C 3

3
TRANSMISSION LINES
Transmission lines are needed for connecting various circuit elements and sys-
tems. Open wire and coaxial lines are commonly used for circuits operating at
low frequencies. On the other hand, coaxial line, strip line, microstrip line, and
waveguides are employed at radio and microwave frequencies. Generally, low-
frequency signal characteristics are not affected as the signal propagates through
the line. However, radio frequency and microwave signals are affected signifi-
cantly because of the fact that the circuit size is comparable to the wavelength. A
comprehensive understanding of signal propagation requires the analysis of elec-
tromagnetic fields in a given line. On the other hand, a generalized formulation
can be obtained using circuit concepts on the basis of line parameters.
This chapter begins with an introduction to line parameters and a distributed
model of the transmission line. Solutions to the transmission line equation are then
constructed to explain the behavior of the propagating signal. This is followed
by discussions on sending-end impedance, reflection coefficient, return loss, and
insertion loss. A quarter-wave impedance transformer is also presented, along
with a few examples of matching resistive loads. Impedance measurement using
the voltage standing wave ratio is then discussed. Finally, the Smith chart is
introduced to facilitate graphical analysis and design of transmission line circuits.
3.1 DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Any transmission line can be represented by a distributed electrical network
(Figure 3.1) comprised of series inductors and resistors and shunt capacitors and
Radio-Frequency and Microwave Communication Circuits: Analysis and Design, Second Edition,
By Devendra K. Misra
ISBN 0-471-47873-3 Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
57
58 TRANSMISSION LINES
R z R z R z
L z L z L z
C z G z C z G z C z G z
z
Figure 3.1 Distributed network model of a transmission line.
resistors. These distributed elements are defined as follows:
L = inductance per unit length (H/m)

R = resistance per unit length (/m)
C = capacitance per unit length (F/m)
G = conductance per unit length (S/m)
L, R, C, and G, the line parameters, are determined theoretically by electro-

magnetic field analysis of a transmission line. These parameters are influenced
by their cross-section geometry and the electrical characteristics of their con-
stituents. For example, if a line is made up of an ideal dielectric and a perfect
conductor, its R and G values will be zero. If it is a coaxial cable with inner and
outer radii a and b, respectively, as shown in Figure 3.2, then
55.63r
C= pF/m (3.1.1)
ln(b/a)
and
L = 200 ln(b/a) nH/m (3.1.2)
r b
Figure 3.2 Coaxial line geometry.

DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF TRANSMISSION LINES 59
where r is the dielectric constant of the material between two coaxial conductors
of the line.
If the coaxial line has small losses due to an imperfect conductor and insulator,
its resistance and conductance parameters can be calculated as follows:

1 1 fGHz
R 10 + /m (3.1.3)
a b
and
0.3495r fGHz tan
G= S/m (3.1.4)
ln(b/a)
where tan is the loss tangent of the dielectric material, the conductivity (in
S/m) of the conductors, and fGHz is the signal frequency in gigahertz.
Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line

Consider a transmission line that extends to infinity, as shown in Figure 3.3.
The voltages and currents at several points on the line are as indicated. When a
voltage is divided by the current through that point, the ratio is found to remain
constant. This ratio is called the characteristic impedance of the transmission
line. Mathematically,
characteristic impedance = Z0 = V1 /I1 = V2 /I2 = V3 /I3 = = Vn /In
In actual electrical circuits, the length of the transmission lines is always finite.
Hence, it seems that the characteristic impedance has no significance in the real
world. However, that is not the case. When the line extends to infinity, an elec-
trical signal continues propagating in the forward direction without reflection. On
the other hand, it may be reflected back by the load that terminates a transmission
line of finite length. If one varies this termination, the strength of the reflected
signal changes. When the transmission line is terminated by a load impedance
that absorbs all the incident signal, the voltage source sees an infinite electrical
length. The voltage-to-current ratio at any point on this line is a constant equal
I1 I2 I3 In
V1 V2 V3 Vn
Figure 3.3 Infinitely long transmission line and voltage source.

to the terminating impedance. In other words, there is a unique impedance for

every transmission line that does not produce an echo signal when the line is
terminated by it. The terminating impedance that does not produce an echo on
the line is equal to its characteristic impedance.
If
Z = R + j L = impedance per unit length

Y = G + j C = admittance per unit length
then using the definition of characteristic impedance and the distributed model
shown in Figure 3.1, we can write
(Z0 + Z z)(1/Y z)

Z0 =
Z0 + Z z + 1/Y z
Z0 + Z z
= Z0 Y (Z0 + Z z) = Z
1 + Y z(Z0 + Z z)
For z 0,
Z R + j L
Z0 = = (3.1.5)
Y G + j C
Some special cases are as follows:

1. For a dc signal, Z0 dc = R/G.

2. For , L R and C G; therefore, Z0(large) = L/C.

3. For a lossless line, R 0 and G 0; therefore, Z0 = L/C.
Thus, a lossless semirigid coaxial line with 2a = 0.036 in., 2b = 0.119 in., and
an r value of 2.1(Teflon-filled) will have C = 97.71 pF/m and L = 239.12 nH/m.
Its characteristic impedance will be 49.5 . Since the conductivity of copper
is 5.8 107 S/m and the loss tangent of Teflon is 0.00015, Z = 3.74 + j 1.5
103 /m and Y = 0.092 + j 613.92 mS/m at 1 GHz. The corresponding charac-
teristic impedance is 49.5 j 0.058 , which is very close to the approximate
value of 49.5 .
Example 3.1 Calculate the equivalent impedance and admittance of a 1-m-

long line that is operating at 1.6 GHz. The line parameters are L = 0.002 H/m,
C = 0.012 pF/m, R = 0.015 /m, and G = 0.1 mS/m. What is the characteristic
impedance of this line?
SOLUTION
Z = R + j L = 0.015 + j 2 1.6 109 0.002 106 /m

= 0.015 + j 20.11 /m
Y = G + j C = 0.0001 + j 2 1.6 109 0.012 1012 S/m

= 0.1 + j 0.1206 mS/m

Z
Z0 = = 337.02 + j 121.38
Y
Transmission Line Equations

Consider the equivalent distributed circuit of a transmission line that is terminated
by a load impedance ZL , as shown in Figure 3.4. The line is excited by a voltage
source v(t) with its internal impedance ZS . We apply Kirchhoffs voltage and
current laws over a small length, z, of this line as follows: For the loop,
i(z, t)
v(z, t) = L z + R z i(z, t) + v(z + z, t)
t
or
v(z + z, t) v(z, t) i(z, t)
= Ri(z, t) L
z t
Under the limit z 0, the equation above reduces to

v(z, t) i(z, t)
= R i(z, t) + L (3.1.6)
z t
Similarly, at node A,
v(z + z, t)
i(z, t) = i(z + z, t) + G z v(z + z, t) + C z
t
or

i(z + z, t) i(z, t) v(z + z, t)
= G v(z + z, t) + C
z t
v (z + z, t) i(z + z, t)
ZS
v(z,t) A
L z L z
R z i(z,t) L z R z R z
v(t) G z ZL
C z C z G z C z G z
z
z
Figure 3.4 Distributed circuit model of a transmission line.

Again, under the limit z 0, it reduces to
i(z, t) v(z, t)
= Gv(z, t) C (3.1.7)
z t
Now, from equations (3.1.6) and (3.1.7), v(z, t) or i(z, t) can be eliminated to
formulate the following:
2 v(z, t) v(z, t) 2 v(z, t)

= RGv(z, t) + (RC + LG) + LC (3.1.8)
z2 t t 2
and
2 i(z, t) i(z, t) 2 i(z, t)
= RGi(z, t) + (RC + LG) + LC (3.1.9)
z2 t t 2
1. For a lossless line, R and G will be zero, and these equations reduce to
well-known homogeneous scalar wave equations,
2 v(z, t) 2 v(z, t)
= LC (3.1.10)
z2 t 2
and
2 i(z, t) 2 i(z, t)
= LC (3.1.11)
z2 t 2

It is to be noted that the velocity of these waves is 1/ LC.
2. If the source is sinusoidal with time (i.e., time-harmonic), we can switch
to phasor voltages and currents. In that case, equations (3.1.8) and (3.1.9)
can be simplified as follows:
d 2 V (z)
= ZY V (z) = 2 V (z) (3.1.12)
dz2
and
d 2 I (z)
= ZY I (z) = 2 I (z) (3.1.13)
dz2
where V (z) and I (z) are phasor quantities; Z and Y are impedance per
unit length
and admittance per unit length, respectively, as defined ear-
lier. = ZY = + j is known as the propagation constant of the
line. and are called the attenuation constant and the phase constant,
respectively. Equations (3.1.12) and (3.1.13) are referred to as homoge-
neous Helmholtz equations.
Solution of Helmholtz Equations

Note that both differential equations have the same general format. Therefore,
we consider the solution to the following generic equation here. Expressions for
voltage and current on the line can be constructed on the basis of that.
d 2 f (z)
2 f (z) = 0 (3.1.14)
dz2
Assume that f (z) = Cez , where C and are arbitrary constants. Substituting it
into (3.1.14), we find that = . Therefore, a complete solution to this equation
may be written as follows:
f (z) = C1 ez + C2 ez (3.1.15)
where C1 and C2 are integration constants that are evaluated through the bound-
ary conditions.
Hence, complete solutions to equations (3.1.12) and (3.1.13) can be written
as follows:
V (z) = Vin ez + Vref ez (3.1.16)

and
I (z) = Iin ez + Iref ez (3.1.17)
where Vin , Vref , Iin , and Iref are integration constants that may be complex, in
general. These constants can be evaluated from the known values of voltages
and currents at two different locations on the transmission line. If we express the
first two of these constants in polar form as
Vin = vin ej and Vref = vref ej
the line voltage, in time domain, can be evaluated as follows:
v(z, t) = Re[V (z)ej t ]

= Re[Vin e(+j )z ej t + Vref e+(+j )z ej t ]
or
v(z, t) = vin ez cos(t z + ) + vref e+z cos(t + z + ) (3.1.18)
At this point, it is important to analyze and understand the behavior of each

term on the right-hand side of this equation. At a given time, the first term
changes sinusoidally with distance, z, while its amplitude decreases exponentially.
It is illustrated in Figure 3.5(a). On the other hand, the amplitude of the second
sinusoidal term increases exponentially. It is shown in Figure 3.5(b). Further, the
argument of the cosine function decreases with distance in the former case and
1.2 150.0
0.8 100.0
0.4 50.0
f2 (Z)
f1 (Z)
0.0 0.0
0.4 50.0

0.8 100.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Z Z
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5 Behavior of two solutions to the Helmholtz equation with distance.
increases in the latter case. When a signal is propagating away from the source
along +z-axis, its phase should be delayed. Further, if it is propagating in a lossy
medium, its amplitude should decrease with distance z. Thus, the first term on
the right-hand side of equation (3.1.16) represents a wave traveling along the
+z-axis (an incident or outgoing wave). Similarly, the second term represents
a wave traveling in the opposite direction (a reflected or incoming wave). This
analysis is also applied to equation (3.1.17). Note that Iref is reflected current that
will be 180 out of phase with incident current Iin . Hence,
Vin Vref
= = Z0
Iin Iref
and therefore equation (3.1.17) may be written as follows:
Vin z Vref z
I (z) = e e (3.1.19)
Z0 Z0
Incident and reflected waves change sinusoidally with both space and time. Time
duration over which the phase angle of a wave goes through a change of 360 (2
radians) is known as its time period. The inverse of the time period in seconds
is the signal frequency in hertz. Similarly, the distance over which the phase
angle of the wave changes by 360 (2 radians) is known as its wavelength
(). Therefore, the phase constant is equal to 2 divided by the wavelength
in meters.
Phase and Group Velocities

The velocity with which the phase of a time-harmonic signal moves is known
as its phase velocity. In other words, if we tag a phase point of the sinusoidal
wave and monitor its velocity, we obtain the phase velocity, vp , of this wave.
Mathematically,

vp =

A transmission line has no dispersion if the phase velocity of a propagating

signal is independent of frequency. Hence, a graphical plot of versus will
be a straight line passing through the origin. This type of plot is called the
dispersion diagram of a transmission line. An information-carrying signal is
composed of many sinusoidal waves. If the line is dispersive, each of these
harmonics will travel at a different velocity. Therefore, the information will be
distorted at the receiving end. The velocity with which a group of waves travels
is called the group velocity, vg . It is equal to the slope of the dispersion curve of
the transmission line.
Consider two sinusoidal signals with angular frequencies + and ,
respectively. Assume that these waves of equal amplitudes are propagating in the
z-direction with corresponding phase constants + and . The resulting
wave can be found as follows:
f (z, t) = Re[Aej [(+)t(+)z] + Aej [()t()z] ]

= 2A cos(t z) cos(t z)
Hence, the resulting wave, f (z, t), is amplitude modulated. The envelope of this
signal moves with the group velocity,

vg =

Example 3.2 A signal generator has an internal resistance of 50 and an open-

circuit voltage v(t) = 3 cos(2 108 t) V. It is connected to a 75- lossless
transmission line that is 4 m long and terminated by a matched load at the other
end. If the signal propagation velocity on this line is 2.5 108 m/s, find the
instantaneous voltage and current at an arbitrary location on the line.
SOLUTION Since the transmission line is terminated by a load that is equal to

its characteristic impedance, there will be no echo signal. Further, an equivalent
circuit at its input end may be drawn as shown in Figure 3.6. Using the voltage-
division rule and Ohms law, incident voltage and current can be determined
as follows:
75
incident voltage at the input end, Vin (z = 0) = 3 0 = 1.8 0 V
50 + 75
3 0
incident current at the input end, Iin (z = 0) = = 0.024 0 A
50 + 75
50 50
4m
75
75 75 3V0
3V0
Figure 3.6 Circuit arrangement for Example 3.2.
and
2 108
= = = 0.8 rad/m
vp 2.5 108
Therefore, V (z) = 1.8ej 0.8z V and I (z) = 0.024ej 0.8z A. Hence,
v(z, t) = 1.8 cos(2 108 t 0.8z) V and

i(z, t) = 0.024 cos(2 108 t 0.8z) A
Example 3.3 The parameters of a transmission line are R = 2 /m, G = 0.5

mS/m, L = 8 nH/m, and C = 0.23 pF/m. If the signal frequency is 1 GHz, cal-
culate its characteristic impedance (Z0 ) and the propagation constant ().
SOLUTION

R + j L 2 + j 2 109 8 109
Z0 = =
G + j C 0.5 103 + j 2 109 0.23 1012

2 + j50.2655 50.31 1.531 rad
= 3 3
=
0.5 10 + j 1.4451 10 15.29 104 1.2377 rad

= 181.39 8.4 = 179.44 + j 26.51
and

= ZY = (50.31 1.531 rad) (15.29 104 1.2377 rad)

= 0.2774 79.31 m1 = 0.0514 + j 0.2726 m1 = + j
Therefore, = 0.0514 Np/m and = 0.2726 rad/m.
Example 3.4 Two antennas are connected through a quarter-wavelength-long

lossless transmission line, as shown in Figure 3.7. However, the characteristic
SENDING-END IMPEDANCE 67
jX
Z0 = ?
A 80 + j35
50
B 56 + j28
(/4)
z
impedance of this line is unknown. The array is excited through a 50- line.
Antenna A has an impedance of 80 + j 35 and antenna B has 56 + j 28 . Cur-
rents (peak values) through these antennas are found to be 1.5 0 and 1.5 90 A,
respectively. Determine the characteristic impedance of the line connecting these
two antennas and the value of a reactance connected in series with antenna B.
SOLUTION Assume that Vin and Vref are the incident and reflected phasor volt-
ages, respectively, at antenna A. Therefore, the current, IA , through this antenna is
Vin Vref
IA = = 1.5 0 A Vin Vref = Z0 IA = Z0 1.5 0 V
Z0
Since the connecting transmission line is a quarter-wavelength long, the incident
and reflected voltages across the transmission line at the location of B will be j Vin
and j Vref , respectively. Therefore, the total voltage, VTBX , appearing across the
antenna B and the reactance jX combined will be equal to j (Vin Vref ).

VTBX = j (Vin Vref ) = jZ0 IA = j 1.5Z0 = 1.5Z0 90
Also, Ohms law can be used to find this voltage as follows:

VTBX = (56 + j 28 + j X)1.5 90
Therefore, X = 28 and Z0 = 56 . Note that the unknown characteristic

impedance is a real quantity because the transmission line is lossless.
3.2 SENDING-END IMPEDANCE

Consider a transmission line of length l and characteristic impedance Z0 . It is
terminated by a load impedance ZL , as shown in Figure 3.8. Assume that the
Iin
Iref
Load
Zin Z0 ZL
V in + Vref
z=0 z=l
Figure 3.8 Transmission line terminated by a load impedance.
incident and reflected voltages at its input (z = 0) are Vin and Vref , respectively.
The corresponding currents are represented by Iin and Iref .
If V (z) represents the total phasor voltage at point z on the line and I (z) is
the total current at that point,
V (z) = Vin ez + Vref ez (3.2.1)

and
I (z) = Iin ez + Iref ez (3.2.2)
where Vin , Vref , Iin , and Iref are incident voltage, reflected voltage, incident cur-
rent, and reflected current at z = 0, respectively.
Impedance at the input of this transmission line, Zin , can be found after dividing
total voltage by the total current at z = 0. Thus,
V (z = 0) Vin + Vref Vin + Vref Vin + Vref
Zin = = = = Z0
I (z = 0) Iin + Iref Vin /Z0 Vref /Z0 Vin Vref
or
1 + Vref /Vin 1 + 0
Zin = Z0 = Z0 (3.2.3)
1 Vref /Vin 1 0
where 0 = ej is known as the input reflection coefficient. Further,
1 + 0 Zin 1 + 0
Zin = Z0 = Z in =
1 0 Z0 1 0
where Z in is called the normalized input impedance. Similarly, voltage and current
at z = l are related through load impedance as follows:
V (z = l) Vin el + Vref e+l

ZL = =
I (z = l) Iin el + Iref e+l
Vin el + Vref e+l el + 0 e+l
= Z0 = Z0 l
Vin el Vref e+l e 0 e+l
Therefore,
el + 0 el ZL 1 2l
ZL = 0 = e (3.2.4)
el 0 e+l ZL + 1
and equation (3.2.3) can be written as follows:
1 + [(ZL 1)/(ZL + 1)]e2l ZL (1 + e2l ) + (1 e2l )

Zin = =
1 [(ZL 1)/(ZL + 1)]e2l ZL (1 e2l ) + (1 + e2l )
since
1 e2l e+l el sinh l

2l
= +l = = tanh l
1+e e + el cosh l
Z L + tanh l
Z in =
1 + Z L tanh l
or
ZL + Z0 tanh l
Zin = Z0 (3.2.5)
Z0 + ZL tanh l
For a lossless line, = + j = j , and therefore tanh l = tanh j l = j tan l.

Hence, equation (3.2.5) simplifies as follows:
ZL + j Z0 tan l
Zin = Z0 (3.2.6)
Z0 + j ZL tan l
It is to be noted from this equation that Zin repeats periodically every one-half
wavelength on the transmission line. In other words, the input impedance on a
lossless transmission line will be the same at points d n/2, where n is an
integer, due to the fact that

2 n 2d
l = d = n
2
and
2d 2d
tan l = tan n = tan

1. ZL = 0 (i.e., a lossless line is short circuited) Zin = j Z0 tan l.

2. ZL = (i.e., a lossless line has an open circuit at the load) Zin =
j Z0 cot l.
3. l = /4, and therefore l = /2 Zin = Z02 /ZL .
According to the first two cases, a lossless line can be used to synthesize an
arbitrary reactance. The third case indicates that a quarter-wavelength-long line
of suitable characteristic impedance can be used to transform a load impedance
ZL to a new value of Zin . This type of transmission line, called an impedance
transformer, is useful in impedance-matching applications. Further, this equation
can be rearranged as follows:
1
Z in = = YL
ZL
Hence, normalized impedance at a point a quarter-wavelength away from the
load is equal to the normalized load admittance.
Example 3.5 A transmission line of length d and characteristic impedance Z0

acts as an impedance transformer to match a 150- load to a 300- line (see
Figure 3.9). If the signal wavelength is 1 m, find (a) d, (b) Z0 , and (c) the reflec-
tion coefficient at the load.
SOLUTION
(a) d = /4 d = 0.25 m

(b) Z0 = Zin ZL Z0 = (150 300)1/2 = 212.132
ZL 1 ZL Z0 150 212.132
(c) L = = = = 0.1716
ZL + 1 ZL + Z0 150 + 212.132
Example 3.6 Design a quarter-wavelength transformer to match a 20- load to

the 45- line at 3 GHz. If this transformer is made from a Teflon-filled (r = 2.1)
coaxial line, calculate its length (in centimeters). Also, determine the diameter of
its inner conductor if the inner diameter of the outer conductor is 0.5 cm. Assume
that the impedance transformer is lossless.
SOLUTION

Z0 = Zin ZL = 45 20 = 30
and

L 200 109 b
Z0 = = 12
ln = 30
C 55.63 r 10 a
300
Z0
150

Therefore,
b 30
ln = = 0.7251
a 41.3762
and
b 2b 2b 0.5
= = e0.7251 = 2.0649 2a = = = 0.2421 cm
a 2a 2.0649 2.0649

Phase constant = LC:
2 1
= = LC = f 200 55.63 r 1021
2

= 3 10 1010 200 55.63 2.1 0.1
9
= 14.5011 m1
Therefore, = 0.06896 m and d = /4 = 0.01724 m = 1.724 cm.
Example 3.7 Design a quarter-wavelength microstrip impedance transformer to

match a patch antenna of 80 with a 50- line. The system is to be fabricated
on a 1.6-mm-thick substrate (r = 2.3) that operates at 2 GHz (see Figure 3.10).
SOLUTION The characteristic impedance of the microstrip line impedance

transformer must be
Z0 = Z01 ZL = 63.2456
Design formulas for microstrip line are given in Appendix 2. Assume that the
strip thickness t is less than 0.096 mm and that the dispersion is negligible for
the time being at the operating frequency.
1/2
63.2456 2.3 + 1 2.3 1 0.11
A= + 0.23 + = 1.4635
60 2 2.3 + 1 2.3
602
B= = 6.1739
63.2456 2.3
Z01 Z0 ZL

Since A 1.52,

w 2
= 6.1739 1 ln(2 6.1739 1)
h

2.3 1 0.61
+ ln(6.1739 1) + 0.39
2 2.3 2.3
2 3.2446
= = 2.0656 w = 3.3 mm

At this point, we can check if the dispersion in the line is really negligible. For
that, we determine the effective dielectric constant as follows:

w 1/2
h 1/2 12
F = 1 + 12 = 1+ = 0.383216
h w 2.0656
Assuming that t/ h = 0.005,
2.3 + 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 0.005

e = + 0.383216 = 1.8981 1.9
2 2 4.6 2.0656
and

4h r 1 w 2
F = 0.5 + 1 + 2 log 1 + = 0.213712
0 h
2
2.3 1.9
e (f ) = + 1.9 = 1.909192
1 + 4 F 1.5
Since e (f ) is very close to e , dispersion in the line can be neglected. Therefore,
3 108 10.8821
= m = 10.8821 cm length of line = = 2.72 cm
2 10 1.9
9 4
Reflection Coefficient, Return Loss, and Insertion Loss

The voltage reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of reflected to inci-
dent phasor voltages at a location in the circuit. In the case of a transmis-
sion line terminated by load ZL , the voltage reflection coefficient is given by
equation (3.2.4). Hence,
Vref ZL Z0 2l
= = e = L ej e2(+j )l = L e2l ej (2l) (3.2.7)
Vin ZL + Z0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
Imag. part
Imag. part
0.0
0.0
0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Real part Real part
(a) (b)
Figure 3.11 Reflection coefficient on (a) a lossy and (b) a lossless transmission line.
where L ej = (ZL Z0 )/(ZL + Z0 ) is called the load reflection coefficient.

Equation (3.2.7) indicates that the magnitude of reflection coefficient decreases
by a factor of e2l as the observation point moves away from the load. Further,
its phase angle changes by 2l. A polar (magnitude and phase) plot of it will
look like a spiral, as shown in Figure 3.11(a). However, the magnitude of reflec-
tion coefficient will not change if the line is lossless. Therefore, the reflection
coefficient point will be moving clockwise on a circle of radius equal to its mag-
nitude as the line length is increased. As illustrated in Figure 3.11 (b), it makes
one complete revolution for each half-wavelength distance away from the load
(because 2/2 = 2).
Similarly, the current reflection coefficient, c , is defined as a ratio of reflected
to incident signal-current phasors. It is related to the voltage reflection coefficient
as follows:
Iref Vref /Z0
c = = =
Iin Vin /Z0
The return loss of a device is defined as the ratio of reflected power to incident
power at its input. Since the power is proportional to the square of the voltage
at that point, it may be found as
reflected power
return loss = = 2
incident power
Generally, it is expressed in decibels as follows:
return loss = 20 log10 dB (3.2.8)
The insertion loss of a device is defined as the ratio of power transmitted

(power available at the output port) to that of the power incident at its input.
Since the power transmitted is equal to the difference of the incident and reflected
powers for a lossless device, the insertion loss can be expressed as follows:
insertion lossof a lossless device = 10 log10 (1 2 ) dB (3.2.9)
Low-Loss Transmission Lines

Most practical transmission lines possess a very small loss of propagating sig-
nal. Therefore, expressions for the propagation constant and the characteristic
impedance can be approximated for such lines as follows:

R G
= ZY = (R + j L)(G + j C) = 2 LC 1+ 1+
j L j C
For R
L and G
C, a first-order approximation is

R G
= + j j LC 1 + 1+
j 2L j 2C

R G
j LC 1 + +
j 2L j 2C
Therefore,

1 C L
R +G Np/m (3.2.10)
2 L C
and

LC rad/m (3.2.11)

R + j L L R 1/2 G 1/2
Z0 = = 1+ 1+
G + j C C j L j C
Hence,

L R G L R G
Z0 1+ 1 1+
C j 2L j 2C C j 2L j 2C

L 1 R G
= 1+ (3.2.12)
C j 2 L C
Thus, the attenuation constant of a low-loss line is independent of frequency, while

its phase constant is linear, as in the case of a lossless line. However, the fre-
quency dependency of its characteristic impedance is of concern to communication
engineers, because it will distort the signal. If RC = GL, the frequency-dependent

term will go to zero. This type of low-loss line is called a distortionless line. Hence,

= ZY = (R + j L)(G + j C)

C RC
= (R + j L) = + j G = (3.2.13)
L L
Example 3.8 A signal propagating through a 50- distortionless transmission

line attenuates at the rate of 0.01 dB/m. If this line has a capacitance of 100 pF/m,
find (a) R, (b) L, (c) G, and (d) vp .
SOLUTION Since the line is distortionless,

L
Z0 = = 50
C
and
= 0.01 dB/m 0.01/8.69 Np/m = 1.15 103 Np/m
Hence,

(a) R = L/C = 1.15 103 50 = 0.057 / m
(b) L = CZ02 = 1010 502 H/m = 0.25 H/m
(c) G = RC/L = R/Z02 = 0.057/502 S/m = 22.8S/ m

(d) vp = 1/ LC = 2 108 m/s
Experimental Determination of Characteristic Impedance and Propagation

Constant of a Transmission Line
A transmission line of length d is kept open at one end, and the impedance at
its other end is measured using an impedance bridge. Assume that it is Zoc . The
process is repeated after placing a short circuit at its open end, and this impedance
is recorded as Zsc . Using equation (3.2.5), one can write
Zoc = Z0 coth d (3.2.14)

and
Zsc = Z0 tanh d (3.2.15)
Therefore,
Z0 = Zoc Zsc (3.2.16)
and
Zsc 1 Zsc
tanh d = = tanh1 (3.2.17)
Zoc d Zoc
These two equations can be solved to determine Z0 and . The following identity
can be used to facilitate the evaluation of the propagation constant:
1 1+Z
tanh1 Z = ln
2 1Z
The following examples illustrate this procedure.
Example 3.9 Impedance at one end of the transmission line is measured to be

Zin = 30 + j 60 using an impedance bridge, while its other end is terminated
by a load ZL . The experiment is repeated twice, with the load replaced first by
a short circuit and then by an open circuit. These data are recorded as j 53.1
and j 48.3 , respectively. Find the characteristic resistance of this line and the
load impedance.
SOLUTION

Z0 = Zsc Zoc = j 53.1 (j 48.3) = 50.6432
ZL + j Z0 tan l ZL + Zsc
Zin = Z0 = Z0
Z0 + j ZL tan l Z0 + j ZL tan l
Z0 ZL + Zsc
=
j tan l ZL + Z0 /(j tan l)
Therefore,
ZL + Zsc Zsc Zin
Zin = Zoc ZL = Zoc
ZL + Zoc Zin Zoc
j 53.1 (30 + j 60)
ZL = j 48.3
30 + j 60 (j 48.3)
Therefore,
ZL = 11.6343 + j 6.3
Example 3.10 Measurements are made on a 1.5-m-long transmission line using

an impedance bridge. After short-circuiting at one of its ends, impedance at the
other end is found to be j 103 . Repeating the experiment with the short circuit
now replaced by an open circuit gives j 54.6 . Determine the propagation
constant and the characteristic impedance of this line.
SOLUTION

Z0 = Zoc Zsc = j 54.6 j 103 = 74.99 75

j 103
tanh 1.5 = = j 1.8969 1.5 = tanh1 j 1.8969
j 54.3
1 1 + j 1.8969
= ln
2 1 j 1.8969
1 1 + j 1.8969 1 1
1.5 = ln = ln(1 2.1713 rad) = ln(ej 2.1713 ) = j 1.08565
2 1 j 1.8969 2 2
and = j 0.7238 m1 .
Example 3.11 A 10-m-long 50- lossless transmission line is terminated by

a load, ZL = 100 + j 50 . It is driven by a signal generator that has an open-
circuit voltage Vs at 100 0 V and source impedance Zs at 50 . The propagating
signal has a phase velocity of 200 m/S at 26 MHz. Determine the impedance at
its input end and the phasor voltages at both its ends (see Figure 3.12).
SOLUTION
ZL + j Z0 tan l 2 26 106
Zin = Z0 and = = = 0.8168 rad/m
Z0 + j ZL tan l vp 200 106
100 + j 50 + j 50 tan(8.168)
= 50 = 19.5278 0.181 rad
50 + j (100 + j 50) tan(8.168)
= 19.21 + j 3.52
The equivalent circuits at its input and at the load can be drawn as in Figure 3.13.
Vs 100 19.5278 0.181 rad

Voltage at the input end, VA = Zin = V
Zs + Zin 50 + 19.21 + j 3.52
Zs
Vs ZL
10 m
Zs VA ZTh
Zin VTh ZL
Vs
Figure 3.13 Equivalent circuits at the two ends of the transmission line shown in
Figure 3.12.
or
1952.78 0.181 rad

VA = = 28.1788 V 0.1302 rad = 28.1788 V 7.46
69.2995 0.0508 rad
For determining voltage at the load, a Thevenin equivalent circuit can be used
as follows:
Zs + j Z0 tan l
ZTh = Z0 = Z0 (Zs = Z0 = 50 )
Z0 + j Zs tan l
and
VTh = (Vin + Vref )at o.c. = (2 Vin )at o.c. = 100 V 8.168 rad
Therefore,
VTh 100 8.168 rad

VL = ZL = (100 + j 50) V
ZTh + ZL 50 + 100 + j 50
or

VL = 70.71 V 8.0261 rad = 70.71 V 459.86 = 70.71 V 99.86
Alternatively,
V (z) = Vin ej z + Vref ej z = Vin (ej z + ej z )
where Vin is incident voltage at z = 0 and is the input reflection coefficient.

Vin = 50 V 0
and
19.21 + j 3.52 50
= = 0.4472 2.9769 rad
19.21 + j 3.52 + 50
Hence,
VL = V (z = 10 m) = 50(ej 8.168 + 0.4472ej (2.9769+8.168) )

= 50 1.4142 V 1.743 rad
or
VL = 70.7117 V 99.8664
Example 3.12 Two identical signal generators are connected in parallel through
a quarter-wavelength-long lossless 50- transmission line (Figure 3.14). Each of
these generators has an open-circuit voltage of 12 0 V and a source impedance
Z0 = 50 Z0 = 50
50 50
10
A 12 V0 B 12 V0
/4 /4
of 50 . It drives a 10- load through another quarter-wavelength-long similar

transmission line. Determine the power dissipated by the load.
SOLUTION The signal generator connected at the left (source A) and the
quarter-wavelength-long line connecting it can be replaced by a Thevenin equiv-
alent voltage source of 12 V 90 with its internal resistance at 50 . This
voltage source can be combined with the 12 0 V (source B) already there,
which also has an internal resistanceof 50 . The resulting source will have
a Thevenin voltage of 6 j 6 V = 6 2 V 45 and an internal resistance of
25 (i.e., two 50- resistances connected in parallel). The load will transform
to 50 50/10 = 250 at the location of source B. Therefore, a simplified circuit
can be drawn as in Figure 3.15.
The voltage across 250 will be equal to
6 j6
250 = 60 2/11 45 V
275 V
Thus, the dissipated power, Pd , can be calculated as follows:
602 2
Pd = = 0.119008 W = 119.008 mW
112 2 250
25
62 V 45 250
Figure 3.15 Simplification of the circuit shown in Figure 3.14.

3.3 STANDING WAVE AND STANDING WAVE RATIO
Consider a lossless transmission line that is terminated by a load impedance ZL ,

as shown in Figure 3.16. Incident and reflected voltage phasors at its input (i.e.,
at z = 0) are assumed to be Vin and Vref , respectively. Therefore, total voltage
V (z) can be expressed as follows:
V (z) = Vin ej z + Vref e+j z
Alternatively, V (x) can be written as
V (x) = V+ e+j x + V ej x = V+ (e+j x + ej x )
or
V (x) = V+ [e+j x + ej (x) ] (3.3.1)
where
V
= ej =
V+
V+ and V represent incident and reflected wave voltage phasors, respectively,

at the load point (i.e., at x = 0).
Let us first consider two extreme conditions at the load. In one case, the
transmission line has an open circuit, whereas in the other, it has a short-circuit
termination. Therefore, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient, , is unity in
both cases. However, the phase angle, , is zero for the former case and for
the latter. Phasor diagrams for these two cases are depicted in Figure 3.17(a)
and (b), respectively. As distance x from the load increases, the phasor ej x
rotates counterclockwise because of the increase in its phase angle x. On the
other hand, the phasor ej x rotates clockwise by the same amount. Therefore, the
phase angle of the resulting voltage, V (x), remains constant with space coordinate
x while its magnitude varies sinusoidally between 2V+ . Since the phase angle
of the resulting signal V (x) does not change with distance, it does not represent
V+
Vin V
Vref
z x
Figure 3.16 Lossless transmission line with termination.

STANDING WAVE AND STANDING WAVE RATIO 81
e jx
x
V(x) V(x)
x ej(x )
ejx x e jx
(a) (b)
Figure 3.17 Phasor diagrams of line voltage with (a) open-circuit and (b) short-circuit
termination.
a propagating wave. Note that there are two waves propagating on this line in
opposite directions. However, the resulting signal represents a standing wave.
When the terminating load is of an arbitrary value that is different from the
characteristic impedance of the line, there are still two waves propagating in
opposite directions. The interference pattern of these two signals is stationary
with time. Assuming that V+ is unity, a phasor diagram for this case is drawn
as shown in Figure 3.18. The magnitude of the resulting signal, V (x), can be
determined using the law of parallelograms as follows:
|V (x)| = |V+ |[1 + 2 + 2 cos(2x )]1/2 (3.3.2)
ejx

V(x)
(x )
ej(x )
(2x )
Figure 3.18 Phasor diagram of line voltage with arbitrary termination.

The reflection coefficient, (x), can be expressed as

V ej x
(x) = = ej (2x) (3.3.3)
V+ ej x
Hence, the magnitude of this standing wave changes with location on the
transmission line. Since x appears only in the argument of cosine function, the
voltage magnitude has an extreme value whenever this argument is an integer
multiple of . It has a maximum whenever the reflected wave is in phase with
the incident signal, which requires that the following condition be satisfied:
2x = 2n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (3.3.4)
On the other hand, V (x) has a minimum value where the reflected and incident
signals are out of phase. Hence, x satisfies the following condition at a minimum
of the interference pattern:
2x = (2m + 1), m = 0, 1, 2, . . . (3.3.5)
Further, these extreme values of the standing waves are

|V (x)|max = |V+ |(1 + ) (3.3.6)
and
|V (x)|min = |V+ |(1 ) (3.3.7)
The ratio of maximum to minimum values of voltage V (x) is called the voltage
standing wave ratio (VSWR). Therefore,
|V (x)|max 1+
VSWR = S = = (3.3.8)
|V (x)|min 1
Since 0 1 for a passive load, the minimum value of the VSWR will be
unity (for a matched load) while its maximum value can be infinity (for total
reflection, with a short circuit or an open circuit as the load).
Assume that there is a voltage minimum at x1 from the load, and if one keeps
moving toward the source, the next minimum occurs at x2 . In other words, there
are two consecutive minimums at x1 and x2 with x2 > x1 . Hence,
2(x1 ) = (2m1 + 1)
and
2(x2 ) = [2(m1 + 1) + 1]
Subtracting the former equation from the latter, one finds that

2(x2 x1 ) = 2 x2 x1 =
2
where x2 x1 is the separation between the two consecutive minimums.
STANDING WAVE AND STANDING WAVE RATIO 83
Similarly, it can be proved that two consecutive maximums are a half-wave-

length apart and also that separation between the consecutive maximum and
minimum is a quarter-wavelength. This information can be used to measure the
wavelength of a propagating signal. In practice, the location of a minimum is
preferred over that of a maximum. This is because minimums are sharper in
comparison with maximums, as illustrated in Figure 3.19. Further, a short (or
open) circuit must be used as the load for the best measurement accuracy.
Measurement of Impedance
Impedance of a one-port microwave device can be determined from measurement
on the standing wave at its input. Those required parameters are the VSWR and
the location of the first minimum (or maximum) from the load. A slotted line
that is equipped with a detector probe is connected before the load to facilitate
measurement. Since the output of a detector is proportional to power, the square
root of the ratio is taken to find the VSWR. Since it may not be possible in
most cases to probe up to the input terminals of the load, the location of the
first minimum is determined as follows. An arbitrary minimum is located on the
slotted line with unknown load. The load is then replaced by a short circuit. As
a result, there is a shift in minimum, as shown in Figure 3.19. The shift of the
original minimum away from the generator is equal to the location of the first
minimum from the load.
Since the reflected voltage is out of phase with that of the incident signal
at the minimum of the standing wave pattern, a relation between the reflection
coefficient, 1 = , and the impedance Z1 at this point may be written as
Z1 1
1 = =
Z1 + 1
With unknown load With short circuit

2.0
1.5
Magnitude of V(x)
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
x
Figure 3.19 Standing wave pattern on a lossless transmission line.
where Z 1 is the normalized impedance at the location of the first minimum of

the voltage standing wave. Since
1+ S1
S= and =
1 S+1
and therefore,
S1 Z1 1 1
= Z1 =
S+1 Z1 + 1 S
This normalized impedance is equal to the input impedance of a line that is

terminated by load ZL and has a length of d1 . Hence,
1 Z L + j tan d1 1 j S tan d1
Z1 = = ZL =
S 1 + j Z L tan d1 S j tan d1
Similarly, the reflected voltage is in phase with the incident signal at the
maximum of the standing wave. Assume that the first maximum is located at a
distance d2 from the unknown load and that the impedance at this point is Z2 .
One can write
Z2 1 S1
2 = = = Z2 = S
Z2 + 1 S+1
and
Z 2 j tan d2
ZL =
1 j Z 2 tan d2
Since the maximum and minimum are measured on a lossless line that feeds
the unknown load, magnitude of the reflection coefficient does not change at
different points on the line.
Example 3.13 A load impedance of 73 j 42.5 terminates a transmission

line of characteristic impedance 50 + j 0.01 . Determine its reflection coefficient
and the voltage standing wave ratio.
SOLUTION
ZL Z0 73 j 42.5 (50 + j 0.01)
= =
ZL + Z0 73 j 42.5 + (50 + j 0.01)
23 j 42.51 48.3332 1.0749 rad
= =
123 j 42.49 130.1322 0.3326 rad

= 0.3714 0.7423 rad = 0.3714 42.53
and
1+ 1 + 0.3714
VSWR = = = 2.1817
1 1 0.3714
SMITH CHART 85
Note that this line is lossy, and therefore the reflection coefficient and VSWR
will change with distance from the load.
Example 3.14 A 100- transmission line is terminated by the load ZL . Mea-

surements indicate that it has a VSWR of 2.4 and the standing wave minimums
are 100 cm apart. The scale reading at one of these minimums is found to be
275 cm. When the load is replaced by a short circuit, the minimum moves away
from the generator to a point where the scale shows 235 cm. Find the signal
wavelength and the load impedance.
SOLUTION Since the minimums are 100 cm apart, the signal wavelength =
2 100 = 200 cm = 2 m, = rad/m, and d1 = 275 235 = 40 cm. Hence,
1 j 2.4 tan(0.4)
ZL = = 1.65 j 0.9618
2.4 j tan(0.4)
or
ZL = 165 j 96.18
3.4 SMITH CHART

Normalized impedance at a point in the circuit is related to its reflection coeffi-
cient as
1+ 1 + r + j i
Z = R + jX = = (3.4.1)
1 1 r j i
where r and i represent real and imaginary parts of the reflection coeffi-
cient, while R and X are real and imaginary parts of the normalized impedance,
respectively. This complex equation can be split into two, after equating real and
imaginary components on its two sides. Hence,
2 2
R 1
r + i =
2
(3.4.2)
1+R 1+R
and
2
1 2 1
(r 1) + i
2
= (3.4.3)
X X
These two equations represent a family of circles on the complex -plane. The
circle in (3.4.2) has its center at (R/(1 + R), 0) and a radius of 1/(1 + R). For
R = 0 it is centered at the origin with unity radius. As R increases, the center
of the constant-resistance circle moves on a positive real axis and its radius
decreases. When R = , the radius reduces to zero and the center of the circle
moves to (1,0). These plots are shown in Figure 3.20. Note that for passive
impedance, 0 R and X +.
Similarly, (3.4.3) represents a circle that is centered at (1, 1/X) with a radius
of 1/X. For X = 0, its center lies at (1,) with an infinite radius. Hence, it is a
straight line along the r -axis. As X increases on the positive side (i.e., 0 X
), the center of the circle moves toward point (1,0) along a vertical line defined
by r = 1, and its radius becomes smaller and smaller in size. For X = , it
becomes a point that is located at (1,0). Similar characteristics are observed for
0 X . As shown in Figure 3.20, a graphical representation of these two
equations for all possible normalized resistance and reactance values is known
as the Smith chart. Thus, a normalized impedance point on the Smith chart
represents the corresponding reflection coefficient in polar coordinates on the
complex -plane. According to (3.2.7), the magnitude of the reflection coefficient
on a lossless transmission line remains constant as L while its phase angle
decreases as 2l. Hence, it represents a circle of radius L . As one moves away
from the load (i.e., toward the generator), the reflection coefficient point moves
clockwise on this circle. Since the reflection coefficient repeats periodically at
every half-wavelength, the circumference of the circle is equal to /2. For a given
reflection coefficient, normalized impedance may be found using the impedance
scale of the Smith chart. Further, R in (3.4.1) is equal to the VSWR for r > 0
and i = 0. On the other hand, it equals the inverse of VSWR for r < 0 and
i = 0. Hence, R values on the positive r -axis also represent the VSWR.
90
Constant R or (1,1)
G circles 1.0
0.5 2.0
0.2
180 0
r
0 0.1 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0
Constant X or
B arcs
0.2
2.0
0.5
1.0
270
1
Figure 3.20 Smith chart.

SMITH CHART 87
Since admittance represents the inverse of impedance, we can write
1 1
Y = =
Z 1+
Hence, a similar analysis can be performed with the normalized admittance
instead of impedance. It results in the same kind of chart except that the normal-
ized conductance circles replace normalized resistance circles, while the normal-
ized susceptance arcs replace normalized reactance.
Normalized resistance (or conductance) of each circle is indicated on the r
-axis of the Smith chart. Normalized positive reactance (or susceptance) arcs are
shown on the upper half, while negative reactance (or susceptance) arcs are seen
in the lower half. The Smith chart in conjunction with equation (3.2.7) facilitates
the analysis and design of transmission line circuits.
Example 3.15 A load impedance of 50 + j 100 terminates a lossless, quarter-

wavelength-long transmission line. If characteristic impedance of the line is 50 ,
find the impedance at its input end, the load reflection coefficient, and the VSWR
on this transmission line.
SOLUTION This problem can be solved using equations (3.2.6), (3.2.7), and
(3.3.8) or the Smith chart. Let us try it both ways.
2
l = = = 90
4 2
ZL + j Z0 tan l (50 + j 100) + j 50 tan(90 )
Zin = Z0 = 50
Z0 + j ZL tan l 50 + j (50 + j 100) tan(90 )
or
j 50 2500
Zin = 50 = = 10 j 20
j (50 + j 100) 50 + j 100
ZL Z0 50 + j 100 50 j 100 100 90
= = = =
ZL + Z0 50 + j 100 + 50 100 + j 100 100 2 45

= 0.7071 45
1 + || 1 + 0.7071 1.7071
VSWR = = = = 5.8283
1 || 1 0.7071 0.2929
To solve this problem graphically using the Smith chart, normalized load impe-
dance is determined as follows:
ZL 50 + j 100
ZL = = = 1 + j2
Z0 50
This point is located on the Smith chart as shown in Figure 3.21. A circle that
passes through 1 + j 2 is then drawn with point 1 + j 0 as its center. Since the
0.10 0.15
0.40 0.35
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
2
1 + j2
- 0 0.05
0.2 30
0.
.45
0.
0
LO --->
0.3
AD
VEL-- WAVELENGTHS TOWARD TOR
5.8
A
0.2 5
THS TOWARD GENER
0.1
10
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
10
0.25
0.25
2
5
10
0.1
E NG
5
0.2
- W <-
A
0.3
0 05
0.2 30
5
0.
4
0.
4
0.
.
0.2 j0.4 0
0.5
2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.10 0.15
1
0.40 0.35
0.71
Figure 3.21 Solution to Example 3.15 using a Smith chart.
radius of the Smith chart represents unity magnitude, the radius of this circle
is equal to the magnitude of the reflection coefficient L . In other words, the
normalized radius of this circle (i.e., the radius of this circle divided by the
radius of the Smith chart) is equal to L . Note that a clockwise movement on
this circle corresponds to a movement away from the load on the transmission
line. Hence, a point d meters away from the load is located at 2d on the chart.
Therefore, the input port of the line that is a quarter-wavelength away from the
load (i.e., d = /4) can be located on this circle after moving by to a point
at 0.438 on the wavelengths toward generator scale. Thus, from the Smith
chart, VSWR = 5.8, L = 0.71 45 , and Z in = 0.2 j 0.4:
Zin = 50(0.2 j 0.4) = 10 j 20
Example 3.16 A lossless 75- transmission line is terminated by an impedance

of 150 + j 150 . Using the Smith chart, find (a) L , (b) VSWR, (c) Zin at a
SMITH CHART 89
distance of 0.375 from the load, (d) the shortest length of the line for which
impedance is purely resistive, and (e) the value of this resistance.
SOLUTION
150 + j 150
ZL = = 2 + j2
75
After locating this normalized impedance point on the Smith chart, the constant
VSWR circle is drawn as shown in Figure 3.22.
(a) The magnitude of the reflection coefficient is equal to the radius of the
VSWR circle (with the radius of the Smith chart as unity). The angle made by
the radial line that connects the load impedance point with the center of the chart
is equal to the phase angle of reflection coefficient. Hence,

L = 0.62 30
0.15
0.10
0.35
0.40
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.3 + j 0.54 2 + j2
0.5
2
- 0.05
0.2 0
4
0.
5
0.3
0.4
0
0.3
ARD --->
AD
LO
ENG AVELENGTHS TOW ATOR
0.2 5
R
ARD GENE
1.0
10
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
10
0.25
0.25
2
5
THS TOW
10
0.1
AV <---W
5
0.2
EL
-W
0.3
0 05
0.2 0
5
0.3
.
4
0
4
0.
.
0.5
2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.15
0.10
1
0.40 0.35

(b) VSWR is found to be 4.25 from the scale reading for the point where
the circle intersects the +r axis.
(c) For d = 0.375, 2d = 4.7124 rad = 270 (clockwise from the
load). This point is located after moving on the VSWR circle by 0.375 from the
load (at 0.084 on the wavelengths toward generator scale). The corresponding
normalized impedance is found to be 0.3 + j 0.54. Therefore,
Zin (l = 0.375) = 75(0.3 + j 0.54) = 22.5 + j 40.5
(d) While moving clockwise from the load point, the VSWR circle crosses
the r -axis for the first time at 0.25. The imaginary part of impedance is zero
at this intersection point. Therefore, d = (0.25 0.208) = 0.042. Normalized
impedance at this point is 4.25. The next point on the transmission line where
the impedance is purely real occurs a quarter-wavelength from it (i.e., 0.292
from load). Normalized impedance at this point is 0.23.
(e) The normalized resistance and VSWR are the same at this point. Therefore,
R = 75 4.25 = 318.75
Example 3.17 A lossless 100- transmission line is terminated by an impedance

of 100 + j 100 as illustrated in Figure 3.23. Find the location of the first Vmax ,
the first Vmin , and the VSWR if the operating wavelength is 5 cm.
SOLUTION
100 + j 100
ZL = = 1 + j1
100
As shown in Figure 3.24, this point is located on the Smith chart and the VSWR
circle is drawn. From the chart, VSWR = 2.6. The scale reading on the wave-
lengths toward generator is 0.162 at the load point. When one moves away
from this point clockwise (toward generator) on this VSWR circle, the voltage
maximum is found first at 0.25 and then a minimum at 0.5. If the first voltage
maximum is at dmax from the load, dmax = (0.25 0.162) = 0.088 = 0.44 cm
Zs
Z0 = 100 ZL = 100 + j100
Vs

SMITH CHART 91
0.10 0.15
0.40 0.35
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0 .6
0 .5
2
- 0 .05
0.2 30
4
0.
.45
0
0.
0
LO --->
0.3
AD
VEL WAVELENGTHS TOWA RATOR
0.2
RD
5
E
HS TOWARD GEN
0.1
10
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
10
0.25
0.25
2
5
10
0.1
ENGT
-W <---
0.2
5
A
0.3
0.4 05
0.2 0
5
0.
0.3
4
0
0.
0.5
2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.10 0.15
1
0.35
0.40
from the load. The first minimum is a quarter-wavelength away from the point
of voltage maximum. Hence, dmin = (0.5 0.162) = 0.338 = 1.69 cm.
Example 3.18 A 150- load terminates a 75- line. Find the impedance at
points 2.15 and 3.75 from the termination:
150
ZL = =2
75
SOLUTION As illustrated in Figure 3.25, this point is located on the Smith

chart and the VSWR circle is drawn. Note that the VSWR on this line is 2 and
the load reflection coefficient is about 0.33 0 . As one moves on the transmis-
sion line toward the generator, the phase angle of reflection coefficient changes
by 2d, where d is the distance away from the load. Hence, one revolution
around the VSWR circle is completed for every half-wavelength. Therefore, the
0.10 0.15
0.40 0.35
1
0.9
0.8
0 .7
0.6
0.5
2
0.4 5
0.2 30
0.
0.0
5
0.
0
-- >
0.3
VEL ELENGTHS TOWARD LOA TOR -
D-
0.2 5
THS TOWARD GENERA
0.1
10
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
10
0.25
0.25
2
5
10
0.1
ENG
- W - WAV
5
0.2
A
5 <---
0.3
0 5
0.2 0
. 0
0.3
0
0
4
0.
.
2
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.15
0.10
1
0.40 0.35
normalized impedance will be 2 at every integer multiple of a half-wavelength

from the load. It will be true for a point located at 2 as well as at 3.5. For the
remaining 0.15, the impedance point is located on the VSWR circle at 0.40
(i.e., 0.25 + 0.15) on the wavelengths toward generator scale. Similarly, the
point corresponding to 3.75 from the load is found at 0.5. From the Smith
chart, the normalized impedance at 2.15 is 0.68 j 0.48, while it is 0.5 at
3.75. Therefore,
impedance at 2.15, Z1 = (0.68 j 0.48) 75 = 51 j 36

and
impedance at 3.75, Z2 = (0.5) 75 = 37.5 .
Example 3.19 A lossless 100- transmission line is terminated by an admit-

tance of 0.0025 j 0.0025 S. Find the impedance at a point 3.15 away from
the load and the VSWR on this line.
SMITH CHART 93
SOLUTION
YL
YL = = YL Z0 = 0.25 j 0.25
Y0
As before, this normalized admittance point is located on the Smith chart and
the VSWR circle is drawn. It is shown in Figure 3.26. There are two choices
available at this point. The given normalized load admittance is converted to
corresponding impedance by moving to a point on the diametrically opposite
side of the VSWR circle. It shows a normalized load impedance as 2 + j 2.
Moving from this point by 3.15 toward the generator, the normalized impedance
is found as 0.55 j 1.08. Alternatively, we can first move from the normalized
admittance point by 3.15 toward the generator to a normalized admittance point
0.37 + j 0.75. This is then converted to normalized impedance by moving to the
diametric opposite point on the VSWR circle. Thus, the normalized impedance
at a point 3.15 away from the load is 0.55 j 1.08. The impedance at this point
is 100 (0.55 j 1.08) = 55 j 108 , and the VSWR is approximately 4.3.
0.10 0.15
0.35
0.40
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
2
0.4 05
4 0.2 30
0.
5
0.
0.
0
D - R --- >
0.3
VEL ENGTHS TOWARD ERATO
0.2 5
LOA
S TOWARD GEN
0.1
10
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
10
0.25
0.25
2
5
ENGTH
10
0.1
VEL
-WA
0.2
5
W A
<--
-
0.3
0.4 05
0.2 0
5
0.
0.3
4
0.
0
0.5
2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.10 0.15
1
0.40 0.35

Example 3.20 An experiment is performed using the circuit illustrated in Figure

3.27. First, a load ZL is connected at the end of a 100- transmission line and
its VSWR is found to be 2. After that, the detector probe is placed at one of
the minimums on the line. It is found that this minimum shifts toward the load
by 15 cm when the load is replaced by a short circuit. Further, two consecutive
minimums are found to be 50 cm apart. Determine the load impedance.
Zs
Z0 = 100 ZL
Vs
0.10 0.15
0.40 0.35
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
2
0.4 5
0.2 0
4
0.0
0.
5
0.3
0
->
OAD R --
0.3
THS TOWARD L RATO
-
0.2 5
NE
S TOWARD GE
0.1
10
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
10
0.25
2
0.25
5
ENGTH
-WA AVELENG
10
0.1
VEL
5
0.2
W
<---
0.3
0.4 05
0.2 0
5
0.
0.3
4
0.
0
0.5
2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.10 0.15
1
0.40 0.35

PROBLEMS 95
SOLUTION Since the separation between consecutive minimums is 50 cm, the

signal wavelength on the line is 100 cm. Therefore, the first minimum of the
standing wave pattern occurs at 0.15 from the load. Since the VSWR on the
line is measured as 2, this circle is drawn on the Smith chart as illustrated in
Figure 3.28. As explained in the preceding section, a minimum in a voltage
standing wave occurs when the phase angle of the reflection coefficient is 180 .
It is located on the Smith chart at a point where the VSWR circle intersects the
r axis. From this point we move toward the load by 0.15 (i.e., counterclock-
wise) to locate the normalized load impedance point. It is found to be 1 j 0.7.
Therefore,
ZL = 100 (1 j 0.7) = 100 j 70
SUGGESTED READING
Collin, R. E., Foundations for Microwave Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Edwards, T., Foundations for Microstrip Circuit Design. New York: Wiley, 1992.
Gupta, K. C., and I. J. Bahl, Microstrip Lines and Slotlines. Boston: Artech House, 1979.
Magnusson, P. C., G. C. Alexander, and V. K. Tripathi, Transmission Lines and Wave
Propagation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1992.
Pozar, D. M., Microwave Engineering. New York: Wiley, 1998.
Ramo, S., J. R. Whinnery, and T. Van Duzer. Fields and Waves in Communication Elec-
tronics. New York: Wiley, 1994.
Rizzi, P. A., Microwave Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988.
Sinnema, W., Electronic Transmission Technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1988.
PROBLEMS
3.1. A lossless semirigid coaxial line has its inner and outer conductor radii as
1.325 and 4.16 mm, respectively. Find the line parameters, characteristic
impedance, and the propagation constant for a signal frequency of 500 MHz
(r = 2.1).
3.2. Calculate the magnitude of the characteristic impedance and the propa-
gation constant for a coaxial line at 2 GHz. Assume that b = 3 cm, a =
0.5 cm, and = 0 (2.56 j 0.005).
3.3. A certain telephone line has the following electrical parameters: R = 40 /
mile, L = 1.1 mH/mile, G 0, and C = 0.062 F/mile. Loading coils are
added which provide an additional inductance of 30 mH/mile as well as an
additional resistance of 8 /mile. Obtain the attenuation constant and phase
velocities at frequencies of 300 Hz and 3.3 kHz.
3.4. A given transmission line has the following parameters: Z0 = 600 6 ,
= 2.0 105 dB/m, vp = 2.97 108 m/s, and f = 1.0 kHz. Write phasor
V (z) and I (z) and the corresponding instantaneous values for a wave travel-
ing in the z-direction if the maximum value of the current wave at z = 0 is
0.3 mA and it has a maximum positive value with respect to time at t = 0.
3.5. A 100 + j 200- load is connected to a 75- transmission line that is 1 m
long. If signal wavelength on the line is 8 m, find the input impedance and
the signal frequency. Assume that the phase velocity is 70% of the speed
of light in free space.
3.6. A 30-km-long transmission line is terminated by a 100 + j 200- load. A
sinusoidal source with output voltage v(t) = 15 cos(8000t) V and internal
resistance 75 is connected at its other end. The characteristic impedance
of the line is 75 and the phase velocity of the signal is 2.5 108 m/s.
Find the total voltage across its input end and the load.
3.7. A 2.5-m-long transmission line is short-circuited at one end and the impe-
dance at its other end is found to be j 5 . When the short is replaced by
an open circuit, the impedance at the other end changes to j 500 . A
1.9-MHz sinusoidal source is used in this experiment, and the transmission
line is less than a quarter-wavelength long. Determine the characteristic
impedance of the line and phase velocity of the signal.
3.8. A lossless 75- transmission line is connected between the load impedance
of 37.5 j 15 and a signal generator with internal impedance of 75 .
Find (a) the reflection coefficient at 0.15 from the load, (b) the VSWR
on the line, and (c) the input impedance at 1.3 from the load.
3.9. Two antennas are connected through a quarter-wavelength-long lossless
transmission line, as shown in the Figure P3.9. However, the characteristic
impedance of this line is unknown. The array is excited through a 50- line.
Antenna A has an impedance of 80 j 80 and antenna B, 75 j 55 .
The peak voltage across antenna A is found to be 113.14 45 V and the
peak current through antenna B is 1.0 90 A. Determine the characteristic
impedance of the line connecting the two antennas and the value of a
reactance connected in series with antenna B.
/4
jX = ?
Z0 = ? A
B
Figure P3.9
PROBLEMS 97
3.10. Measurements are made on a 1-m-long coaxial line (with negligible loss)
using an impedance bridge that operates at 100 MHz. First, one of its
ends is short-circuited and the impedance at the other end is measured as
j 86.6025 . Repeating the measurements with an open circuit in place of
a short circuit shows an impedance of j 28.8675 . Find the characteristic
impedance of the line and the propagation constant. If the coaxial line is
Teflon filled (r = 2.1) and the inner diameter of its outer conductor is
0.066 cm, determine the diameter of its inner conductor.
3.11. A lossless 75- transmission line is terminated by a load impedance of
150 + j 150 . Find the shortest length of line that results in (a) Zin =
75 j 120 , (b) Zin = 75 j 75 , and (c) Zin = 17.6 .
3.12. The open- and short-circuit impedances measured at the input terminals of
a lossless transmission line of length 1.5 m, which is less than a quarter-
wavelength, are j 54.6 and j 103 , respectively.
(a) Find the characteristic impedance Z0 and propagation constant of
the line.
(b) Without changing the operating frequency, find the input impedance of
a short-circuited line that is twice the given length.
(c) How long should the short-circuited line be for it to appear as an open
circuit at the input terminals?
3.13. At a frequency of 100 MHz, the following values are appropriate for a cer-
tain transmission line: L = 0.25 H/m, C = 80 pF/m, R = 0.15 /m, and
G = 8 S/m. Calculate (a) the propagation constant, = + j , (b) the
signal wavelength, (c) the phase velocity, and (d) the characteristic impe-
dance.
3.14. The open- and short-circuit impedances measured at the input terminals
of a 3-m-long (i.e., greater than a quarter-wavelength but less than one-
half wavelength) lossless transmission line are j 24.2 and j 232.4 ,
respectively.
(a) Find the characteristic impedance and propagation constant of this line.
(b) How long should the open-circuited line be for it to appear as a short
circuit at the input terminals?
3.15. A 2.25-long lossless transmission line with its characteristic impedance
at 75 is terminated by a 300- load. It is energized at the other port by a
signal generator that has an open-circuit voltage of 20 V (peak value) and
internal impedance of 75 .
(a) Find the impedance at the input end of the line.
(b) Determine the total voltage across the load.
3.16. A 22.5-m-long lossless transmission line with Z0 = 50 is short-circuited
at one end, and a voltage source vS = 20 cos(4 106 t 30 ) V is con-
nected at its input terminals, as shown in Figure P3.16. If the source
impedance is 50 and the phase velocity on the line is 1.8 108 m/s,
find the total currents at its input and through the short circuit.
50
50
vS
22.5 m
Figure P3.16
3.17. A 15-cm-long lossless transmission line with Z0 = 75 is open at one

end, and a voltage source vs = 10 cos(2 109 t 45 ) V is connected at
its other end, as shown in Figure P3.17. The source impedance is 75 and
the phase velocity on the line is 2 108 m/s. Compute the total voltage
and current at its input as well as at its open end.
75
75
vS
15 cm
Figure P3.17
3.18. Determine the characteristic impedance and the phase velocity of a 25-
cm-long loss-free transmission line from the following experimental data:
Zs.c. = j 90 , Zo.c. = j 40 , and f = 300 MHz. Assume that l is less
than radians.
3.19. A lossless line is terminated in a load resistance of 50 . Calculate the two
possible values of characteristic impedance Z0 if one-fourth of the incident
voltage wave is reflected back.
3.20. Measurements on a 0.6-m-long lossless coaxial cable at 100 kHz show a
capacitance of 54 pF when the cable is open-circuited and an inductance of
0.3 H when it is short-circuited. Determine the characteristic impedance
of the line and the phase velocity of this signal on the line. (Assume that
the line length is less than a quarter-wavelength.)
PROBLEMS 99
3.21. For the reflection coefficients and characteristic impedances given, find the
reflecting impedance in each case: (a) = 0.7 30 , Z0 = 50 ; (b) =
0.9 35 , Z0 = 100 ; (c) = 0.1 j 0.2, Z0 = 50 ; (d) = 0.5
j 0, Z0 = 600 .
3.22. A 75- line lossless line is terminated by a load impedance ZL = 100 +
j 150 . Using a Smith chart, determine (a) the load reflection coefficient,
(b) the VSWR, (c) the load admittance, (d) Zin at 0.4 from the load,
(e) the location of Vmax and Vmin with respect to the load if the line is 0.6
long, and (f) Zin at the input end.
3.23. A lossless 50- line is terminated by a 25 j 60- load. Find (a) the reflec-
tion coefficient at the load, (b) the VSWR on the line, (c) the impedance at
3.85 from the load, (d) the shortest length of the line for which impedance
is purely resistive, and (e) the value of this resistance.
3.24. An antenna of input impedance ZL = 75 + j 150 at 2 MHz is connected
to a transmitter through a 100-m-long section of coaxial line, which has
the following distributed constants: R = 153 /km, L = 1.4 mH/km, G =
0.8 S/km, and C = 0.088 F/km. Determine the characteristic impedance,
the propagation constant, and the impedance at the input end of this
line.
3.25. A lossless 50- transmission line is terminated in 25 + j 50 . Find (a) the
voltage reflection coefficient, (b) the impedance at 0.3 from the load,
(c) the shortest length of the line for which impedance is purely resistive,
and (d) the value of this resistance.
3.26. A uniform transmission line has constants R = 15 m/m, L = 2 H/m,
G = 1.2 S/m, and C = 1.1 nF/m. The line is 1 km long and it is termi-
nated in a resistive load of 80 . At 8 kHz, find (a) the input impedance,
(b) the attenuation in decibels, and (c) the characteristic impedance.
3.27. A 50- lossless line is terminated by a load impedance ZL = 50 + j 100 .
Using a Smith chart, determine (a) the load reflection coefficient, (b) the
VSWR, (c) the load admittance, (d) Zin at 0.4 from the load, (e) the
location of Vmax and Vmin with respect to load if the line is 0.6 long, and
(f) Zin at the input end.
3.28. A 50- lossless line is terminated by a load admittance YL = 100 + j 150 S.
Using a Smith chart, determine (a) the load reflection coefficient, (b) the
VSWR, (c) the load admittance, (d) Zin at 0.4 from the load, (e) the
locations of Vmax and Vmin with respect to load if the line is 0.6 long, and
(f) Zin at the input end.
3.29. Design a quarter-wavelength stripline impedance transformer to match a
150- load with a 75- line. The ground plane separation is 2.6 mm,
and the dielectric constant of the filling material is 3.1. It operates at
2 GHz.
3.30. Design a quarter-wavelength microstrip impedance transformer to match a

250- load with a 50- line. The system is to be fabricated on a 1.6-mm-
thick substrate (r = 2.3) that operates at 2 GHz.
3.31. A microwave transmitter is fabricated on a GaAs substrate. An antenna
used in the system offers a resistive load of 40 . The electronic circuit
has an output impedance of 1 k. Design a microstrip /4 impedance
transformer to match the system. The operating frequency is 4 GHz and the
substrate thickness is 0.05 mm. The r value of the GaAs substrate is 12.3.
3.32. A microstrip line is designed on a 0.1-mm-thick GaAs substrate (r = 14).
The strip thickness is 0.0001 mm and its width is 0.01 mm. Compute (a) the
characteristic impedance and (b) the effective dielectric constant.
3.33. For the transmission line shown in Figure 3.33, find (a) the reflection coef-
ficient (in ) at the input end, (b) the VSWR on the line, and (c) the input
admittance (Yin ).
Z0 = 50 200 j50
a=0
0.3l
Figure P3.33
3.34. A lossless transmission line has a characteristic impedance of 50 and is

terminated with an unknown load. The standing wave ratio on the line is
3.0. Successive voltage minimums are 20 cm apart, and the first minimum
is 5 cm from the load.
(a) Determine the value of terminating load.
(b) Find the position and value of a reactance that might be added in series
with the line at some point to eliminate reflections of waves incident
from the source end.
3.35. A lossless 100- transmission line is terminated with an unknown load.
The standing wave ratio on the line is 2.5. Successive voltage minima are
15 cm apart, and the first maximum is 7.5 cm from the load.
(a) Determine the value of terminating load.
(b) Find the position closest to the load and value of a reactance that
might be added in series with the line to eliminate reflections of waves
incident from the source end.
PROBLEMS 101
3.36. A lossless transmission line has a characteristic impedance of 50 and is

terminated with an unknown load. The standing wave ratio on the line is
3.0. Successive voltage minimums are 2 cm apart, and the first minimum
is 0.5 cm from the load.
(a) Determine the admittance of terminating load.
(b) Find the shortest length of the line from the load for which the admit-
tance is purely conductive.
(c) Determine the value of this conductance in siemens.
(d) Find the shortest length of the line from the load for which the impe-
dance is purely resistive.
(e) Determine the value of this resistance in ohms.
3.37. A lossless 50- line is connected to a load as shown in Figure P3.37.
The input reflection coefficient in at 1.45 from the load is found at
0.3 60 . Find (a) the load impedance in ohms, (b) the VSWR, (c) the
shortest length of the line from the load for which the impedance is purely
resistive, and (d) the value of this resistance in ohms.
ZL
in = 0.3 60
1.45l
Figure P3.37
3.38. A lossless 100- transmission line is terminated in a 50 + j 150- load.

Find (a) the reflection coefficient at the load, (b) the VSWR, and (c) Zin
(z = 0.35).
3.39. A lossless 50- transmission line is terminated by a 25 j 50- load.
Find (a) L , (b) the VSWR, (c) Zin at 2.35 from the load, (d) the shortest
length of the line where impedance is purely resistive, and (e) the value of
this resistance.
3.40. For the transmission line circuit shown in Figure P3.40, find (a) the load
reflection coefficient, (b) the impedance seen by the generator, (c) the
VSWR on the transmission line, and (d) the fraction of the input power
delivered to the load.
50
v(t) 50
40
bl = p/4
Figure P3.40
3.41. For the transmission line circuit shown in Figure P3.41, find the required
value of Z0 that will match the 20- load resistance to the generator. The
generator internal resistance is 60 . Find the VSWR on the transmission
line. Is the load resistance matched to the transmission line?
60
v(t) Z0
20
bl = p/2
Figure P3.41
3.42. Use a Smith chart to find the following for the transmission line circuit
shown in Figure P3.42: (a) the reflection coefficient at the load, (b) the
reflection coefficient at the input, (c) the VSWR on the line, and (d) the
input impedance.
50 35 j 20
0.12l
Figure P3.42
3.43. A lossless 40- line is terminated in a 20- load. Find the shortest line
length that results in (a) Zin = 40 j 28 and (b) Zin = 48 + j 16 . Use
a Smith chart rather than the impedance transformation equation.
PROBLEMS 103
3.44. A 30-m-long lossless transmission line with Z0 = 50 operating at 2 MHz

is terminated with a load ZL = 60 + j 40 . If the phase velocity on the line
is 1.8 108 m/s, find (a) the load reflection coefficient, (b) the standing
wave ratio, and (c) the input impedance.
3.45. A 50- transmission line is terminated by an unknown load. The total volt-
age at various points of the line is measured and found to be as displayed in
Figure P3.45. Determine (a) the magnitude of reflection coefficient, (b) the
VSWR, and (c) the signal wavelength in meters.
1.4
1.2
V 0.8
0.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance away from the source (m)

Figure P3.45
3.46. A 100- lossless line is terminated by a series RLC circuit, as shown in

Figure P3.46.
100
L = 1 H
Vm cos 0t Z0 = 100 C = 100 pF
R = 100
Figure P3.46
(a) Find the source frequency f0 for which VSWR on the line will
be unity.
(b) Find the source frequencies f1 and f2 on either side of f0 for which
the VSWR on the line will be 2.

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3

3.1 DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF TRANSMISSION LINES

resistors. These distributed elements are defined as follows:

L = inductance per unit length (H/m)

L, R, C, and G, the line parameters, are determined theoretically by electro-

L = 200 ln(b/a) nH/m (3.1.2)

Figure 3.2 Coaxial line geometry.

Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line

characteristic impedance = Z0 = V1 /I1 = V2 /I2 = V3 /I3 = = Vn /In

Figure 3.3 Infinitely long transmission line and voltage source.

to the terminating impedance. In other words, there is a unique impedance for

Z = R + j L = impedance per unit length

(Z0 + Z z)(1/Y z)

Some special cases are as follows:

Example 3.1 Calculate the equivalent impedance and admittance of a 1-m-

Z = R + j L = 0.015 + j 2 1.6 109 0.002 106 /m

Y = G + j C = 0.0001 + j 2 1.6 109 0.012 1012 S/m

Transmission Line Equations

Under the limit z 0, the equation above reduces to

Figure 3.4 Distributed circuit model of a transmission line.

Again, under the limit z 0, it reduces to

2 v(z, t) v(z, t) 2 v(z, t)

Some special cases are as follows:

Solution of Helmholtz Equations

V (z) = Vin ez + Vref ez (3.1.16)

Vin = vin ej and Vref = vref ej

the line voltage, in time domain, can be evaluated as follows:

v(z, t) = Re[V (z)ej t ]

At this point, it is important to analyze and understand the behavior of each

and therefore equation (3.1.17) may be written as follows:

Phase and Group Velocities

A transmission line has no dispersion if the phase velocity of a propagating

f (z, t) = Re[Aej [(+)t(+)z] + Aej [()t()z] ]

Example 3.2 A signal generator has an internal resistance of 50 and an open-

SOLUTION Since the transmission line is terminated by a load that is equal to

Figure 3.6 Circuit arrangement for Example 3.2.

Therefore, V (z) = 1.8ej 0.8z V and I (z) = 0.024ej 0.8z A. Hence,

v(z, t) = 1.8 cos(2 108 t 0.8z) V and

Example 3.3 The parameters of a transmission line are R = 2 /m, G = 0.5

Therefore, = 0.0514 Np/m and = 0.2726 rad/m.

Example 3.4 Two antennas are connected through a quarter-wavelength-long

Also, Ohms law can be used to find this voltage as follows:

Therefore, X = 28 and Z0 = 56 . Note that the unknown characteristic

3.2 SENDING-END IMPEDANCE

Figure 3.8 Transmission line terminated by a load impedance.

V (z) = Vin ez + Vref ez (3.2.1)

where 0 = ej is known as the input reflection coefficient. Further,

V (z = l) Vin el + Vref e+l

and equation (3.2.3) can be written as follows:

1 + [(ZL 1)/(ZL + 1)]e2l ZL (1 + e2l ) + (1 e2l )

1 e2l e+l el sinh l

For a lossless line, = + j = j , and therefore tanh l = tanh j l = j tan l.

Some special cases are as follows:

1. ZL = 0 (i.e., a lossless line is short circuited) Zin = j Z0 tan l.

Example 3.5 A transmission line of length d and characteristic impedance Z0

Example 3.6 Design a quarter-wavelength transformer to match a 20- load to

Figure 3.9 Circuit arrangement for Example 3.5.

Therefore, = 0.06896 m and d = /4 = 0.01724 m = 1.724 cm.

Vs 100 19.5278 0.181 rad

1952.78 0.181 rad

VTh 100 8.168 rad