Use of Metals in Construction

Dr. R. N. Behera
 Use of Metals in Construction
Most of the Metals and alloys used in Building
construction materials can be either welded or machined.

The distinguishing characteristics or qualities that are

used to describe a substance such as metal are known as
its physical properties.

Those physical properties which describe the behaviour

of a metal when it is subjected to particular types of
mechanical usage are called mechanical properties.
 Metals
A metal may be defined as a chemical element that possesses
Metallic properties

Metallic properties are defined as:

Luster

good thermal and electrical conductivity and the

Capability of being permanently shaped or deformed at
room temperature

in electrolysis, carries a positive charge that is liberated

at the cathode (-)
 Metal Types
The metals are divided into two general
classifications:
Ferrous and Nonferrous
Ferrous metals are those composed primarily of iron
and iron alloys
Nonferrous metals are those composed primarily of
some element or elements other than iron
Nonferrous metals or alloys sometimes contain a
small amount of iron as an alloying element or as an
impurity.
 FERROUS METALS
Ferrous metals include all forms of iron and steel
alloys.
wrought iron
cast iron
carbon steels
alloy steels
tool steels

Normally, ferrous metals are magnetic

Nonferrous metals are nonmagnetic

 PIG IRON
Pig iron is composed of about
93% iron, from 3% to 5% carbon,
and various amounts of other
elements.

Pig iron is comparatively weak

and brittle; therefore, it has a
limited use and approximately
ninety precent produced is refined
to produce steel.

Cast-iron pipe and some fittings

and valves are manufactured from
pig iron.
 WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is made from pig iron
with some slag mixed in during
manufacture. Almost pure iron, the
presence of slag enables wrought
iron to resist corrosion and
oxidation.

The chemical analyses of wrought

iron and mild steel are just about the
same. The difference comes from the
properties controlled during the
manufacturing process.

Wrought iron can be gas and arc

welded, machined, plated, and easily
formed; however, it has a low
hardness and a low-fatigue strength.
 CAST IRON
Cast iron is any iron containing
greater than 2% carbon alloy.

Cast iron has a high-compressive

strength and good wear resistance;
however, it lacks ductility,
malleability, and impact strength.
Alloying it with nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, silicon,
or vanadium improves toughness,
tensile strength, and hardness.
A malleable cast iron is produced
through a prolonged annealing
process
 INGOT IRON
Ingot iron is a commercially pure
iron (99.85% iron) that is easily
formed and possesses good ductility
and corrosion resistance.

In iron, the carbon content is

considered an impurity

In steel it is considered an alloying

element.

The primary use for ingot iron is for

galvanized and enamelled sheet.
 Steel
Of all the different metals and
materials that we use in our trade,
steel is by far the most important.

Used in skyscrapers, stronger and

longer bridges, and railroad tracks
that did not collapse.

Steel is manufactured from pig iron

by decreasing the amount of carbon
and other impurities and adding
specific amounts of alloying
elements.
 Do not confuse steel with the two general classes of iron: cast
iron (greater than 2% carbon) and pure iron (less than 0.15%
carbon).

In steel manufacturing, controlled amounts of alloying

elements are added during the molten stage to produce the
desired composition.

The composition of a steel is determined by its application and

the specifications that were developed by the following:
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
 Carbon Steel
Carbon steel is a term applied to a broad range of steel that
falls between the commercially pure ingot iron and the cast
irons. This range of carbon steel may be classified into four
groups:
Low-Carbon Steel 0.05% to 0.30% carbon

Medium-Carbon Steel 0.30% to 0.45% carbon

High-Carbon Steel 0.45% to 0.75% carbon

Very High-Carbon Steel 0.75% to 1.70% carbon

 LOW-CARBON STEEL
Steel in this classifi-
cation is tough and
ductile, easily
machined, formed, and
welded.

It does not respond to

any form of heat
treating, except case
hardening.
 MEDIUM-CARBON STEEL
These steels are strong
and hard but cannot be
welded or worked as
easily as the low-carbon
steels.

used for crane hooks,

axles, shafts, setscrews,
and so on.
 HIGH-CARBON STEEL
Steel in these classes respond
well to heat treatment and can
be welded.

When welding, special

electrodes must be used along
with preheating and stress-
relieving procedures to prevent
cracks in the weld areas.

These steels are used for dies,

cutting tools, mill tools, railroad
car wheels, chisels, knives, and
so on.
 STAINLESS STEEL
This type of steel is classified by the American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI) into two general series named the 200-300 series
and 400 series. Each series includes several types of steel with
different characteristics.

The 200-300 series of stainless steel is known as AUSTENITIC.

This type of steel is very tough and ductile in the as welded
condition; therefore, it is ideal for welding and requires no annealing
under normal atmospheric conditions.

The most well-known types of steel in this series are the 302 and
304.
They are commonly called 18-8 because they are composed of 18%
chromium and 8% nickel.
The chromium nickel steels are the most widely used and are
normally nonmagnetic.
 ALLOY STEELS
Steels that derive their properties primarily from the presence of some
alloying element other than carbon are called ALLOYS or ALLOY
STEELS.

Alloy steels always contain traces of other elements. Among the more com-
mon alloying elements are nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon, and
tungsten.

Alloy steels may be produced in structural sections, sheets, plates, and bars
for use in the "as-rolled" condition.

These alloys are used in structures where the strength of material is

especially important. Bridge members, railroad cars, dump bodies, dozer
blades, and crane booms are made from alloy steel.
 Nickel Steels
These steels contain from 3.5%
nickel to 5% nickel.
The nickel increases the
strength and toughness of these
steels.
Nickel steel containing more
than 5% nickel has an increased
resistance to corrosion and
scale.
Nickel steel is used in the
manufacture of aircraft parts,
such as propellers and
airframe support members.
 Chromium Steels
These steels have chromium added to improve
hardening ability, wear resistance, and strength.

These steels contain between 0.2% to 0.75%

chromium and 0.45% carbon or more. Some of these
steels are so highly resistant to wear

used for the races and balls in antifriction bearings

Chromium steels are highly resistant to corrosion and

to scale (scratch resistance).
 Chrome Vanadium Steel
This steel has the maximum
amount of strength with the least
amount of weight.
Steels of this type contain from
0.15% to 0.25% vanadium, 0.6%
to 1.5% chromium, and 0.1 % to
0.6% carbon.
Common uses are for
crankshafts, gears, axles, and
other items that require high
strength.
This steel is also used in the
manufacture of high-quality hand
tools, such as wrenches and
sockets.
 Tungsten Steel
This is a special alloy that
has the property of red
hardness.
This is the ability to
continue to cut after it
becomes red-hot.
Because this alloy is
expensive to produce, its
use is largely restricted to
the manufacture of drills, Cutting Wheel
lathe tools, milling
cutters, and similar
cutting tools.
 Manganese Steels
The amount of manganese used
depends upon the properties desired
in the finished product.
Small amounts of manganese produce
strong, free-machining steels.
Larger amounts (between 2% and
10%) produce somewhat brittle steel.
while still larger amounts (11% to
14%) produce a steel that is tough and
very resistant to wear after proper
heat treatment. Railroad tracks, for
example, are made with steel that
contains manganese
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Strength, hardness, toughness, elasticity, plasticity,

brittleness and ductility and malleability are
mechanical properties used as measurements of how
metals behave under a load.

These properties are described in terms of the types

of force or stress that the metal must withstand and
how these are resisted.
Common types of stress are:
Compression

Tension

Shear

Torsion

Impact

1-2 or a combination of these stresses, such as fatigue.

 Compression stresses develop within a material when forces
compress or crush the material.
A column that supports an overhead beam is in compression, and the
internal stresses that develop within the column are compression.

Tension (or Tensile) stresses develop when a material is subject

to a pulling load
for example, when using a wire rope to lift a load or when using it as a guy
to anchor an antenna.

"Tensile strength" is defined as resistance to longitudinal stress

or pull.

Shearing stresses occur within a material when external forces are

applied along parallel lines in opposite directions,
Shearing forces can separate material by sliding part of it in one direction
and the rest in the opposite direction.
 Some materials are equally strong in compression, tension, and shear.
However, many materials show marked differences
for example, cured concrete has a maximum strength of 13800 kPa in compression,
but only 2760 kPa in tension.
Carbon steel has a maximum strength of 386000 kPa in tension and compression
but a maximum shear strength of only 290000 kPa; therefore, when dealing with
maximum strength, you should always state the type of loading.

A material that is stressed repeatedly usually fails at a point

considerably below its maximum strength in tension, compression, or
shear.
For example. a thin steel rod can be broken by hand by bending it back and forth
several times in the same place; however, if the same force is applied in a steady
motion (not bent back and forth). the rod cannot be broken. The tendency of a
material to fail after repeated bending at the same point is known as fatigue.
 Strength
Strength is the property that enables a metal to resist
deformation under load. The ultimate strength is the
maximum strain a material can withstand.

Tensile strength is a measurement of the resistance to being

pulled apart when placed in a tension load

Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist various

kinds of rapidly changing stresses and is expressed by the
magnitude of alternating stress for a specified number of
cycles

Impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly

applied loads
 Hardness
Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent
indentation.

Because there are several methods of measuring hardness, the

hardness of a material is always specified in terms of the
particular test that was used to measure this property.

Rockwell, Yickers, or Brinell are some of the methods of testing.

Of these tests, Rockwell is the one most frequently used.
 Toughness
Toughness is the property that enables a material to
withstand shock and to be deformed without
rupturing

Toughness may be considered as a combination of

strength and plasticity
 Elasticity
When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the
material to deform. Elasticity is the ability of a material to
return to its original shape after the load is removed

Theoretically, the elastic limit of a material is the limit to which

a material can be loaded and still recover its original shape after
the load is removed.
 Plasticity
Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform permanently
without breaking or rupturing.

This property is the opposite of strength. By careful alloying

of metals, the combination of plasticity and strength is used to
manufacture large structural members.

For example, should a member of a bridge structure become

overloaded, plasticity allows the overloaded member to flow
allowing the distribution of the load to other parts of the bridge
structure.
 Brittleness
Brittleness is the opposite of the property of plasticity

A brittle metal is one that breaks or shatters before

it deforms. White cast iron and glass are good
examples of brittle material.

Generally, brittle metals are high in compressive

strength but low in tensile strength.
 Ductility and Malleability
Ductility is the property that enables
a material to stretch, bend or twist
without cracking or breaking.

This property makes it possible for a

material to be drawn out into a thin wire

In comparison, malleability is the

property that enables a material to
deform by compressive forces
without developing defects.

A malleable material is one that can be

stamped, hammered, forged, pressed, or
rolled into thin sheets
CORROSION & FIRE PROTECTION

Corrosion and fire protection of steel structures

are some of the main concerns of an engineer
involved in the design and construction of
structural steel work
 CORROSION OF STEEL
Corrosion resistance, although not a mechanical
property, is important in the discussion of metals.

Corrosion resistance is the property of a metal that

gives it the ability to withstand attacks from
atmospheric, chemical, or electrochemical
conditions.

Corrosion, sometimes called oxidation, is illustrated

by the rusting of iron.
 Types of Corrosion
Pitting corrosion: localized form of corrosion by which
cavities or "holes" are produced in the material

Crevice corrosion: localized attack on a metal surface

at, or immediately adjacent to, the gap or crevice
between two joining surfaces

Bimetallic corrosion: Galvanic corrosion or Dissimilar

Metal Corrosion, is defined as the accelerated corrosion
of a metal because of an electrical contact (including
physical contact) with a more noble metal or
nonmetallic conductor (the cathode) in a corrosive
electrolyte
 Types of Corrosion
Stress corrosion: growth of crack formation in a
corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden
failure of normally ductile metals subjected to a tensile
stress, especially at elevated temperature

Fretting corrosion: wear and sometimes corrosion

damage at the asperities of contact surfaces. This
damage is induced under load and in the presence of
repeated relative surface motion, as induced for
example by vibration
 Types of Corrosion
Bacterial corrosion: Microbial corrosion, bio-
corrosion, microbiologically influenced corrosion, or
microbially induced corrosion (MIC), is corrosion
caused or promoted by microorganisms, usually
chemoautotrophs. It can apply to both metals and non-
metallic materials.

Hydrogen embrittlement: process by which metals

such as steel become brittle and fracture due to the
introduction and subsequent diffusion of hydrogen into
the metal. This is often a result of accidental
introduction of hydrogen during forming and finishing
operations.
Exterior environment and
corrosion risk
 Corrosion Protection

Corrosion does not occur in the absence of water.

Corrosion protection can be achieved by a number of
methods (e.g.)

(a) Application of coatings to separate the metal from

its environment.

(b) Avoiding exposure to moisture and air.

(c) Attention to detailing of the structures to encourage

rapid drainage of water.
 Corrosion Protection
Corrosion does not occur in the absence of
Oxygen and water. This can be achieved by

(a) De-aeration of water

(b) De-humidification of the atmosphere

(c) Application of certain surface coatings

 Corrosion Protection

Corrosion does not occur if the basic electro-

chemical reaction is suppressed

(a) The use of corrosion inhibitors would suppress

either anodic or cathodic reactions and hence the
corrosion is prevented.

(b) The other method is the application of cathodic

protection, which floods the surface with free
electrons and prevents formation of anodes.
 STEEL STRUCTURES SUBJECTED
TO FIRE
a major advantage of steel is that it is incombustible
and it can fully recover its strength following a fire,
most of the times.

The common examples of fire that affects structural

systems are burning of office furniture, books, and
contents of filing cabinet or other materials.

During this cycle of heating and cooling, individual

steel members may become slightly bent or damaged,
generally without affecting the stability of the whole
structure.
 Methods of fire protection
Spray protection: The thickness of spray protection depends on the
fire rating required and size of the job. This is a relatively low cost
system and could be applied rapidly. However due to its undulating
finish, it is usually preferred in surfaces, which are hidden from the
view.

Intumescent coating: These coatings expand and form an

insulating layer around the member when the fire breaks out. This
type of fire protection is useful in visible steelwork with moderate
fire protection requirements. This method does not increase the
overall dimensions of the member. Certain thick and expensive
intumescent coatings will give about 2-hour fire protection. But
these type of coatings require blast cleaned surface and a priming
coat.
 Board protection: This is effective but an expensive method.
Board protection is generally used on columns or exposed
beams. In general no preparation of steel is necessary prior to
applying the protection.

Concrete encasement: This used to be the traditional fire

proofing method but is not employed in structures built
presently. The composite action of the steel and concrete can
provide higher load resistance in addition to high fire resistance.
However, this method results in increases dead weight loading
compared to a protected steel frame.