problems e-waste can cause and how to avoid
them?
Can I draw a block diagram for a basic electronic system?
Can I give examples of analogue, digital and binary signals?
Can I compare analogue and digital systems?

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3- Digital electronics.

2 ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS.
2.1 Resistors.
Resistors are components which resist the flow of electricity through a circuit for a
given voltage. A resistor implements electrical resistance.
Image of a resistor

1a

Symbol of a resistor

Remember the main electrical magnitudes and find the unit for each one.
Magnitude

Unit

Voltage (V)
Electric current (I)
Power (P)
Electric resistance ()

Watt (W)

Volts (V)

Ohms ()

Ampere (A)

1b OHMS LAW connects resistance, voltage and current in an electrical circuit.

There are many ways to express this relationship: with text, with formula and
graphically.
a) Formula for finding the voltage across a resistor for a given current.
b) Formula for finding the current through a resistor for a given voltage.
Which formula represents these formulations of Ohms law better, a) or b)?
[___] The voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) passing through
it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
[___] When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow
through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage.
[___] Voltage across a resistor equals the current through it multiplied by the resistance.
[___] Current through a resistor equals the voltage across it divided by the resistance.
1c
a)
b)
c)
d)

Choose the right answer or answers.

The higher the resistance, the lower the current.
The higher the resistance, the higher the current.
The lower the resistance, the higher the current.
The lower the resistance, the lower the current.

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

1d In this circuit, R can be 0.5 , 1 or 2 . Identify which resistance corresponds

to each graph.
I

R=

R=

R= 1

R=

+
R

V
_

R=

R=

a)

b)

Construct a sentence that makes sense for graph a) and one for graph b).

a) The ................................................................................................................................
b) The ................................................................................................................................
The lower
The higher

the resistance,

the lower
the higher

the current
the voltage

for a given

voltage.
current.

The is too small for many resistors. Then we use the MULTIPLES kilo (k) and mega
(M). Sometimes, to avoid reading errors, the letters R,k and M substitute the decimal
point. Look at the examples.
4k7 = 4.7 k = 4,700
5M6 = 5.6 M = 5,600,000
3R3 = 3.3
2a

Give the value in for the following resistors.

a) 6k8 =
b) 1M2 =
c) 47R =
d) 5R6 =

Write the answers like this:

5M6: five point six mega-ohms are five million six hundred thousand .
a) 6k8: .......................................................................................................................................
b) 1M2: .....................................................................................................................................
c) 47R: .......................................................................................................................................
d) 5R6: .....................................................................................................................................
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3- Digital electronics.

2b Now apply Ohms law to calculate the current through the resistors as in the
example. When you finish, check the answers with your partner without reading their
workbook.

I?
+
5M6
5V
Remember: 0.001 A = 1 mA

a)

and

0.000001 A = 1A

I?
+
6k8
5V

b)

I?
+
1M2
5V

c)

I?
+
47R
5V

d)

I?
+
5R6
5V

What result did you get for part a) ?

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Electronics

3a

3- Digital electronics.

Fill in the blanks looking at the table below.

A lot of resistors have coloured rings on them instead of

numbers. Each colour stands for a different unit: black is
zero, brown is ____, red is two; orange is three; yellow is
_____; green is five; ____ is six; violet is seven; grey is
_____; white is nine, as you can see in the table below.
The first band is for tens and the second band for units.
The third band is the multiplier.
Example: red / violet / green stands for 2 / 7 / 00000, that is 2700000 or 2.7 M.
st

1 colour band
Black
0
Brown
1
Red
2
Orange
3
Yellow
4
Green
5
Blue
6
Violet
7
Grey
8
White
9

3b
a)
b)
c)
d)

nd

2 colour band
Black
0
Brown
1
Red
2
Orange 3
Yellow
4
Green
5
Blue
6
Violet
7
Grey
8
White
9

Silver
Gold
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue

Multiplier
divide by 0.01
divide by 0.1
multiply by 1
multiply by 10
multiply by 100
multiply by 1,000
multiply by 10,000
multiply by 100,000
multiply by 1,000,000

Tolerance
Silver 10%
Gold
5%
Red
2%

Obtain the value of these resistors:

Brown / green / red:
Orange / orange / brown:
Green / grey / yellow:
Yellow /violet / orange:

Express the previous values with M or k if possible. For example 27000 = 27 k

3c Manufacturers of the resistors cannot guarantee the exact value. The fourth band
expresses the TOLERANCE in %. With the tolerance we can calculate the minimum
and maximum real values for the four resistors below as in the example:
Red /violet / orange //silver
R =27000 10%
10% of 27000 = 2700010/100=2700
R = 27000 2700
Minimum value =27000-270=26730
Maximum value = 27000+270=27270

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

Colours
Red /violet / orange //silver

Value

Tol. %

Tol.

Minimum

Maximum

27000

10%

2700

26730

27270

Brown / green / red // silver

Orange / orange / brown // gold
Green / grey / yellow // silver
Yellow /violet / orange // gold

3d Work with your partner in turns. Choose 1 resistor from the pool and write down
its colours. Then you have to tell your partner the colours and he has to find out the
value.
1k

680 k

270

1.5 k

120
390

330 k
1.8 M

8.2 k

1.2 k

3.3 M
5.6 k
4700 k

2200
270 k

18
47 k

820

- My resistor is brown, black, red.

- Is it 1000 ?

- Yes, it is. You are right

- My resistor is

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

3e Your teacher will give you one real resistor. Note down the colours, calculate its
value and write the text to describe your resistor to the class.

The first band colour of my resistor is......

The quoted value is ..........................
The tolerance is...
The minimum

TYPES OF RESISTORS.
You already know about fixed resistors. They are the most common type of resistor.
Variable resistors are also known as potentiometers. They are used to act on a circuit,
for example to adjust sensitivity or to change gain. They have 3 legs. The resistance
between the two outside legs (RAB) is fixed. By moving the middle leg or cursor, we
adjust the resistance between the middle leg and the outside legs. The three values
are linked like this: RAB= RAC + RCB.
4a

Can you get the values for RCB in these 10 k potentiometers?

A

A
5k

10k

C
__ k

A
2k
C

10k

10k

C
B __ k

__ k

8k

Special resistors change resistance as a result of a change in other magnitudes. They

are used in sensing circuits.
Name

Depending on

Coefficient

NTC Thermistors

Temperature

Negative

Symbol
+

PTC Thermistors

Temperature

Positive

Light-dependent
resistors (LDRs)

Light

Negative

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Electronics

4b

3- Digital electronics.

Explain how the special resistor works as in the model:

NTC thermistors resistance changes according to the temperature. As

temperature goes up, the resistance goes down. They are used in temperaturesensing circuits.

PTC ........................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
LDRs .....................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
4c

Complete the visual organizer.

- __________ resistors.
- Variable or _____________
-

Resistors

- _______________
- ________ _________

- _______________

- _______________

POTENTIAL or VOLTAGE DIVIDERS are used for dividing up the voltage, so that parts
of a circuit receive only the voltage they require. They usually consist of two resistors
connected in series across a power supply.
I
Vin

R1
+
R2

Vout

Potential dividers are used, for example, with LDRs in circuits which detect changes in
light.
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Electronics

5a

3- Digital electronics.

Calculate Vout by applying the formula of a voltage divider.

I
Vin= 9V

R1=20
+
R2=10

Vout

5b When one of the resistors is a special resistor the circuit is a sensor. Predict how
light changes will affect Vout.

Vin

R1
+
R2

cause

Light goes down

Light goes up

effect
cause

R2 goes

R2 goes

effect

Vout goes .

Vout goes .

Vout

Prepare to answer questions like

What is the effect of light going down?

What is the cause of Vout going up?

5c Calculate the minimum and maximum values of Vout that we can get by
adjusting the potentiometer.

Vin= 9V

10k
+

10k

Vout
10k

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3- Digital electronics.

2.2 Capacitors.
6a

Listen and fill the gaps in this text about capacitors.

A capacitor is a discrete component which

can store an electrical charge. The larger the
_____________ the more ______ it can
store.
Symbol

Capacitors are used in ______ circuits, to

filter _________ and as ________ devices.

6b

The unit of capacitance is the Farad. As this is a large amount, these

submultiples are used:

micro-Farad (F)
1F =10-6 F
1F = 0.000001 F

nano-Farad (nF)
1nF = 10-9 F
1nF = 0.000000001 F

pico-Farad (pF)
1p F = 10-12 F
1p F = 0.000000000001 F

1 F= 1,000,000 F = 1,000,000,000 nF = 1,000,000,000,000 pF

Convert these values to Farads as in the example. Check answers with your partner.
Example: 33 nF = 0.000000033 F = 3310-9 F
a) 100 pF =
b) 10 F =
c) 0.1 F =
d) 68 nF =
6c

Read the text and then answer the questions below.

The small capacitance capacitors are made of

polyester (nF) and ceramic (pF).

For large capacity values (F) electrolytic

capacitors are used. These are polarised and
marked with the maximum voltage.
Be careful not to connect electrolytic capacitors
the wrong way or across a higher voltage.

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Ceramic and plastic

capacitors

Polarised
capacitor
symbol

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

What kind of capacitor is this?

Its an e........................ c...............................
Describe its characteristics?
Its value ........................................................
............................................................Volts.
It can work between ..........................

Discuss with your partner what will

happen if we use them in a 50V
circuit?

7a

I think it .............................................................
because...................................................................

Usually we connect a capacitor in series with a resistor for timing purposes. The

flow of current through a resistor into the capacitor charges it until it reaches the same
voltage than the power supply. Analyse the diagrams and try to sequence the text with
your partner putting order numbers in the empty cells.
Vo

S1

Charge

Vc

Discharge

R
Vc

C
S2

Vo
1

234

678

The capacitor starts discharging sharply through R.

S1 is switched off and S2 is switched on.

At the beginning switch 1 and 2 are off.

The capacitor starts charging fast through R.

The capacitor is fully discharged.

S1 is switched on.

Vo rises slowly as it approximates Vc.

The capacitor is fully charged at Vc.

The voltage across the capacitor rises sharply.

Vo decreases slowly as it approaches 0V.

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10

Time

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Electronics

7b

3- Digital electronics.

The time it takes to charge a capacitor depends on a time constant called tau.

Tau depends on the resistor and the capacitor. The

total charging time (tc) is approximately 4 times
this time constant.

RC

=RC

tc = 4

tc

a) What % of the final voltage does the capacitor reach after ? And after 4?
b) Calculate the time constant for R=100 k and C=100F.

c) What happens to the charging time if we halve the value of the resistor?

d) What happens to the charging time if we double the value of the capacitor?

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Electronics

7c

3- Digital electronics.

This circuit is similar to that of activity 7a. Note

S1

that this time R is adjustable. Explain what actions the

following graph describes. Pay special attention to Vc
what happens between 3 and 4, and between 5 and
6.

R
C

S2

When you finish discuss your results with your

partner.

Vo

Vo
1 2

Vc

Time

At the beginning, S1 and S2 are off...

At instant 2, switch 1 is...

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3- Digital electronics.

2.3 Diodes.
Semiconductors are materials that conduct electricity under
certain conditions. Silicon is the most used to make
electronic components.
Forward bias

Vc

Vc

I
R

8a

_
symbol

Reverse bias

A diode is a semiconductor
device that allows current to flow
in one direction. It can be used
for protection, to block signals, to
change AC to DC, etc.
The two leads are called anode
(a or +) and cathode (k or -).

Look at the diagrams above and fill in the blanks.

The current can only flow from ______ to _______. This direction is called ______ bias.
The current cannot flow from _______ to ______. This direction is called _______ bias.

8b

The cathode is identified by a band on its body. Label the leads of these diodes

as anode or cathode.

8c

Draw wires to connect this diode in direct biasing as seen in the circuit diagram.
wire 1

Vc

+
I

wire 2

R
wire 3

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3- Digital electronics.

Explain to your partner how you have connected the wires:

The first wire goes from positive lead of the battery to ....

The voltage needed to operate the diode in forward bias is about 0.7 V. Here you can
see how to calculate the current in forward bias.

Vc
Vc

Vc

0.7 V
I

I=0
VR=Vc-0.7

Calculate the current (I) in these 3 circuits.

a)
6V

+
I
100

b)
3V

+
I
100

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3- Digital electronics.

c)

3V

+
100

Light-emitting diodes or LEDs are made from different

semiconductor materials that give off light when connected in
forward biasing.
The forward bias voltage can be between 1.6 V and 3.5 V
depending on the colour (2 V for red colour).
Usually an LED is connected in series with a resistor to limit the
current between 20 mA and 30 mA. More current would fuse it.
You can see the usual circuit and the equations below to
calculate the current or the resistor value.

Vc

R?

25 mA

10

VR=Vc-2

2V

Is the LED in the circuit safe?....................... Why (not)?.........................................

......................................................................................
47

5V +

Red

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3- Digital electronics.

Calculate the resistor value to set the current to 30 mA.

Calculate a new resistor value to set the current to 20 mA.

11a

Look at the circuit and answer these questions. You can ask your partner.

- Will the LED glow when the switch is at position a ?

- ............ it w........... because it is ....................biased.

100

- What will the voltage across the resistor be?

- It will be.......................................................
- Will the LED glow with the switch at position b ?
- ............ it w........... because it is ....................biased.

5V +

Red

5V
+

- What will the voltage across the resistor be?

- It will be.......................................................
11b

The following circuit is a bridge rectifier. It is widely used to convert AC into DC.

a)
Place 3 more diodes in the circuit so that the LED glows in both positions of the
switch. Draw in blue the two diodes that conduct when the switch is at position a. Draw
in red the ones that conduct in position b.
b) What will the current
through the resistor be?

100
Red
a

5V +

5V
+

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

2.4 Transistors.
12a

Listen to the text and fill in the blanks.

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to ________ and ________ electronic

signals. We will focus on the common NPN bi-polar type of transistors.
It has terminals for connection to an external circuit. The three leads are:

The _________ (b), which is the lead responsible for activating the transistor.
The collector (c), which is the __________ lead
The emitter (e), which is the negative _________.

c
NPN bi-polar
transistor
symbol

Transistors in different
packages

When a small _________ flows through the baseemitter circuit, a much larger current flows through the
collector-emitter ________.

Ic=hFEIb

Ic= hFE Ib
Ib
The gain (hFE) is the amount by which the transistor
amplifies current. Usual values are around 100.

12b

Ie=Ib+Ic

Calculate the Ib and Ie for the given Ib and h FE as in the example.

Ic=?

Ib=2 mA

hFE=100

Ic= hFE Ib=1002mA=200 mA= 0.2 A

Ie= Ib+Ic=2+200=202 mA=0.202 A

Ie=?
a) Ib=0.1 mA; hFE=80

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

b) Ib=12 mA; hFE=120

c) Can you calculate the Ib that we need to get Ic=0,3A if hFE=150?

Ic=0,3 A
Ib=?

hFE=150
Ie

12c

As with diodes, a voltage of 0.7V is necessary across the base-emitter to

activate the transistor. In this circuit you can see the formula to calculate the current into
the base. Then you can calculate the current into the collector.
Find out Ib and Ic for these values:
a) Vbb=3V; Rb=100; hFE=100

Ic=hFEIb

Vbb

Vcc

Rb
Ie

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Electronics

13a

3- Digital electronics.

Discuss with your partner and find two ways to make the light bulb glow brighter

in the last circuit.

If we increase/decrease Vbb
If collector current goes up/down
If base current goes up/down

then

base current will go up/down.

the light bulb will glow brighter /dimmer.
collector current goes much higher/lower.

a) One way to make the light bulb glow brighter is to increase ..................................
because then ....................................................................................................................
b) Another way to do it is ........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................................
13b In this circuit the transistor
works as a CURRENT AMPLIFIER.
Match sentence beginnings with
endings.

Ic=hFEIb

Vcc
Ib
Rb

1. The potentiometer.............................

a) you have to move the cursor down.

2. Moving the cursor up is like...............

b) by the potentiometer.

3. To make the light bulb glow dimmer..

c) works as a potential divider.

4. The collector current is controlled......

d) making Vbb higher in exercise 12a.

In many cases we dont need to control the collector current in a continuous analogue
way. We just want 2 states. It works as a DIGITAL SWITCH controlled by the base
current:
a) OFF: Ic=0 because Ib=0 or voltage across base-emitter is lower than 0.7 V.
b) ON: Ib is the maximum possible in the circuit because Ic is high

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Electronics

14a

3- Digital electronics.

Look at circuits A and B and identify which circuit the two descriptions refer to.

A1)

A2)
Rc

Rc

S1

S1

Vcc

Vcc
Rb

Rb

Ic=0

Ic>>0

OFF

ON

Ib=0

Ib>0
Ie

Ie

B1)

B2)
Rc

Rc

ON
Vcc

OFF
Vcc

Rb

Ic>>0

Rb

Ib>0

Ib=0

+
S1

Ic=0

0.7 V

+
Ie

S1

0V

Ie

Circuit ______: When the switch is ON a current passes through the resistor into the
base of the transistor. Then the transistor allows collector current to flow and the LED
comes on.
Circuit _______:When the switch is ON the voltage across base-emitter comes to 0.
Then the transistor doesnt allow collector current to flow and the LED goes off.

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Electronics

14b

3- Digital electronics.

In this circuit the transistor also works as a SWITCH. The capacitor charges

through Rb. Rb and C form a voltage divider for timing purposes. Try to predict how the
circuit works.
When S1 is on .................................................................................................................................
................................................................................
and the LED is ...............
Rc

When

S1

is

off

the

capacitor

.........................................................and the LED

is

Vcc
Rb

Ic

.............

When

capacitor

voltage

across

reaches

the

.............V

................................................................................
................................................................................

Ib
Icap
S1

+
+

Vbe -

Self assessment:

............ and the LED is ............... until

................................................................................
................................................................................

In the next unit you are going to learn about digital electronics.

Before you move on make sure that you can answer yes to all these questions.

QUESTION

No

More
or less

Yes

Can I get the value of a resistor using the colour code and
use multiples to express it?
Can I list the different types of resistors, draw their symbols
and explain possible applications?
Can I calculate voltage in simple voltage dividers?
Can I describe and calculate charge and discharge of a
capacitor in RC circuits?
Can I calculate currents in circuits with diodes and resistors?
Can I explain how a transistor works in a circuit, both as a
switch or as an amplifier?
Can I interpret diagrams and identify components to build
simple circuits?

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Electronics

2.5

3- Digital electronics.

Building real circuits.

2.5.1 Rectifier bridge.

R
b

Vin +

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

2.5.2 Light regulator.

Rc

P
Vcc

Ic=hFEIb
Ib
Rb

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

2.5.3 Timer.

Rc

Vcc

P
Ic
Ib
Icap

+
+

S1

Vbe -

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

3 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS.
3.1 The binary numeral system.
The DECIMAL system, or base-10, represents numeric values using 10 symbols: 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
The BINARY numeral system, or base-2 number system, represents numeric values
using two symbols, 0 and 1.
Binary numbers are closely related to digital electronics. With digital electronics a 1
means that a voltage signal is high and 0 means it is low. The binary system is
used internally by all modern computers.
1

What electronic component can work as a binary switch? ..................................

When we put together many of them in a single piece of silicon it is called ......................
In computing and telecommunications a binary digit is called a _ _ _. It is the basic unit
of information in a binary system.
2a

The binary system is positional, like the

decimal one. To count in binary we put in ones

from the right. Look at the table on the right and try
to figure out the rule. Fill in the missing digits.
2b

It is easy to CONVERT any binary number to

decimal because each position has a weight.

Look at the example and convert binary numbers b),
c) and d) to decimal. Check the answers with your
partner.

Binary
a)
b)
c)
d)

001100
010101
101010
100001

32

Binary weight
16 8
4
2

Binary

Decimal

Binary

Decimal

0
1
10
11
100
10_
1_0
1__
__00
1001

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

1000
1___
__10
1011
1100
1__1
1110
1111
1____
1____

8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Decimal
8+4=12

What is the decimal equivalent of one one zero?

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Electronics

2c

3- Digital electronics.

In order to convert from decimal to binary you have to do the inverse process.

Convert the following numbers and check your answers with your partner orally.

Decimal
a)
b)
c)
d)

32

Binary weight
16 8
4
2

Binary

41
20
33
63

Adding binary numbers is a very simple task. As with decimal numbers, you start by
adding the bits (digits) from right to left:
Rules
0+0
1+0
0+1
1+1
1+1+1

= 0
= 1
= 1
= 10
= 11

Examples
1001100
+ 0010010
--------1011110

11 1
1001001
+ 0011101
--------1100110

11
1000111
+ 1010110
--------10011101

It is also possible to subtract, multiply and divide. This is how electronic devices
operate.
3a Add the following numbers. Your teacher will ask some of you to read the
additions to all the class. Follow the example and practise reading the procedure to
prepare.
1
001 (1)
+ 101 (4+1=5)
----110 (4+2=6)

a)
0011
+ 1010
------

Students workbook

One plus one equals zero and I carry

one.
One plus zero plus zero equals one.
Zero plus one equals one.
The result is one one zero in binary,
which is six in decimal.
b)
1011
+ 0111
------

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

3.2 Boolean logic. Logic gates.

In the last lesson you used BINARY DIGITS to represent

NUMERIC VALUES.
BINARY DIGITS can also be used to represent LOGIC
STATES like true (1) or false (0).
BOOLEAN LOGIC (or Boolean algebra) is a complete
system for logical mathematical operations. It was developed
by the English Mathematician and philosopher George Boole
in the 1840s.
Boolean logic has many applications in
electronics, computer hardware and software, and is the basis
of all modern digital electronics.

George Boole (1815-1864)

These are examples of Boolean operations:

1 or 0 = 1

4a

1 and 0 =0

not 0 =1

1 and 1= 1

0 or 0 = 0

not 1 = 0

Read the text about Boolean operation representation and fill in the table with the

expressions below.
Boolean algebra is based on these logical
operations: conjunction x y (AND), disjunction
x y (OR), and complement or negation x
(NOT).

General

a b

Electronics

a AND b
a OR b

In electronics, the AND is represented as a

multiplication, the OR is represented as an
addition, and the NOT is represented with an
overbar
a

Maths

NOT a

a+b

ab

Digital circuits are built from simple on/off switches called GATES. These gates have
two states: logic high (ON or 1) and logic low (OFF or 0). TRUTH TABLES are used to
analyse all the possible alternative states of a digital circuit.
You can see the gates symbols on next page. There are two sets of symbols for gates:
The traditional ones from America and the new square symbols, a standard by the IEC
(International Electrotechnical Commission). You should use the IEC symbols. Anyway
the traditional ones are still widely used for simple gates.
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Electronics

4b

3- Digital electronics.

Read the gate descriptions and fill in the truth table for each one.

NOT gate: A NOT gate or inverter has just one input. The output is ON if the input is
OFF, and OFF if the input is ON.
A
Y=A

A
NOT symbol

NOT IEC symbol

&

B
AND symbol

AND IEC symbol

OR gate: The output is ON if either or both inputs are ON.

A

Y=A+B

B
AND symbol

AND IEC symbol

NAND gate: The output is ON unless both inputs are ON.

A

Y= AB

&

B
NAND symbol

NAND IEC symbol

NOR gate: The output is ON if both inputs are OFF.

A

Y= A+B

B
NOR symbol

Students workbook

0
1

AND gate: The output is ON (1) if both input signals are ON (1).

Y=AB

NOR IEC symbol

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

XOR gate: The output is ON if one input is ON and the other is OFF, but will
both are ON.
A
A
=1
Y
0
Y= A + B
B
0
XOR symbol
XOR IEC symbol
1
1

4c

not work if
B

0
1
0
1

Lets test if you remember the IEC symbols and the truth tables. In turns, choose

one gate and ask your partner for the function description and the IEC symbol gate.
Here you have an example:
In a NAND gate the output is 0 when both

Can you explain how a NAND gate works?

inputs are 1.

What is the symbol of a NAND Gate?

It is a square with a & symbol inside and

with a small circle at the output.

4d

It is possible to represent logic functions with Venn diagrams. Look at the

examples. Then identify the 8 diagrams as ab, ab, a+b, a+b, a+b, a + b, ab, a+b.

ab

a
a

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3- Digital electronics.

Logic functions can be implemented electrically with switches as in these

examples.

a)

b)
A

B
B

AB

A+B

a) AND: The output will only be on when both switches A and B are on.
b) OR: The output will go on if either switch A or B is on.
Real electronic gates are implemented with transistors. High voltage means 1 and low
voltage means 0. These are simplified circuits of a NAND and a NOR gate. Think how
the circuits work and fill in the blanks with these words:
parallel

high

low

NAND

series

NOR

In circuit a both transistors are connected in _________. The output will go low only
when both inputs are ________. So it is a ______ gate.
In circuit b both transistors are connected in ________. If either input goes up the
output goes _______. So it is a _______ gate.
Vcc

Vcc
b)

a)

Y
A
A

B
-

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3- Digital electronics.

3.3 Logic circuits.

Logic circuits can have many gates, many inputs and more than one output. In this
lesson we are going to work with circuits that have a maximum of 3 inputs and 1 output.
6a

The diagram below shows a

complex logic gate combining two

simple gates. There are three inputs
and eight possible outcomes. To
complete a truth table go row by row.
For each combination of input find
first D and then Q.
The two first combinations of the truth
table are done as an example.
Complete the 6 remaining values.

Expression: Q=AB+C
0
0
0

0
Q=00+0=0+0=0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
1

1
Q=00+1=0+1=1
6b

For the next circuit find the expression, draw the gate diagram with the traditional

symbols and complete the truth table.

IEC diagram

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Traditional diagram

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

Expression:
A

You have to describe orally a logic circuit from the A/B worksheet to your partner.

Your partner will describe one for you. Draw the diagram using IEC symbols.
Then you must find the logic expression and fill in the logic table. Finally check results
with your partner.
This is an example of descriptions for the circuit in exercise 6b:
Input A is fed to an inverter. The output from the inverter is called D.
Inputs B and C are fed into a NOR gate, whose output is called E. D and E
are fed through an AND gate to output Q.

Circuit:

Expression: Q=
8

For the next circuit find the expression, draw the gate diagram with the traditional

symbols and complete the truth table.

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3- Digital electronics.

Expression:

Traditional diagram:

Look at the example in order to do exercise 9.

DESIGN A LOGIC SYSTEM to control heating like this: In automatic mode heating
must be on when it is cold and there is somebody inside. In forced mode heating is
always on.
Inputs:
A: temperature (0 cold, 1 warm)
B: presence (0 nobody, 1 somebody)
C: mode (0 automatic, 1 forced)

Output:
Q= heating (0 off, 1 on)

Design process:
Heating= (NOT temperature AND presence) OR mode
Q=( A B ) + C

Translate statements into a

logic expression

Design the logic diagram

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1

Students workbook

Fill in the truth table to test

all combinations.

No

Ok?
Yes
END

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Electronics

9a

3- Digital electronics.

Design a logic system to control an automatic light like this: The light must come

on when it is dark and somebody passes in front of it.

Inputs:
A: presence (0 nobody, 1 somebody)
B: light_sensor (0 dark, 1 light)

Output:
Q= light (0 off, 1 on)

Expression:

Diagram:

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

9b

Design a logic system to control an alarm bell like this: the alarm bell must ring

when the alarm switch is on and either the window or the door are opened.
Inputs:
A: window_open(0 closed, 1 open)
B: door_open (0 closed, 1 open)
C: alarm_switch (0 off, 1 on)
Expression:

Output:
Q= alarm_bell (0 off, 1 on)

Diagram:

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

SELF ASSESSMENT: Before you move on make sure that you can answer yes to all
these questions.
QUESTION

No

More
or less

Yes

Can I convert between decimal and binary?

Can I add binary numbers?
Can I operate using Boole algebra?
Can I translate logical expressions to gates?
Can I obtain truth tables from a logic system?
Can I use simulators to analyse logic systems?
Can I design logic circuits in order to solve simple
technological problems?

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Electronics

3.4

3- Digital electronics.

Simulation work.

You are going to simulate logic systems with the logisim free software. You can
download it from this web page: http://ozark.hendrix.edu/~burch/logisim/index.html.
3.4.1 Logisim basics.
Practice 1:

Follow your teachers instructions to build a XOR gate with AND, OR and

NOT gates. Label the final design with your name.

Practice 2:

Build and simulate the design you did in activity 9b to control an alarm

system.

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3- Digital electronics.

3.4.2 Automatic design of logic circuits.

Practice 3:

Enter this expression: Q= ABC+B into logisim and use the

Combinational analysis tool to build the circuit automatically.

Practice 4:

Design a detector of prime numbers. The input will consist of four binary

digits and the output has to be 1 when the input combination is a prime number (2, 3, 5,
7, 11 or 13). Use the Combinational analysis tool to set the truth table and get the circuit
automatically.

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Electronics

3- Digital electronics.

3.4.3 Adding and visualising.

Practice 5:

Using libraries with integrated circuits.

Electronic gates are implemented in integrated circuits. The 74XX series of logic gates
is built with bipolar transistors. Follow your teachers instructions to download the 74XX
library from http://ozark.hendrix.edu/~burch/logisim/. It is called 7400 series Logisim
library from Ben Oztalay. Load it on logisim.
You have to find out what pins and what circuits to use to build this logic function:
Q = (A NOR B) AND (NOT C)
These are the microchips you may need to use:
7400: quad 2-input NAND.
7404: hex inverter.
7402: quad 2-input NOR gate.
7408: quad 2-input AND gate.
7432: quad 2-input OR gate.

Practice 6:

Using Adding binary numbers with logisim.

Build the circuit in the picture. You will need:

Normal inputs and outputs set to 4 bits.
An adder from the Arithmetic folder.
Three hex digit display from the
Input/output folder.

The hexadecimal code has 16 different

digits. What are they?

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3- Digital electronics.

4 Revision.
Visual summary

You have to create a visual summary of the three units. It has to fit

on one page. It cant include sentences, just key words. It has to include: a time line,
diagrams (tree, Venn...), formulae, symbols, circuits, samples, calculations, truth tables,
etc. First you have to do it individually on a blank sheet of paper. Later you will do group
work and agree on a final version that you have to write on this page.

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3- Digital electronics.

Teaching activity.

The following box contains all the topics that will be in the final

exam. You will be given a number to work on one of the topics. You have to prepare an
activity about that topic, similar to the ones you did during the lessons. Prepare the
answer key too. You may have to teach that activity or be asked to solve some of your
partners activities on the board.

1- Questions on the history of electronics.

2- E-waste

3- Electronic block diagrams.

4- Analogue/digital/binary.

4- Ohms law.

5- Resistor colour code.

5- Types of resistors.

6- Potential dividers.

7- Capacitors, types and units.

8- Charge and discharge of a capacitor.

9- Diodes: function and types.

10- Current calculations for diodes.

11- Transistors: function, parts and types.

12-Transistor as an amplifier: circuit

description and calculations.

13- Transistor as a switch: circuit

description.

14- Binary-decimal conversion.

15- Binary addition.

16- Basic logic operators: gates and

symbols.

17- Logic circuits analysis with 3 inputs

and 3 gates.

18- Logic system design with 2 or 3 inputs.

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Electronics

Useful language.

3- Digital electronics.

Here you can write down all new vocabulary and useful

expressions.
Vocabulary:

Expressions:

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