Lab Manual Sem 1 - Non-Cit PDF

PROFESSIONAL
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

for Engineering Students
(Non-CIT Branches)
Academic Year 2016-17

(Semester-I)
Subject Code - PHYS-103
Name....................................................................................
Branch.................................Roll No......................................
Institute..................................................................................
Department of Physics
College of Engineering Studies
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun
st
2014 -1 Ed. Revised
Copyrights reserved with Department of Physics
Published by:
Department of Physics
UPES, Dehradun.
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATOINS, 98962-31633
PROFESSIONALS Physics Lab Manual - I
INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY
The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate phenomena in
different areas of Physics and to expose you to measuring instruments. Conduct the experiments
with interest and an attitude of learning.
You need to come well prepared to the laboratory with write up and observing lab videos to perform
the experiment.
Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make reliable measurements)
and equally share the work with your group mates.
Be honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings or doctor them to get a
better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement carefully. In any
event all the data recorded in the tables have to be faithfully displayed on the graph.
All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and carefully done.
Bring necessary graph papers for each of the experiment. Learn to optimize on usage of graph
papers.
Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes and display units.
If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and drawing graphs. Come
equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.
Usage of electronic gadgets is strictly prohibited in the laboratory.

PROFESSIONALS Physics Lab Manual - I
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
S. No Title of the Experiment Page No.

1 Newtons Rings 6
2 Diffraction Grating 9
3 Polarimeter 13
4 Carey- Fosters Bridge 16
5 Laser Diffraction 21
6 Hall Effect 25
7 Solar Cell 29
8 Dielectric Constant 34
9 Thomsons e/m Method 40
10 Four Probe Method 44
Semester I
List of Experiments (with Cycles division)
Cycle Week No. Experiment

1 Newton s Rings
2 Diffraction Grating
3 Polarimeter
4 Carey- Fosters Bridge
I
5 Laser Diffraction
6 Newtons Rings
(Virtual Lab-1) (Refractive Index of a liquid)
7 Hall Effect
8 Solar Cell
9 Dielectric Constant
II 10 e/m by Thomsons Method
11 Four Probe Method
12 Michelson's Interferometer
( Virtual Lab-2) (Refractive index of glass plate)
PROFESSIONALS Physics Lab Manual - I 6
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: To determine the wavelength of sodium light (Monochromatic Light) by Newtons rings method.
APPARATUS: Optical arrangement for Newtons rings, travelling microscope, sodium lamp, short focus
convex lens, reading lens and spherometer.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA: Consider a Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature placed on a
circular plane glass plate. A thin film of air is formed between the glass plate and the lens as shown. At the
point O where the lens is in contact with the glass plate, the thickness of the air film is zero and as we
proceed away from O, the thickness of the film gradually increases. At the points around O and at equal
distance from it, the thickness of the film is same since the bottom surface of the lens is spherical.
Figure 1.1
Now suppose that monochromatic light is incident normally on the air film at X at a distance of a from O.
This light is partially reflected at the top surface of the air film at X and after refraction in air partially at Y.
The two reflected beams will have certain path difference depending upon the thickness of the film (XY).
Interference of these two reflected beams takes place which can be observed through a microscope placed
vertically above the lens. The point X will be bright or dark, depending upon whether the path difference is odd
or even number of half wave length of incident light. Similarly interference of light occurs at all other points of
the film and a set of rings which are alternately bright and dark will be observed with a dark spot at the centre of
the rings. Each ring is the locus of all points in the film which are at the same distance from the centre O of the
th th
ring system. If dm and dn are the diameters of the m and n dark rings respectively and R is the radius of
curvature of the curved surface of the Plano-convex lens, it can be shown that the wavelength of light is given by
2 2
Dm Dn

4R m n
Thus by forming these rings called Newtons rings and by measuring their diameters, the wavelength of
light can be determined.
APPLICATIONS
Thickness of a thin film.
Radius of curvature of convex surface of the given lens.
Refractive index of a liquid.
Wavelength of a monochromatic light.
Color separation scanning Equipments/ Colour scanners.
Anti-Newton ring Glass in photographic industry.
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the Plano-convex lens on the circular plane glass plate such that the convex surface of the
Plano convex lens is in contact with the plane glass plate. Place this combination in the wooden box,
which contain a plane glass plate inclined by 45o to the incident light from the short focus convex
lens. Place the wooden box under the traveling microscope and adjust it until sharp rings are seen.
2. Bring the point of the cross wires to the centre spot of the ring system. Starting from the centre of the
ring system move the microscope cross wires to the left up to the 19th dark ring. (This number
selected arbitrarily).
3. Set the vertical cross wire tangential to the 19th dark ring at the left and note the reading on the
horizontal scale of the microscope. Repeat the same for alternate dark rings until cross wire reaches
1st dark ring. Similarly take the readings of alternate rings at the right side starting from 1st ring.
4. Determination of radius of curvature of the convex surface of the Plano-convex lens (R)
Take out the lens and mark the surface which was in contact with glass plate. Place the spherometer
on the convex surface of the plano-convex lens and note the reading of the spherometer (h1) then
place the spherometer on the plane glass plate and note the reading (h2).
Reading of the spherometer for convex surface of the lens (h1) =cm
Reading of the spherometer for plane glass plate (h2) =cm
Average distance between the legs of the spherometer (l) =cm
Height of the convex surface (h) = (h1 h2) =cm
Radius of curvature of the curved surface of the Plano-convex lens
2
l h
R 6h 2 ...................................cm
TABLE
2
Microscope Reading (cm) Diameter D
2
S.No. Ring No. D=L~R (cm )
Left side (L) Right side (R) (cm)
1 20
2 18
3 16
4 14
5 12
6 10
7 8
8 6
9 4
10 2
GRAPH
2 Y
Draw a graph with the ring number on X-axis and (diameter) on Y-axis.
By joining the points a straight line passing through the origin is obtained
as shown in figure 1.2. Find the slope of the straight line, which is:
2
2
d
Diameter
2 2 d m
m
d n
m n 2
d n
CALCULATIONS O
n m X
Radius of curvature of the plano convex lens =cm Number of rings
(R) Diameter square of the mth ring d2m =cm2 Figure 1.2
Diameter square of the nth ring =cm2
2
d2n Slope of the straight line =cm
Wavelength ( ) =cm
RESULT: Wave length of Sodium light () is found to be =cm = . A0
PRECAUTIONS
1. The lens surface as well as circular glass plate must be well cleaned.
2. The centre spot of the ring system should be dark.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is Newtons Ring? How are these rings formed?

2. Why are these rings circular? If the fringes are not exactly circular what do you infer?
3. Why are you using the Plano-convex lens of large focal length?
4. Why do the rings get closer as the order of rings increases?
5. Why is the centre of these rings dark?
REFERENCES
1 Practical Physics Gupta.Kumar
2 A text book of Practical Physics R.K Goel, Govind Ram
3 B.Sc Practical Physics C.LArora
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: To determine the wavelength of the spectral lines (Blue, Green, Yellow, Y 1, Y2) using a
diffraction grating by normal incidence method.
APPARATUS: Spectrometer, diffraction grating, sprit level, mercury vapor lamp and magnifying lens.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA
Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the obstacle specially when passed close to sharp
edges or through apertures or narrow openings. Consider a plane transmission grating with alternate opaque and
transparent lines. Let a parallel beam of light rays are incident normally on the grating. Most of these rays are
transmitted in the direction of the incident light through transparent portions of the grating and if a converging
lens is placed in their path, they are brought to focus at O. there will be a very bright image. Some of the incident
light is diffracted at the edges such as B, D and F etc., at different angles as shown in figure 2.1. If we consider
these rays (bend at B and D at an angle from the direction of the incident light) all such rays form a parallel
beam and after passing through the lens, they are brought to focus at I. The intensity at I will be maximum or
minimum depending upon the path difference between the diffracted rays from B and D. If d is the grating
element (distance between two consecutive lines on the grating), path difference is equal to dsin .
B O
F Figure 2.1
Thus if dsin = n (an integral number of wave lengths) the bright images are formed in the focal plane of
the lens. These are called first order, second order (n=1, 2, 3,) etc., images. Thus one set of images will be
formed on one side of the central bright image at O. Also the diffraction or bending of light rays takes place
to the other side of the incident direction and corresponding images of different orders are formed on the
other side of the central image O. Thus in the field of view of a telescope of which the lens L forms the
objective, a central bright image and the diffracted images of different orders (n=1, 2, 3, etc.) are observed.
If the incident light is monochromatic, each order of diffracted image will be of the same color, but if white
light (mercury) is incident on the grating, each diffracted image consists of a whole spectrum. Thus spectra
of different orders are formed on either side of the central white image.
APPLICATIONS
Grating as filters
Fiber optic telecommunication
Beam splitters
Optical couplers
Metrological
Ground-based astronomy
Raman spectroscopy
Colorimetry
Atomic and molecular spectroscopy
Fluorescence spectroscopy Source
Slit
FORMULA
Collimator
a b sin nGrating equation
(a b)sin
Or = o
n 45o 90
o
45
Where Grating
Telescope
(a + b) = grating element Prism table
= angle of diffraction. Figure 2.2
n = order of diffraction
PROCEDURE
1. Make preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer.
2. Clamp the grating on the prism table with the help of a clamp. Adjust the grating for normal
incidence position by the following method.
I. Set the telescope for direct reading position and note the reading V1 and V2.
o
II. Add 90 to the above reading and rotate the telescope to this reading and fix it.
III. Now rotate grating until the image of the slit is at cross wires of the telescope and fix the
prism table. Now the incident light is making 45o with the grating plane (See figure 2.2).
IV. Release the vernier scale knob and rotate the vernier scale through an angle of 45o so that the
grating will be exactly normal to that of the incident light. Fix the vernier table in this position;
This is called as the normal incidence position.
3. Release the telescope and rotate it to left side of the direct reading position until the first order
spectrum is seen. Now coincide the vertical cross wire over the spectral lines of desired color and
note down the readings in the two verniers as V1 and V2. Further, rotate the telescope till second
order spectral lines are visible, coincide the cross wire and note down the readings in two verniers as
V1 and V2 against 2nd order.
4. Now rotate telescope to the right side of the direct reading position until the first order spectrum is
seen. Now, coincide the cross wires with the same yellow spectral line and note down the readings in
the two verniers as V1 and V2. Rotate the telescope further until the II order spectral lines are seen,
then coincide the vertical cross wires with lines and note down the readings as V1 and V2. The
angle of diffraction is given by half the angle between corresponding lines.
CALCULATIONS
No. of lines per cm on the grating = grating element = a+b =1/N=2.54/15000

Figure 2.3
TABLE
Order Spectrometer Readings a bsin
Spectral 2 V1 V1V2 V2
of Left Right n
lines 2
diffraction V1 V2 V1 V2
Y2
Y1
I order
Green
Blue
Y2
Y1
II order
Green
Blue
RESULT: The observed wavelengths are given in table
Colour of specturl line (observed) (Standard) % (Error)

Blue ........ ........ ........
Green ........ ........ ........
Yellow 1 ........ ........ ........
Yellow 2 ........ ........ ........
PRECAUTIONS
1. Optical adjustment of the spectrometer should be made directly.
2. The slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. Grating surface should not be touched with fingers as the slit might get damaged.
4. The grating should be exactly normal to the incident beam.
5. While taking observations, telescope and prism table should be kept fixed.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is a plane transmission diffraction grating?
2. Why the grating should be kept normal to the plane of grating, then which formula should be applied?
3. What is (a+b) in the formula?
4. How many orders of spectra do you get here? Why do you not get the third order spectrum?
5. How many types of grating are known to you?
6. What is the main difference between the spectrum obtained by grating and due to prism?
7. What do you mean by dispersion of light?
8. Why a light on passing through the prism disperses into its constituent colours?
9. Define dispersive power of any material?
10. On what factors does the dispersive power depend?
11. What is the angle of deviation?
REFERENCES
2 A text book of Practical Physics R.K Goel.Govind Ram
4 Engineering Physics- M.N Avadhanulu, A.A Dani and P.M Pokley
5 A Laboratory Manual of Physics D.P Khandelwal
6 B.Sc Practical Physics Harnam Singh
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM: To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar with the help of a polarimeter.
APPARATUS: Half-shade/Bi-quartz polarimeter, light source (Sodium/Mercury vapor lamp), sugar,
measuring flask, beaker, analytical balance and a weight box.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA
If a beam of unpolarised light is viewed through two crossed Nicol prisms (when the principal planes
of the two are perpendicular to each other) the field of view is completely dark. The first Nicol is called the
polariser and the second is called the analyzer. If the sugar solution is introduced between the two crossed
Nicols, it is found that light is restored in the field of view. To extinguish the light, the analyzer has to be
rotated through a finite angle depending on the concentration of the sugar solution. This experiment shows
that the substance introduced between the Nicols has rotated the plane of polarization. Such substances are
called optically active substances and the phenomenon is called Optical activity. If the plane of
polarization is rotated clockwise, the substance is called dextro-rotatory (right handed) and if it is rotated
anti-clockwise, the substance is called levo-rotatory (left handed).
The angle by which the plane of polarization is rotated is directly proportional to the length of the
path traveled by the light in the substance (l), the concentration of the substance (c). It also depends on the
temperature and wavelength of light. Thus for a particular wavelength and temperature
v
l c or S l c or S
l c l m
Where
S = specific rotation or specific rotatory power of the substance
= rotation produced in degree
m = mass of sugar in gm. dissolved in
water v = volume of sugar solution
l = length of the tube in decimeter
Specific rotation, for a given wavelength at a given temperature, is defined as the rotation produced by one
decimeter length of the solution having a concentration of 1 gm/cc.
APPLICATIONS
Sugar Industry Pharmaceutical Industry
Chemical Industry Flavours, Fragrances and Essential Oils
LAURENTS HALF - SHADE POLARIMETER
Laurents half-shade polarimeter is an instrument used for finding the specific rotation of certain optically
active solutions. The essential parts of a Laurents half-shade polarimeter are shown in the figure. Sis unpolarised/
ordinary source of light and L is a convex lens which renders the incident light into a parallel beam. N 1 and N2 are
two Niclo prisms. N1 acts as polariser while N2 acts as analyzer. N2 can be rotated about a common axis of N1 and N2.
The rotation of analyzer (N2) can be read in a graduated circular scale (S.C.). The vernier is also provided to read the
fraction of a degree. Light after passing through polariser becomes plane polarized with its
vibrations in the principal plane of the Nicol (N1). The plane polarized light now passes through a half-
shade device (H.S.) and then through a tube T containing the optically active substance. Usually T is a
hollow glass tube having a large diameter in the middle so that no air bubble may be in the path of light
when filled with a liquid. The emergent light on passing through analyzer N2 is viewed through a telescope
T. The telescope is focused on the half shade.
S
N
L 1 HS T N2 SC T
lens polariser halfshade tube analyser circular scale telescope
PROCEDURE
1. Weight exactly 4 gms of sugar and dissolve it in 100 c.c. of distilled water in a measuring flask;
make the solution exactly 100 c.c.
2. If the polarimeter is employing a half shade device, a monochromatic source is used and if a biquartz
device is used than white light is to be used. Clean the tube such that it is free from dust and fills it
with distilled water and close the ends. Place the tube in position inside the polarimeter.
3. Look through the telescope and rotate the analyzer till the two halves of the field of view appear equally
bright. Take the reading of main scale as well as vernier scale and find out the total reading (1).
4. Take out the tube and fill it completely with the sugar solution so that there are no air bubbles in it.
(DoNot Over Tight the Cap It May Break the Tube) Close the tube, place it in its position in the
polarimeter and look through the telescope. Again set the field of view as explained in step-3. Note
the reading of the analyzer on the circular scale (2).
5. Repeat step 4 of the experiment for different concentrations of the solution and tabulate the observations.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of the vernier of the circular = .

Length of the cylindrical tube (l) = .cm
Mass of the sugar dissolved (x) =. gm
Volume of the solution (v) =. cc.
Temperature of the solution (t) (room temperature) o
=. C
TABLE
S.No. Concentration Reading on circular scale when Angle of rotation of
10.. v
of solution two halves are of equal intensity plane of polarization S=
l.x
(x/v) gm/cc xn = x n - x1
1. Distilled water x1
2. 4/100 x2
3. 8/100 X3
4. 12/100 x4
GRAPH Y
Plot a graph between concentration of the solution (c) on the X-axis and angle
of rotation of the plane of polarization of plane polarized light () on the Y-
axis. You get a straight line passing through the origin.
CALCULATIONS

slope X
c Concentration, c (in gm/cc)
slope10
S=
l
Where l is the length of the tube in cm
Reading with distilled water, say 1 = .
RESULTS: The specific rotation of glucose solution at oC for the given light is
_______________degree/unit concentration/unit length.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The window cap of the tube containing the solution should be gently tight, so that there will be no leakage.
2. There should be no air bubble in the solution contained in the polarimeter tube.
3. The temperature of the solution must be recorded (room temperature).
4. Having set the analyzer in correct position w.r.t the polarizer, turn the former through 180o and again
make a similar setting.
5. Under no circumstances the polarizer should be touched during one complete set of observation.
6. Use sodium light for half shade, and white light for bi-quartz.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by polarization of light?

2. How does polarized light differ from ordinary light?
3. What is angle of polarization?
4. What are the plane of polarization and plane of vibration?
5. What is Polaroid?
6. What are the uses of Polaroids in daily life?
7. What is Brewsters law?
8. What is the polarizing angle for the air-glass?
REFERENCES
4 Electronics fundamentals and applications Ryder, J.D
5 Properties of silicon and germanium Conwell,E.M
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM: To determine the specific resistance of a given wire by using Carey-Fosters Bridge.
APPARATUS USED: Carey-Fosters bridge, Battery Eliminator , galvanometer, decimal resistance box,
thick copper strips, given experimental resistance wire, a rheostat of range 10 to 20, plug-key, jockey,
connection wires and screw gauge.
FORMULA USED:
(i) For Resistance per Unit length of bridge wire (): The standard resistance box R.B. for X in
G1andthick copper strip for shortening so that Y=0.
The resistance per unit length of bridge wire is given by;
X
/cm
l2 l1
where X = known fractional resistance value resistance box.
l1is the balancing length with X in G1and Y in G4(before Interchanging ) and
l2is the balancing length with X in G4and Y in G1(after Interchanging)
(ii) For the unknown Resistance: The unknown resistance (Y ) of the given wire is given by;
R = Y = X - (l2 l1)
where Y(R) is the unknown resistance of the given wire connected in G4 and G1
X is the value of resistance in the decimal resistance box connected in gap 1and 4. .
l1is the balancing length with X in G and Y in G (before interchanging)
l is the balancing length with X in G1 and Y in G4 (after interchanging)
2 4 1
= resistance per unit length of the bridge wire.
(iii) The specific resistance S of the wire is given by:
2
R A r Y
S ohm-cm
l l
where, S = specific resistance, r = radius of wire in cm
l = length of wire in cm, Y = resistance of the wire in ohm.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
E K
known unknown
resistance resistance
X P Q Y
SR SR E : Battery Eliminator, K Key

G P,Q : Standard Resistance in G2 and G3 respectively.
G1 G2 3 G4 X : Variable resistance from Resistance Box
Y : Unknown resistance for which S is to be determined.
J G : Galvanometer, J : Jockey
W1 W2
l1 G
Figure 4.1: Carey Fosters bridge for determining specific resistance
PROCEDURE
The experiment is done in the following three steps;

(a) Measurement of Resistance per unit Length ( ) of the Bridge Wire:Calibration of the Bridge Wire.
For this step, set up the following experimental set-up;
(i) Press the Jockey J at the two ends of the wire W1 and W2. If the deflections in galvanometer are
opposite the circuit connections are correct.
(ii) Plug out 0.1 ohm of resistance in X (in G1). Check for the opposite deflections. Then find the point
exactly where the deflection is becoming zero by moving the jockey. This point is the balancing point.
(iii) Note the distance of null deflection point from the positive end of wire W 1 to get the balancing
length (l1)
(iv) Repeat this process by changing X values from 0.1 ohm to 0.5 ohm and note down the
corresponding values of l1.
Calculate the value of linear resistance or resistance per unit length of bridge wire for each set of
observations by the following formula and find the average value of .
R
and then find its mean.
l2 l1
(b) Measurement of unknown resistance of the given wire:
(i) Connect the circuit as shown in figure 4.1. Remove the copper strip from the gap G4 and connect
the given unknown resistance wire of nearly 50 cm length.
(ii) Introduce a suitable resistance of nearly 1-3 ohm in the decimal resistance box x in gap G .
1
(iii) Slide the jockey on the wire till you get a balancing point. Note balancing length l1 from left end W1 of
the wire.
(iv) Interchange the positions of resistance box and unknown resistance wire. Again get the balance
point by sliding the jockey on the wire and note the balancing length l2 from W1.
(v) Repeat this experiment for different values of resistances from the resistance box and get other
values of (l2-l1).
(vi) The unknown resistance is given by the formula:
R Y X (l '2l ' 1 )
where X is the resistance introduced in the resistance box and l2l1 is the difference of the two
balancing lengths before and after interchanging the R.B. and unknown resistance in each case
and find the value of unknown resistance.
(c) For specific resistance:
(i) Measure the length of the unknown resistance wire in cm.

(ii) Measure the diameter of the given resistance wire by screw gauge at few places and then
calculate mean value of diameter and hence radius; r = d/2
OBSERVATIONS
Table for the determination of linear resistance of Bridge Wire ( )
S. Resistance (ohm) Balancing Length (cm) Linear
No. X Y Before After l2l1 Resistance
Interchanging Interchanging X
(cm) /cm
X in G1 (l1) X in G4 (l2) l2 l1
1 0.1 0
2 0.2 0
3 0.3 0
4 0.4 0
5 0.5 0
(ii) Table for the determination of unknown resistance of a given wire:
S. Resistance (ohm) Balancing Length (cm)

No. X Y Before After l' l' Y X ( l l )
2 1 2 1
(Known) (Unknown) Interchanging Interchanging (cm)
X in G (l') X in G (l' )
1 1 4 2
1 0.5 Y
2 1.0 Y
3 1.5 Y
4 2.0 Y
5 2.5 Y
Avg Y = ........
The unknown resistance of the wire is Y =
(iii) Table for the measurement of radius of wire by using screw guage
Error =.........
Correction =.........
S. No. P.S.R. H.S.C H.S.C. L.C. TR = P.S.R + H.S.C L.C

(mm) Observed Corrected (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
Average Diameter : .mm
Radius of the wire, r = d/2= ..mm =.cm
CALCULATIONS
(a) The resistance per unit length of the bridge wire is given:
R

l2l1 (Similarly calculate for other observations and take the mean)
(b) The unknown resistance of the given wire is given by;
Y=X l2l1=....... ohm. (Similarly, calculate Y for other observations and take the mean)
(c) The specific resistance of given wire is given by;
Rr2
S ............ohm-cm
l
RESULTS
1. The resistance per unit length of wire = ...........ohm / cm
2. The specific resistance of the material of the wire = ...........ohm-cm
Measured value (S)exp Standard value (S) Percentage Error

Th
(ohm-cm) (ohm-cm)
PRECAUTIONS
1. The end of the connection wires should be cotton free, clean and must be tightly connected.
2. See that the resistances in four arms P, Q, X and Y of the bridge must be of the same order so that
the bridge remains quite sensitive.
3. Continuous current should not flow in the wire otherwise it gets heated up and its resistance may
undergo a change.
4. For this, the jockey should not be dragged continuously all along the length of the wire but should be
tapped at different points on the bridge wire.
5. The bridge wire should be uniform in cross-section.
6. The jockey should be gently put on the wire and not pressed hard to avoid and change in the
diameter of the wire.
7. The diameter of the wire must be measured in two perpendicular directions and at many places and
then mean value of it must be used.
8. A high resistance should be used in the circuit to measure the exact balancing point. (conventionally)
APPLICATIONS:
1. Compare two nearly equal resistance
2. Determine the temperature coefficient of resistance .
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is the principal of Carey Fosters Bridge?
Ans. It is based on the principle that when resistance of outer gaps are interchanged, there is shift in the
position of balanced point. The difference between the resistance of bridge wire between these two
balance point.
PX
Q Y
2. In what respect it is an improvement over Meter Bridge?
3. How does the accuracy of resistance per unit length of the wire ( ) depend on the difference
between the known resistances in the outer gaps?
4. What can be the maximum value of this difference which you can take?
5. When will your apparatus be most sensitive?
6. What is the material of the bridge wire? Why it has been selected?
7. What would you prefer, a copper strip or a copper wire in the outer gap? Why?
8. What does represents? Will it be same at every point of the bridge wire?
9. What is the effect of increasing the effective length of Bridge wire?
10. What is the basic construction of a Resistance Box?
11. Why is the wire doubled inside the box?
12. What is the percentage composition of the alloys constantan and Manganin of which resistance wires
are made?
13. What do you mean by the resistance of a conductor?
Ans. The ratio of the potential difference between the two ends of a conductor to the current flowing in it,
is called the resistance of the conductor.
14. On what factors does it depend?
Ans. Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (l), inversely proportional to the area of cross
section (A). It also depends upon the nature of material and temperature of the conductor.(R= kl /A).
15. What is its unit?
Ans. Unit of resistance is ohm.
16. What is specific resistance? What is its unit?
Ans. Specific resistance of a substance is defined as the resistance material having unit length and unit area of
cross section
S RA if A= 1 and l =1 then S = R
l
Its unit is ohm-cm
17. Is specific resistance same for all materials?
Ans. No, it is different for different material.
18. What is effect of temperature on resistance?
Ans. It increases with increase in temperature.
19. What is the effect of increasing the effective length of a Carey Fosters bridge wire?
Ans. It will increase the accuracy of the result because then percentage error in reading the position of the
balance point is very much decreased.
20. What is the minimum difference resistance that you can measure with its bridge wire?
Ans. It is equal to the resistance of the bridge wire.
21. What is the maximum difference in resistance that you can measure with this bridge wire?
Ans. It is equal to the resistance of the total length of the bridge wire
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM: Measuring the Diameter of a Human Hair by Laser Diffraction
THEORY: Often it is necessary to determine the diameter of a fine wire, thin thread or other object that cannot
be measured by convectional means. These can be measured by using methods of diffraction and interference
known as Youngs Double Slit Experiment. While Youngs experiment deals with the pattern of light impinging
on two narrows slits separated by a small distance. The method can be applied to an object with a small diameter
as well, where the diameter is within an order of magnitude of the wavelength of laser light used.
PROCEDURE
1 Take a 15 cm by 15 cm piece and make a 10 cm by 10 cm hole in the center of the cardboard piece.
This is your mounting bracket.
2. Select one strand of hair approximately 15-25 cm long. This hair needs to be mounted on the
mounting bracket from step 1.
3 Mount the hair on the bracket using tape. Place the hair so that it bisects the mounting bracket. Make
sure the hair is taut and straight.
4. Set the laser pointer (or laser) on the lab table. Positioning the laser so the beam strikes the hair in
the mounting bracket. (You may use binder clips or books to position the laser source and the
mounting bracket on the table.)
5. Make sure the laser setup and mounting bracket face a wall or screen.
6. Record the following key parameters on the data sheet provided. Record the wavelength of the laser
as . In some case it may be necessary to average the wavelength values given on the lasers label.
Typical value of wavelength for a red He-Ne Laser is 632-634 nm.
Red laser pointers have a typical range between 630 nm 680 nm. Record the distance (D) between
the mounting bracket and screen or wall. (If you are using a wall for a screen it might be prudent to
tape a piece of white paper on the wall to use as a background.)
7. Examine the pattern striking the screen. It should appear similar to the image below. (You may need
to darken the work area or room to see the faint higher order bands.)
8. Carefully measure the bright bands by measuring from the center of the bright central band to the
starting edge of first bright band on the left. Record this value as y1i, under the ymi column. (You may
find a bring spot in the center of the central band. This point can be used as reference.) Measure
from the center of the central band again to the end of the first bright band on the left. Record this as
y1f, under the ymf column. The average of these two measurements is the distance between the
central bright band and the 1st order maximum (m=1) on the left side. Record this on the data table
as y1 avg under the ym avg column on the data sheet. Repeat the steps for the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th
order bands. If you can see the bands beyond m = 5, measure those as well. Make sure you measure
from the middle of the central band to the beginning and the end of each of the mth order bands.
(You may have to darken the room to see all the bands.)
9. After measuring all the bands on the left. Proceed to measure the mth order bands on the right side of
the central band using the same techniques outlined in step 8. This should yield a total set of at least
ten measurements.
10. For each ym avg calculate the diameter of the human hair (d) using:
d m D ym avg
11. After determining the ten values of d calculate the average diameter of a human hair and the standard
error (d ) in the measurement of d. where the standard error is the standard deviation of d divided
by the square root of the number of measurements taken.
1/2
d Sd N
EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Example for the 1st order (m = 1) band for a He-Ne laser wavelength = 633 nm, and screen distance of D = 1.5 m.

d1 63310
9
m 11.5/0.02m4.75105m or 47m
Example for the 4th order (m = 4) band for a He Ne laser wavelength = 633 nm, and screen distance of D =

1.5 m. d4 63310
9

m 41.5 0.0575m6.6110
5
m or 66m
The same experiment can be tried out on a needle or pin.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is the range of values for human hair?
2. Average the range of values of human hair. What is the percent difference between your average value
and the average accepted value from different sources of information such as books or internet?
3. What other items could you measure using this technique?
4. What is He-Ne laser? How it works?
5. Why we cant measure human hair diameter using screw gauge?
6. What is diameter of dust particle (floating in air)?
Diameter of a human hair Data sheet
Laser wavelength =
Y Y Y
m |m| mi mf m avg Calculated Diameter
+7 7
+6 6
+5 5
+4 4
+3 3
+2 2
+1 1
0 N/A N/A N/A
-1 1
-2 2
-3 3
-4 4
-5 5
-6 6
-7 7
Average Diameter
Error
Some examples of diameter of human hair

Result Standardized Result
Bibliographic entry
Piezo Technology. Epson (UK) Ltd. "45 microns, 2 times smaller than the 90m
diameter of a human hair and close to the
limit of resolution for the human eye"
Denny R's Homepage. Denny & "Diameter of a human hair
25.4 m
Gayle Rossbach. Palmdale, CA inches: 0.001; centimeters: 0.00254"
Why ChooseAWater Treatment "Particulate contaminants including asbestos,
rust, sediment, dirt, and scale as small as 0.2
60m
System?Aqua-Fresh Drinking
Water Systems, Inc microns (1/300th diameter of a human hair)."
Hair - Important Facts About Hair. "Flaxen hair is the finest, from 1/1500 to 1/500 17 50 m (flaxen)
CAQTI Cosmetics, Inc. of an inch in diameter and black hair is the
coarsest, from 1/450 to 1/140 of an inch." 51 181 m (black)
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM: To study the Hall effect and Determine the Hall coefficient (RH) and carrier density (n) of a
given semiconductor material.
APPARATUS: Hall Probe (Ge Crystal) (thickness 0.4-0.5 mm); Hall Probe (InAs crystal), Hall Effect set-
up (Digital mill voltmeter (0-200 mV) and constant current power supply, Electromagnet (Field intensity
11,000 5% gauss), Constant current power supply.
FORMULA: As shown in Figure 7.1, z is the thickness along Z-axis of the crystal. Hz is the magnetic
fieldapplied along Z axis. Current I is flowing along X-axis. Hall voltage VH is developed across the faces
normal to Y-axis and x is the length of the crystal along X-axis;
R
VH.Z V .Z
(i) Hall coefficient H volt cm A1G1 H
10 8 3
cm / Coulomb where V is in volts, I
IH z IH z H
I n
amperes, Z in cm and Hz in gauss.
1 3
(ii) Carrier density n cm (where q = electronic charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C)
RH.q
THEORY: An E.M.F. is set up transversely across a current carrying conductor when a perpendicular
magneticfield is applied. This is called the Hall Effect.
V
E= H
h y
y
I
X h
Figure 7.1: Sample for studying Hall effect
Crystal
Z Ix
N
S
Ix
Pole piece
mV
Vh
Figure 7.2: Illustration of measurement of Hall Voltage

APPLICATIONS
Automotive Industry: Level/tilt measurement sensor, Throttle angle sensor automotive sensors,
Crankshaftposition or speed sensor, Anti-skid sensor, Door interlock and ignition sensor Transmission
mounted speed sensor, RPM sensors, Distributor mounted ignition sensor etc.
Electronic industry: Sequencing sensors, Magnetic card reader, Proximity sensors, Office machine
sensorsAdjustable current sensors, Linear feedback sensor, Multiple position sensor, Microprocessor
controlled sensor, Brushless DC motor sensors etc.
Aerospace Industry: Temperature or pressure sensor, Remote conveyor sensing, Remote reading
sensing,Current sensors, Flow rate sensor (linear output Piston detection sensor).
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall Probe (with Ge crystal) to the voltage terminal and
lengthwise contacts to current terminals of the Hall effect set-up.
2. Now switch ON the Hall Effect set up and adjust the current to a few (mA).
3. Check the Zero field Potential by changing Knob to the voltage side. This voltage is error voltage and
should be subtracted from the Hall voltage reading. (i.e., when Hall probe is outside the magnetic field).
4. Now place the Hall probe in the magnetic field. This Hall probe must be fitted in the wooden stand
before placing in magnetic field so that Hall probe becomes perpendicular to the magnetic field.
5. Switch on the electromagnet power supply by connecting the pole piece to the power supply.
6. Now place the Hall probe (InAs) attached with Gauss-meter between the pole pieces to measure the
magnetic field.
7. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of current keeping the magnetic field constant.
8. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of current as
constant (This is done by placing two probes between the pole pieces and decrease the spacing
between the pole piece and measure the magnetic field and Hall voltage).
9. Plot the graph between VH and I (HZ = constant); VH and H (I = constant).
10. Calculate the slope VH/I and VH/HZ from the two graphs and calculate Hall coefficient in two ways
and determine the mean value.
OBSERVATIONS
Thickness of the semiconductor crystal Z = 0.5 mm =0.05 cm
1 1 1
Conductivity ohm cm
Table 1: Magnetic field Hz = 1000 Gauss Table 2: Current I = 5 mA
S.No. Current Hall Votage S.No. Magnetic field Hall Votage
I (mA) VH (mV) HZ (Gauss) VH (mV)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
Scale Scale
x-axis 1 cm = .....mA x-axis 1 cm = .....Gauss
y-axis 1 cm = ..... mV A y-axis 1 cm = ..... mV A
C B C B
AB AB
Slope= BC Slope= BC
0 0
Current, I (mA) Magnetic field (HZ)
Figure 7.3. Plot of VHversus I Figure 7.4. Plot of VHversus HZ
CALCULATIONS
VH AB VH AB

Slope I
BC
(From plot V vsI), Slope H
Z
BC (From plot V vsH )
H H Z
R
VH Z
(i) H1 Slope Volt cm A-1G-1 = x 108cm3/coul.
I Hz
V
H Z
R -1 -1 8 3
H1 Slope Volt cm A G = x 10 cm /coul.
HZ I
R R
H1 H2
3
Mean RH cm / coul.
2
n 1 19
(ii) Carrier Density (q 1.6 10 )
RH q
3
n 1 / cm
3 19
(cm / coul) 1.6 10 coul)
RESULT
The value of Hall Coefficient (RH) is cm3/coul.

The carrier density (n) = /cm3.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The Hall probe is placed between the pole pieces (in magnetic field) such that maximum Hall
voltage is generated.
2. Current through the Hall probe should be strictly within the limit as mentioned by the manufacturer.
3. Hall voltage developed must be measured very accurately.
4. Magnetic field is varied gradually in steps to avoid damage to the electromagnetic coils.
VIVA-VOCE
What is the Hall Effect?

On what factor, the sign of the Hall potential difference develops?
Why is the potential difference developed when a transverse magnetic field is applied to a current
carrying conductor?
How will you determine the direction of the force exerted on the charge carriers?
What is the Hall coefficient? What are its units?
REFERENCES

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
AIM: Study of both the current - voltage characteristic and the power curve to find the maximum power point
(MPP) and efficiency of a solar cell.
APPARATUS: Solar Panel Consist of 6 solar Cells, Table lamp, Digital/Analog D.C ammeter and voltmeter.
THEORY: A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. Sometimes
theterm solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term
photovoltaiccell is used when the light source is unspecified. Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two
functions: photogeneration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-absorbing material, and separation of the
charge carriers to a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity. This conversion is called the photovoltaic
effect, and the field of research related to solar cells is known as photovoltaic.
Solar cell
P n
2V/20V
+
V
20/200 mA
10E/Step + -
mA
RL Figure 11.1
+ Sunlight
Energy Silicon
Coating
Metal Contact
P
Junction
N
Metal Contact
(A) Circuit Symbol (B) Cross-section
Figure 11.2: Solar cell

APPLICATIONS
Telecommunication systems: Radio transceivers on mountain tops or telephone boxes in the country
can often be solar powered.
Remote monitoring and control: scientific research stations, seismic recording, weather stations, etc.
use very little power which, in combination with a dependable battery, is provided reliably by a small
PV module.
Ocean navigation aids: many lighthouses are powered by solar cells.
Water Pumping/Rural Electrification/Domestic supply
Health Care/Lighting Electronic industry Electric Power Generation in Space.
SIMPLE EXPLANATION
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the
material to produce electricity. The complementary positive charges that are also created (like bubbles) are
called holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.
3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.
PHOTO GENERATION OF CHARGE CARRIER
When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:
1. The photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally) happens for lower energy photons,
2. The photon can reflect off the surface,
3. The photon can be absorbed by the silicon which either: Generates heat or Generates electron-hole pairs, if
the photon energy is higher than the silicon band gap value.
CHARGE CARRIER SEPARATION
There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
1. Drift of carriers, driven by an electrostatic field established across the device
2. Diffusion of carriers from zones of high carrier concentration to zones of low carrier concentration (following
agradient of electrochemical potential).
In the widely used p-n junction designed solar cells, the dominant mode of charge carrier separation is by
drift. However, in non-p-n junction designed solar cells (typical of the third generation of solar cell research such as
dye and polymer thin-film solar cells), a general electrostatic field has been confirmed to be absent, and the dominant
mode of separation is via charge carrier diffusion.
PROCEDURE
1. Take the Solar Energy Trainer NV6005 along with Solar Panel.
2. Place the solar panel in the stand and adjust the panel at an angle of about 45 with the ground. Direct the sunlight
straight at the solar panel (angle of 90).
Note: If sunlight is not properly available then any source of light like lamp can be used.
3. With the DB15 connector connect the Solar Energy Trainer NV6005 with Solar Panel. Then wait for 1 minute
to avoid errors due to temperature fluctuations.
4. Set the potentiometer to maximum resistance i.e. at fully clockwise position and measure and record its
resistance into the Observation Table.
5. Connect the solar cell as shown in the following circuit diagram as shown in figure 11.3.
-
+
a. Connect positive terminal of solar cell to P1 terminal
of the potentiometer. V
b. Connect other end of potentiometer i.e. P2 to positive
P P
2+ -
terminal of ammeter.
c. Connect negative terminal of ammeter to negative
1
A
terminal of solar cell.
d. Now connect the positive terminal of voltmeter to P1 Solar Cells
Panel
and negative terminal of voltmeter to P2.
6. Record the values of corresponding voltage and current
into the observation Table.
Figure 11.3
7. Now gradually move the potentiometer in anti- clockwise direction so that the resistance of the potentiometer
decreases. Now measure the resistances at successively smaller values and record the corresponding values of
voltages and current into the Observation Table below.
Note: Always to measure the resistance of potentiometer at any position, first remove the patch cords from P1andP2
and measure resistance by multi meter. Reconnect these connections again for further measurements.
OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No. Resistance, R Voltage, V (Volt) Current, I (mA) Power Calculated
P = V.I (watt)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
8. Plot the V-I characteristics from the measurements recorded in the table, to show how the photoelectric
current depends on the photoelectric voltage and to find maximum power point.
Fillfactor Calculation
I
SC
Fill factor is the ratio of maxmium useful power to ideal power: 0.16 MPP
Maximum useful power is area of largest rectangle that can be 0.14
formed under V-I curve. Vm and Im are values of voltage and 0.12 Im
current for these conditions. 0.10
Maximum useful power VmIm 0.08
0.06
And Ideal power VOCISC 0.04
Where ISC = maximum value of saturation current 0.02 V
Vm OC
VOC = emf genrated by photovoltaic cell in open circuit. 0.5 1 1.5 2.0
I
V m I m Voltage (V) SC
Fill factor V I Figure11.4: Current voltage characteristicof

OC SC the solar cell
From V-I characteristics you can easily find the maximum power MPP
point (MPP). MPP occurs where the product of voltage and 0.25
) 0.2
current is greatest. W
(
r 0.15
e
w
o
P 0.1
9. Plot the curve of power as a function of voltage from
0.05
the measurements recorded in the table.
0.5 1 1.5 2.0 Voltage (V)
Expected Power - Voltage curve is as shown in figure 11.6.
Figure 11.6: Power curve of the solar
cell as a function of voltage
The maximum power point (MPP) is the maximum value of power in the above curve.
The resistance, RMPP, at which the output power is at a maximum, can be calculated using the following formula:
VMPP
RMPP
I
MPP
TO CALCULATE THE EFFICIENCY () OF SOLAR CELL

The efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio of produced electrical power (Pout) and the incident radiant power (Pin).
= Pout
Efficiency of solar cell,
P
in
Where Pout is the output electrical power (maximum power point).
Pin is calculated by multiplying approximated irradiance (irradiance means radiant power of the light incident per
unit area) by the effective area of the solar cell on the panel.
This method used the fact that the practical value of the current (maximum photoelectric current measured) is
proportional to the photons (radiation) striking the solar cell. This current is therefore proportional to the incident
radiant power of the light.
The open circuit voltage depends on the semiconductor material of which solar cell is made. It is not proportional to
the incident radiant power and therefore cannot be used for this measurement.
PROCEDURE
= Pout
1. Efficiency of solar cell,
P
in
Where
Pout (Output Electrical Power) = Maximum Power Point (MPP)
Pin (Incident radiant power) = Approximated Irradiance Area of solar cell = (F Ip) A
Here A = Area of a solar cell (Length x Breadth) m2
Ip= Practical value of current (maximum photoelectric current measured) indicated on the ammeter, F
is a constant and is given by
Maximum solar Irradiance
F= Specified by
manufactured Maximum value of current
2
The maximum irradiance in summer is approx. 1000 W/m . The maximum value of the current specified by
the manufacturer is achieved at this value i.e. 150mA in the given solar cells. (The parameters of the solar
2
cell/panel are related to the standard test conditions of 1000W/m and cell temperature of 25 C.)
1000
W 2
F=m
150mA
6.67 W
2
m .mA
2.Multiplying the practical value of current (Ip) indicated on the ammeter by the factor gives an approximation of the
radiant power per unit area (irradiance) striking the solar cell.
F 6.67 W
2
m -mA
Approximation of the radiant power per unit area =.

2
3. Now measure the area in m and put the values in the formula given in eq. Pin =
Now, we can calculate the efficiency of solar cell with
P
=Pout
In
Where Pout or MPP =.. (As calculated before in experiment)
=..
The efficiencies of solar cells lie between 12 to 15 %. If efficiency is slightly less than determined value then it is due to
measuring errors and inaccuracies in determining the incident radiant power. Furthermore, the efficiency of solar panel is
less than that of their separate constituent cells. This is caused by losses that arise in matching solar cells that do notall
have exactly the same properties. If the solar cells are connected in series to generate desired voltage, the
maximum power point may not be same for all cells. Solar cell losses arise as not all photons striking the solar
cell can be converted into charge carriers. Part of the light is reflected as soon as it hits the surface and the metal
contacts cast shadows. Since the photon energy does not correspond to the energy gap, less than half of the
incident energy is used. Recombination of charge carriers (atomic rebinding of electrons) and electrical losses
caused by internal resistances (ohmic losses in the semiconductor) of the solar cell and its contacts also arise.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not make inter connections on the board with mains switched ON.
2. All the connections should be tight.
3. Switch off after taking the readings.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is solar cell?

2. Why solar cell is also called photovoltaic cell?
3. What are the uses of solar cell?
4. What do you mean photoelectric effect?
5. On what factors does the photocurrent depend?
6. Define the efficiency of Solar Cell?
7. How does temperature effect efficiency of solar cell/photo voltaic cell.
8. What happens to the current when Photo voltaic cells are connected in series and in parallel.
9. What is the order of current in photo voltaic cell?
10. Define a fill factor of a photo voltaic cell.
REFERENCES
3 B.Sc Practical Physics C.L Arora
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM: To find the dielectric constant of a substance.
APPARATUS:
1. Dielectric Constant App. consists of R.F. Generator (9-10 MHz approx).

2. Micro ammeter (Range: 0-50 A)
3. Potentiometer for sensitivity selection.
4. Fixed capacitor (Metal).
5. Variable Gang capacitor.
6. Sockets for test capacitor and variable capacitor brought out at front panel.
7. One solid Bakelite plate to be inserting in gap of test capacitor.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
THEORY:
A dielectric is a material having low electrical conductivity in comparison to that of a metal. It is

characterized by its dielectric constant. Dielectric constant is measured as the ratio of the capacitance C of
an electrical condenser filled with the dielectric to the capacitance C0 of the evacuated condenser i.e.
PROFESSIONALS Physics Lab Manual I 35
PROCEDURE
METOD-1
1. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
2. Connect the variable/Gang capacitor and test Capacitor plug to the sockets indicated on the front panel.
3. Set the sensitivity pot to 30 A.
4. Keep test capacitor without dielectric and vary capacity variable/gang capacitor air capacitor so that the
deflection in micrometer reaches the resonance point.
Let this value of variable/ gang capacitor be C1.
A. TO FIND THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT FOR SOLIDS.
5. For measuring dielectric of solids e.g. Bakelite Plate, connect the variable/gang capacitor in parallel with
the test capacitor.
6. Put the dielectric (solids) plates in between the gap of capacitor.
7. Start varying the variable/gang capacitor to the anti-clock wise direction. There is a decrease in the
micrometer to the resonance point and note down the capacity of variable/gang capacitor C2.
METOD -2
1. Switch ON the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
2. Connect the variable/Gang capacitor and test Capacitor plug to the sockets indicated on the front panel.
3. Set the sensitivity pot to 30 A.
4. Keep test capacitor without dielectric and vary capacity variable/gang capacitor air capacitor so that the
deflection in micrometer reaches the resonance point.
Let this value of variable/ gang capacitor is C1.
B. TO FIND THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT FOR LIQUIDS.
5. For measuring the dielectric of liquids e.g. kerosene oil, fill the variable/gang capacitor with dielectric.
6. Vary the capacity of variable/gang capacitor so that the deflection in micrometer reaches to the resonance
point. Let this value of variable/gang capacitor be C2.
Tabular Form
For Sensitivity = 30 A For Sensitivity = 40 A

Dielectric Dielectric
No. of No. of
C1 C2 Constant C1 C2 Constant
Plates Plates
(K1) (K2)
Single
Double
Mean value ofDielectric constant K is given by K= (K1+ K2)/2 =
OBSERVATIONS:
Capacity of test capacitor C0=27..pF (Standard)
Capacitor of variable/gang capacitor C1=pF
Capacity of variable/gang capacitor C2=.pF
CALCULATIONS:
Dielectric constant K is given by,
C0: Capacity of test capacitor without dielectric.
C1: Capacity of variable air capacitor for maximum deflection in micro-ammeter when test capacitor is
without dielectric.
C2: Capacity of variable capacitor for maximum deflection in micro-ammeter when capacitor is filled with
dielectric (Solid or liquid)
PRECAUTIONS:
1) Set the sensitivity pot to 30 A maximum.
2) After the liquids dielectric experiment gang capacitor should be dry for further experiments.
Viva-voce
Q.(1). What is Dielectric?

Ans:Dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric
is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in a
conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric
polarization.
Q.(2). What is the difference between dielectric materials and metals?
Ans:The conductivity of dielectrics is negligible in comparison to that of metals. For dielectrics the specific
resistance is on the order of 108-1017 ohm-cm; for the metals, is in the range of 10-6-10-4 ohm-cm.
Q.(3). What is electric dipole?
Ans:An electric dipole is combination of two equal and opposite electric charges.
Q.(4). What is electric dipole moment?
Ans:The electric dipole moment for a pair of opposite charges of magnitude q is defined as the magnitude of
the charge times the distance between them and the defined direction is toward the positive charge.
Q.(5). What is electric polarization?
Ans:Electric polarization is the slight relative shift of positive and negative electric charge in opposite
directions within an insulator, or dielectric, induced by an external electric field. Polarization occurs
when an electric field distorts the negative cloud of electrons around positive atomic nuclei in a
direction opposite the field. This slight separation of charge makes one side of the atom somewhat
positive and the opposite side somewhat negative.
Q.(6). What is the effect of electric field on dielectric materials?
Ans:When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they
do in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric
polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and
negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field which reduces the
overall field within the dielectric itself.
Q.(7). Define dielectric constant of a material?

Ans:The dielectric constant (K) of a material is the ratio of its permittivity of that material to the
permittivity of vacuum o, so K = /o. The dielectric constant is therefore also known as the relative
permittivity of the material. Since the dielectric constant is just a ratio of two similar quantities, it is
dimensionless.
Given its definition, the dielectric constant of vacuum is 1. Any material is able to polarize more
thanvacuum, so the K of a material is always > 1.
Q.(8). Where the various dielectric materials find their applicability?

Ans:A low-K dielectric is a dielectric that has a low permittivity, or low ability to polarize and hold charge.
Low-K dielectrics are very good insulators for isolating signal-carrying conductors from each other.
Thus, low-K dielectrics are a necessity in very dense multi-layered IC's, wherein coupling between
very close metal lines need to be suppressed to prevent degradation in device performance.
A high-K dielectric, on the other hand, has a high permittivity. Because high-K dielectrics are good at
holding charge, they are the preferred dielectric for capacitors. High-K dielectrics are also used in
memory cells that store digital data in the form of charge.
Q.(9). Define time constant of a RC circuit?

Ans:It is the time required to charge (or discharge) the capacitor through the resistor. The RC is the time
constant (in seconds) of an RC circuit, is equal to the product of the circuit resistance(in ohms) and the
circuit capacitance (in farads), i.e. = R * C.
Q.(10). What is electrolytic capacitor?

Ans:An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an electrolyte (an ionic conducting liquid) as one of its
plates to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types. Or in an electrolytic capacitors
one or both of the "plates" is a non-metallic conductive substance, an electrolyte. Electrolytes have
lower conductivity than metals, so are only used in capacitors when metallic plate is not practical, such
as when the dielectric surface is fragile or rough in shape or when ionic current is required to maintain
the dielectric integrity.
The electrolytic solvent has to have high dielectric constant, high dielectric strength, and low resistivity; a
solute of ionic conductivity facilitators is mixed within. The electrolyte is usually boric acid or sodium
borate in aqueous solution, together with various sugars or ethylene glycol which are added to retard
evaporation.
APPLICATIONS:
1. A major use of dielectrics is in fabricating capacitors. These have many uses including storage of energy
in the electric field between the plates, filtering out noise from signals as part of a resonant circuit, and
supplying a burst of power to another component. The TLP on ferroelectrics shows how the last of these
functions is utilized in a camera flash system.
2. Some applications of dielectrics rely on their electrically insulating properties rather than ability to store
charge, so high electrical resistivity and low dielectric loss are the most desirable properties here. The
most obvious of these uses is insulation for wires; cables etc., but there are also applications in sensor
devices. For example, it is possible to make a type of strain gauge by evaporating a small amount of
metal onto the surface of a thin sheet of dielectric material.
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM: TO DETERMINE THE VALUE OF SPECIFIC CHARGE (E/M) OF AN ELECTRON BY

THOMSON METHOD
APPARATUS:
1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) , mounted on wooden stand

2. Power supply, fitted with a Digital Voltmeter (DVM) to measure the deflecting voltage
3. Bar Magnets (Permanent) one pair
4. Compass box one set
5. Wooden stand having two arms, fitted with scales to measure the distance of the poles of the
magnets. The stand can accommodate Cathode Ray Tube in its middle
6. Another wooden stand is also provided to place the compass box in the centre. This wooden stand
also be mounted in the middle of the armed stand
THEORY:
Cathode Ray Tube consists of 3 basic components:
1. ELECTRON GUN: FF is a filament which when heated emits electrons. G(control grid) carries a
negative charge, so sends out a beam of electrons which are accelerated by the anodes.
2. DEFLECTING SYSTEM: This system deflects the beam of electrons either electrically or
magnetically.
3. FLUORESCENT SCREEN: When beam impinges on it visible spot is produced.
The value of e/m is independent on the nature of gas and material of the cathode of the discharge tube which
indicates that electrons are fundamental constituents of all materials. The present accepted value of e/m is
1.7 x 107e.m.u./gm.
FORMULA:
e/m = (V / IL H2d)X 107e.m.u./gm.
Where H = Hetan (where He is the horizontal components of earth magnetic field of the place where
experiment is performed, usually we take its value = 0.345)
here various parameters are defined as follows.

I = length of horizontal pair of plate
L = distance of the screen from the edges of the plates

V = voltage applied to the plates
= total deflection of the spot on the screen
H = intensity of the applied field
d = separation between the plates
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) in armed wooden stand such that the CRT faces towards North &
South direction while arms of the stand toward East and West Direction (set the direction with the
help of compass box).
2. Connect the CRT Plug to the power supply socket mounted on the front panel.
3. Switch on the instrument using ON/OFF toggle switch provided on the front panel.
4. Set the deflection voltage to 0 volt & x shift control potentiometer to middle position. Adjust the
intensity & focus of the spot (clear as small as a point) on screen of CRT. Throw the deflection
selector switch towards forward position.
5. Read the initial reading of spot on the scale attached to the screen of the CRT, say it is 0.2cm. Now
give a deflection to the spot in the upward direction by applying deflecting voltage (say 5 volts) such
that the finaldeflection reading is 1.2cm. So the total deflection on the screen of the spot is (1.2-0.2)
= 1.0 cm. Note down this applied voltage (V) & deflection of the spot () in observation table.
6. Now place bar magnets on both sides of the wooden stand arms such that their opposite poles face
each other and their common axis is perpendicular to the axis of cathode ray tube. The magnets
should be kept in such a manner that these may be made to slide along the scales.
7. Adjust distances and polarity of the magnets so that the spot traces back to its initial position (which
was 0.2cms).
8. Remove Cathode Ray Tube from stand and place a magnet meter compass box mounted in a stand in
centre of the armed wooden stand. Adjust the pointer of the compass box to read 0-0 without
disturbing the direction of armed wooden stand.
9. Note down the deflection angle () through compass box & note down it in the observation table.
Calculate the value of magnetic field (H) by using formula:
H = Hetan
(where He is the horizontal components of earth magnetic field of the place where experiment is performed
usually we take its value = 0.345)
Note down the value of magnetic fiels (H2) in observation table.
10. Calculate the value of e/m by using formula :
e/m = (V / IL H2d)X 107e.m.u./gm.

11. Repeat steps 5 to 10 for other values of spot deflection with different voltages (5V, 10 V, 15V)
12. Calculate mean value of e/m for different set of readings.
NOTE: For better accuracy apply deflection voltage only up to 20 volts.
OBSERVATION:
Constant of the CRT used (8SJ31J)
Length of horizontal pair of plates (I) = 18mm = 1.8cm
Distance of the screen from edges of plates (L) = 100mm = 10cm
Separation between the plates (d) = 5mm = 0.5cm
NOTE: when the deflection voltage is 0, the position of spot on CRT is 0.2cm. So in forward movement we will
subtract the 0.2cm reading from the final reading of the spot on CRT, when deflection voltage is applied.
Reference Spot deflection, 0 = ---------- cm.
(e/m)
S.No Applied Spot Actual spot Compass box Magnetic field (H2)
(in
Voltage Deflection Deflection Deflection H = Hetan
e.m.u
(V) (v) ()=v- 0 () where He = 0.345
/gm)
(in volts) (in cm) (in cm) (in degrees)
1 5
2 10
3 15
Average value for the specific charge, (e/m) = ----------------e.m.u./gm.
CALCULATIONS:
Formula used to calculate value of e/m
e/m = ( V / ILdH2)X 107e.m.u./gm. eq (1)
Where ILd = 1.8 x 10.0 x 0.5 = 9 cm3

e/m for 1st set of reading = put all values in equation (1)
similarly calculate for other set of readings.
e/m for 2nd set of reading = put all values in equation (1)
e/m for 3rd set of reading = put all values in equation (1)
e/m for 4th set of reading = put all values in equation (1)
Mean value of e/m (calculated) = [() + () + () + ()] x 107e.m.u./gm
Calculated value of e/m = --------- x 107e.m.u./gm
Standard value of e/m = 1.5 x 107e.m.u./gm
Error = (---------) x 107e.m.u./gm
RESULT:
The value of specific charge e/m of an electron by Thomson Method comes out to be 1.5 x 107 emu/gm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Take care while locating the filament at a position normal to the line joining the two slits.
2. The cathode ray tube must be set in the north south direction.
3. The axis of the bar magnets and the axis of the cathode ray tube must be exactly at right angles and in
horizontal plane.
4. The cathode ray tube must be handled carefully.
5. The deflecting voltage must be reversed to produce the deflections of the spot of light in the opposite direction
and the magnetic field must also be reversed to bring it back to initial position.
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
AIM: To study the resistivity of semiconductor of different temperatures and also to determine the
energy band gap of a semiconductor (germanium) using four probe method.
APPARATUS: Probe arrangement, Sample (Germanium), Oven, Four Probe set - up, Thermometer etc.
FORMULA USED:
The resistivity of the semiconductor crystal which is given by:
0 V
where 0 2 S
f W/ S I
where f (W/S) is a fraction which can be known for table given with the semiconductor. S is the
distance between probes. W is the thickness of semiconductor crystal. V and I are the voltage and current
across and through the crystal chip.
The energy band gap Eg (in eV) of a semiconductor is given by:
2.3026
E 2k log
g 1 / T 10
5
where k is Boltzman constant equal to 8.6 10 eV/degree and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
mV
Probes
mV
Direct
current
source V I Sample (crystal) chip
I
Oven S
Power W
Supply
Oven
Figure 6.1: Circuit Diagram for Four Probe Method
APPLICATIONS
Used to both characterize the material and as a process control parameter for the semiconductor
manufacturing process.
Resistivity of different semiconducting materials.
PROCEDURE
1. Connect one pair of the direct current source through milli - ammeter.
2. Other pair of probes is connected to the milli - voltmeter.
3. Place the four probe arrangement in the electric oven connected to a power supply.
4. Fix up a thermometer in this arrangement.
5. Switch on the constant current source and adjust the current to a particular suitable value say 2 mA.
6. Go on measuring the inner probe voltage V for different temperatures.
OBSERVATIONS
Current (I) = . mA (constant)
Distance between probes (S) = . mm
Thickness of the crystal chip (W) = ..mm
TABLE
3
S. Temperature Voltage Temperature 0 1/T 10 Log10
No. (C) (Volts) (K) (ohmcm) (ohm cm)
1. 20 293 3.41
2. 30 303 3.30
3. 40 313
4. 50 --
5. 60 --
6. 70 --
7. 80 --
8. 90 --
9. 100 --
CALCULATIONS
Find resistance corresponding to temperature in K using:
0 V
ohm-cm where 0 2S .........ohm cm
f W/ S I
For different 'V' calculate 0 and hence in ohm cm. Find (W/S) and then corresponding to this value
choose the value of function f (W/S) from the following table;
TABLE: For f (W/S) function corresponding to W/S geometry of the crystal
S.No. W/S f (W/S) S.No. W/S f (W/S) S.No. W/S f (W/S)

1. 0.100 13.863 5. 0.500 2.780 9. 3.333 1.022
2. 0.141 9.704 6. 1.000 1.504 10. 5.000 1.007
3. 0.200 6.391 7. 1.414 1.223 11. 10.000 1.00045
4. 0.250 5.9 8. 2.000 1.094
GRAPH
3
Now plot a graph for log10 versus 1/T 10 as presented in figure 6.2.
AB log10
Slope of the curve is BC 1
1000
T
1.6
Hence band gap, Eg 2k 2.3026 log 10 (e V) 1.4
IT
1.2
1.0 A AB
2 k 2.303 A B 1000 0.8 Slope of the curve = BC
BC
0.6
0.4
E 0.396 A B e V C
g BC 0.2 B
0 10 20 30 40
1 x 1000
RESULT T(K)
Figure 6.2
1. Resistivity of semiconductor crystal at different
3
temperatures was studied & is presented in the graph of log10 and I/T 10 .
2. Energy band gap of semiconductor crystal Eg = ............eV
Standard Eg of Ge = 0.72 eV and for Si = 1.1eV
Percentage error Standard value Observed value 100 ........... %
Standard value
PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCE OF ERROR
1. The surface on which the probes rest should be uniform.

2. Do not exceed the temperature of the oven above 120C for safe side.
3. Semiconductor crystal with four probes is installed in the oven very carefully otherwise the crystal
may get damaged because it is brittle.
4. Current should remain constant throughout the experiment.
5. Minimum pressure is exerted for obtaining proper electrical contacts to the chip.
VIVA-VOCE
1 What do you mean by energy band gap?

2 How are the bands formed in the solids?
3 What do you mean by valency band, conduction band and forbidden band?
4 How do you differentiate between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor in relation to the energy gap?
5 What do you mean by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
6 Why semiconductors behave as an insulator at zero degree Kelvin?
7 What is a P-N junction?
8 What is an n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductors?
9 What do you mean by forward and reverse biasing of a junction diode?
10 What is the advantage of four probe method over other methods of measuring the resistivity?

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PROFESSIONAL

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Academic Year 2016-17

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY

Usage of electronic gadgets is strictly prohibited in the laboratory.

S. No Title of the Experiment Page No.

List of Experiments (with Cycles division)

Cycle Week No. Experiment

1. What is Newtons Ring? How are these rings formed?

No. of lines per cm on the grating = grating element = a+b =1/N=2.54/15000

RESULT: The observed wavelengths are given in table

Colour of specturl line (observed) (Standard) % (Error)

Least count of the vernier of the circular = .

1. What do you mean by polarization of light?

SR SR E : Battery Eliminator, K Key

The experiment is done in the following three steps;

(i) Measure the length of the unknown resistance wire in cm.

(ii) Table for the determination of unknown resistance of a given wire:

S. Resistance (ohm) Balancing Length (cm)

S. No. P.S.R. H.S.C H.S.C. L.C. TR = P.S.R + H.S.C L.C

Measured value (S)exp Standard value (S) Percentage Error

The same experiment can be tried out on a needle or pin.

Diameter of a human hair Data sheet

Some examples of diameter of human hair

Figure 7.1: Sample for studying Hall effect

Figure 7.2: Illustration of measurement of Hall Voltage

The value of Hall Coefficient (RH) is cm3/coul.

What is the Hall Effect?

1 Practical Physics Gupta.Kumar

(A) Circuit Symbol (B) Cross-section

Figure 11.2: Solar cell

Fill factor V I Figure11.4: Current voltage characteristicof

TO CALCULATE THE EFFICIENCY () OF SOLAR CELL

Approximation of the radiant power per unit area =.

1. What is solar cell?

AIM: To find the dielectric constant of a substance.

1. Dielectric Constant App. consists of R.F. Generator (9-10 MHz approx).

A dielectric is a material having low electrical conductivity in comparison to that of a metal. It is

3. Set the sensitivity pot to 30 A.

Let this value of variable/ gang capacitor be C1.

A. TO FIND THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT FOR SOLIDS.

6. Put the dielectric (solids) plates in between the gap of capacitor.

3. Set the sensitivity pot to 30 A.

Let this value of variable/ gang capacitor is C1.

B. TO FIND THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT FOR LIQUIDS.

For Sensitivity = 30 A For Sensitivity = 40 A

Mean value ofDielectric constant K is given by K= (K1+ K2)/2 =

Capacity of test capacitor C0=27..pF (Standard)

Capacitor of variable/gang capacitor C1=pF

Capacity of variable/gang capacitor C2=.pF

Dielectric constant K is given by,

C0: Capacity of test capacitor without dielectric.

1) Set the sensitivity pot to 30 A maximum.

Q.(1). What is Dielectric?

Q.(3). What is electric dipole?

Q.(4). What is electric dipole moment?

Q.(5). What is electric polarization?

Q.(6). What is the effect of electric field on dielectric materials?

Q.(7). Define dielectric constant of a material?