This dissertation has been

microfihned exactly as received 7 0 -2 3 1 5

JOHNS, David Otto, 1931-

THE ORGAN - REFORM MOVEMENT: A FORMATIVE
INFLUENCE UPON TWENTIETH CENTURY CHURCH
MUSIC COMPOSITION, PRACTICE, AND PEDAGOGY.
The University of Oklahoma, D.Mus.Ed., 1969
Music

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

 THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA

GRADUATE COLLEGE

THE ORGAN-REFORM MOVEMENT: A FORMATIVE INFLUENCE UPON

TWENTIETH CENTURY CHURCH MUSIC CCMPOSITION,

PRACTICE, AN D PEDAGOGY

A DISSERTATION

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSIC EDUCATION

BY

DAVID O: JOHNS

Norman, Oklahoma

1969
THE ORGAN-REFORM MOVEMENT: A FORMATIVE INFLUENCE UPON

TWENTIETH CENTURY CHURCH MUSIC COMPOSITION,

PRACTICE, AND PEDAGOGY

APPROVED BY

DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The purpose of this dissertation, which has been done In partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Music Edu

cation at the University of Oklahoma, Is to Identify some of the contri

butions resulting from the Organ Reform Movement In Germany at the begin

ning of the twentieth _entury. Suggestions are offered as to the direc

tion of development of pedagogical procedures and materials for organists.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to the chairman of my advisory

committee. Dr. Robert C. Smith, for his patient counseling; to Dr. Ernest

Trurable and Dr. Margaret Haynes for their desire to help me learn; and to

Miss Mildred Andrews for her unique ways of helping one discover hidden

abilities. My thanks go to Prof. Roy Barlag, St. John's College, Winfield,

Kansas, who by his translations of German text brought much more light to

this dissertation; to Prof. Lloyd Miller, who assisted In the clarification

of English text; and to my dear wife Margaret, who spent many hours patient

ly typing copy.

Ill
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......................................................... iii

Chapter

I. A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE

STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND LITERATURE
OF THE O R G A N ............................................ 1

II. THE ORGAN-REFORM MOVEMENT................................... 41

III. THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORGAN-REFORM

MOVEMENT............. ........................................ 63

IV. THE ORGAN-REFORM MOVEMENT AND ITS

RELATIONSHIP TO NEEDED RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT IN PERFORMANCE AND PEDAGOGY.................... 82

CONCLUSION.............................................................. 120

BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................... l2l

APPENDIX A ...................................................... 125

APPENDIX B .............................................................. 128

IV
 A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE STRUCTURE,

FUNCTION, AND LITERATURE OF THE ORGAN

CHAPTER I.

As significant as the early development of the pipe organ of

Greece may have been, from its early inception as the Hydraulos around

the third century B.C., through its various stages as a large, unmanage

able "pneumatic" organ in the Winchester Cathedral in England, to the

organ with a fully developed keyboard in the eleventh century Magdeburg

Cathedral in Germany, the importance of the organ as an instrument in its

own right became significant when in the thirteenth century it began to

function as the instrument of the church throughout western and central

Europe.1

Up to thig time the organ remained an awkward, raucous sounding

instrument of sheer noise. From the early fourteenth century, keyboard

instruments could boast of a diatonic keyboard with chromatic half steps.

In addition there appeared the first works written for keyboard instru

ments in tablature notation.

Two of the earliest important sources for keyboard works are the

Robertsbridge Codex, and the Faenza Codex.% Stylistically the Roberts-

^William Leslie Sumner, The Organ; Its Evolution. Principles of

Construction, and Use (London: Macdonald and Co., 1952), p. 39.

^Donald Jay Grout, A History of Western Music (New York: W. W.

1
 2

bridge manuscript contains a strange contrast between intavolated iso

rhythmic motets, and the dance pieces, which show an archaic, primitive

style; features which opposed the intavolatura. i.e., keyboard trans

criptions, of polyphonic ensemble works.

Most important because it is, a comprehensive manuscript is the

Eaenza C o dex. Dating from the fifteenth century, it contains a large

body of fourteenth century keyboard music. More than half of the ma n u

script is occupied with keyboard compositions; most of which are intavo-

laturas by French and Italian composers.

From the tenth to the fourteenth century, the organ as exemplified

by that in the Winchester Cathedral, had a tonal resource basically con

sisting of a "mixture" organ, i.e., each tone produced by a rank of pipes

was automatically accompanied by its octave, twelfth, and double octave,

etc. Essentially "full" organ was used at all times.

The pipework of the fourteenth century organ underwent a decisive

change. "Solo" stops were added which provided a necessary contrast to

the principal tone of the "mixture" organ. The first such solo stop was

the "flute," which was of a wider scale than the "principal" stops. The

power of a single flute stop is evident from the following comment:

. . . as late as 1513 the organ of Saint-Sauveur at Aix-en-

Provence . . . had only a single flute stop contrasted to
a plein-jeu of principal, octave, nineteenth and triple octave.^

Norton and Company, Inc., i960), p. 125. " . . . the Robertsbridge Codex
of about 1325 has organ arrangements, and the Faenza Codex from the first
quarter of the fifteenth century contains ornate keyboard versions of
Machaut's ballades and of madrigals and^ballate by Italian fourteenth-
century composers including Landini,"

3Curt Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (New York: W, W.

Norton and Company, Inc., 1940), p. 305.
 3

The introduction of "solo" stops was due largely to the change in

the style of music and the particular part the organ played in it. The

new polyphony of the intavolaturas required more transparency. It was

these new stops that provided for the organ its most distinctive feature-:

the contrast and mixture of different timbres.

Pedal keys also were a part of the development around the four

teenth century, realized i. the form of a full pedal board. The pedal

soon became a regular feature of the large organs in Germany.

In the fifteenth century, many of the large organs were placed in

the nave or over the main portal of the church or cathedral, primarily

for solo performance. In addition to the main organ was a smaller organ

or positiv placed in the gallery for accompanying singers and for play

ing during the daily service. The positiv was a thirteenth century

development, but it was a continuous development which must be considered

in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries insofar as the develop

ment of the structure, function, and literature of the organ is concerned.

The positiv remained essentially a one keyboard instrument whose

bellows were worked by another person, permitting the player to use both

hands for the keyboard. By the fifteenth century the positiv had a fully

chromatic keyboard. The detailed representations of the positiv in the

panels of the Ghent Altarpiece of Hubert and Jan Van Eyck show keyboards

which are very similar to our present type, though the keys seem shorter

in length.

In the at Ghent a key which can be held

down by a latch is clearly seen on the extreme left.
These pipes were drones and their sustained bass notes
would be the origin of the pedal point or "pedal" of
 later organ music, a harmonic device^which is still in
use today.4

There were two kinds of positiv organs, the small positiv which stood on

a table, and the larger which stood on the floor.

According to Sumner, the positiv along with its small portable

counterpart, the portativ. was first recorded in the late tenth century.^

After the passing of the large Gothic organ in England, the organs were

either portativ or positiv until the fifteenth century. The portativ

disappeared in the seventeenth century, but the positiv survived. Apel

states, "it is probably the latter type which must be considered as having

been instrumental in the development of polyphonic organ music.

An account of the early sixteenth century positiv organ was given

by Arnolt Schlick in his treatise, Spiegel der Oreelmacher und Organisten.

published in Mainz in 1511. The title page gives an idea of the German

positiv organ of the time which consisted of one keyboard and a complete

pedal with several ranks of p i p e s . ?

By the end of the fifteenth century, both German and Flemish organ

builders had introduced "stopped" pipes; i.e., pipes having their upper

ends capped for the purpose of economy of space while at the same time

achieving fundamental tone with a half length pipe, tapered pipes; reed

pipes; the tremulant; and the complete pedal keyboard with stops of its own.

'^Sumner, op. c i t . , p. 57.

SSumner, op. c i t . , p. 54.

^Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Harvard University Press, 1944), p. 531.

^Sumner, op. c i t . , Plate 9.

 5

The small body of keyboard music preserved from before the six

teenth century is limited largely to Italy in the fourteenth century.

The main sources for the fifteenth century are from Germany in the tabla

ture of Adam Ileborgh of Stendahl (1448); the Fundamentum oreanisandi

of Conrad Paumann (1452);9 and the Buxheim Orgelbuch (c. 1460).^

Both the Ileborgh tablature and the Buxheim Orgelbuch are bonafide

collections of keyboard music, whereas the Fundamentum oreanisandi of

Paumann is essentially an instruction manual for organ containing musical

compositions largely as illustrative material.

Three types of music are found in these German keyboard tablatures:

(1) the intavolatura. the continuation of the fourteenth century practice

of direct transcription of polyphonic ensemble works. These types of

works are not regarded as keyboard music, but the arranging of polyphonic

ensemble works which gave rise to original and independent forms of k e y

board m u s i c (2) the cantus firmus settings of sacred and secular

melodies; and (3) the praeludia. the first type of idiomatic keyboard

music conceived without reference to preexistent forms.

The Ileborgh tablature contains the first examples of praeludia

(preambulieren) in addition to being one of the earliest manuscripts

^Tablature of Adam Ileborgh of Stendahl, 1448, Ms., Curtis

Institute of Music, Philadelphia.

^Conrad Paumann, Fundamentum oreanisandi> 1452, Ms., Berlin,

Staatsbibliothek 40613; bound with the Lochamer Liederbuch.

lBuxheim Orgelbuch. c. 1460, M s . , Minich, Staatsbibliothek,

Cim. 3526.

l^F. E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music (New York:

The Free Press, 1966), p. 35.
 6

specifically calling for the use of the pedal.

Paumann's Fundamentum oreanisandi contains both cantus firmus set

tings of which the best known example, based on a secular melody, is

"Mit ganczem Willen wnsch ich dir," and praeludia.

The Buxheim Orgelbuch is considered a leading source of intavo

laturas of sacred as well as secular compositions. M o t e t s , rondeaus.

virelais, and ballades are arranged for the keyboard, and leading compos

ers such as Dunstable, Binchois, Frye, and Dufay are represented, Cantus

firmus settings of sacred melodies and praeludia are also contained in

this score.

The preambulum is important in terms of independent keyboard idiom.

It was not strictly metrical, but free rhythm. The lower part proceeded

in long held notes, and the upper part moved in scale patterns. To this

extent it resembled the liturgical cantus firmus settings but for one

critical difference--there was no cantus firmus used.

The very designation of praeludia in the Ileborgh tablature indi

cates the purpose of these pieces : to introduce a polyphonic ensemble

work to be performed during the church service. Such pieces were generally

improvised and this fact accounts for the usually free meters encountered.

This improvisational quality marks the praeludia as the earliest idiomatic

keyboard compositions that have come down to us,^^

The Paumann and the Buxheim sources, while not preserving the rhyth

mic freedom of the Ileborgh praeludia. expand the form so that two types

12Ibid.. p. 34.

13lbid., p. 38.
 7

of writing are apparent. In the manner described above, the slow moving

Lower part is combined with a rapid figured upper part. The other is

chordal, whereby all parts move simultaneously in equal note values. The

two types alternate with each other. Nothing of the improvisational qual

ity is lost, but the music possesses a curious archaic quality.

Arnolt Schlick (1455-1525), blind organist and theorist, was the

first figure of significance in sixteenth century Germany, In addition

to his famous treatise already mentioned, he is also responsible for a

large collection of organ compositions. The Tabulaturen etlicher Lob-

eesane und Lidlein auff die Orgel un Lauten zu spielen was published by

Peter Schoffer at Mainz in 1512.^^

This collection consists of fourteen organ compositions, twelve

Lute songs, and three lute pieces. The organ works are, for the most

part, cantus firmus settings based on plainsongs. Schlick's Tabulaturen

is also notable for settings based on song melodies with vernacular German

texts, of which the best known and most frequently performed work of this

type is 'Maria zart von edler Art." The accompanying parts are polyphonic-

ally more elaborate.

Besides the source of organ compositions to be found in Schlick*s

Tabulaturen. a very few are in print by Paul Hofhaimsr (1459-1537),

Other composers of organ music in the early sixteenth century in Germany

who were in one way or another associated with Hofhaimer were Hans Buchner

(1483-1538), Hans Kotter (1485-1541), Fridolin Sicher (1490-1546), and

Leonhard Kleber (1490-1556), Buchner's works are contained in a large

14 l bid.. p. 39,
 8

treatise, Fundamentum sive ratio v e r a . from the early sixteenth century.

This treatise is an instruction manual on organ playing. Tablature books

contain the works of Kotter (c. 1513), Sicher (c. 1525), and Kleber (1520-

1524).

Intavolaturas appear in the tablatures of Kotter and Kleber.

Cantus firmus settings based on plainsong are important in the treatise

of Buchner and the tablatures of Sicher, Kleber, and Kotter. Praeludia

are found in the tablature of Kleber and some in K o t t e r . T h e s e are

also sectional as were those found in the Buxheim Orgelbuch.

The additional category of the "dance" is of quantitative import

ance in the tablature of Kotter.

In the second half of the sixteenth century, a change from the

previous repertory took place in German keyboard music. This is the

period of the so-called "colorist" school--noted for its use of embell

ishment. Particular concentration was given here to keyboard transcrip

tion of polyphonic ensemble pieces and outright improvisation. Liturgical

cantus firmus settings as had been commonly used are conspicuous by their

absence. However, such settings are present but they are based on the

Protestant chorale melody. These are early contributions to what later

became the repertory of the Lutheran organ chorale. The praeludia is

absent, but much attention is given the "dance."

Positive contributions of the "colorist" school can be stated in

terms of the development of technique in keyboard playing: the import

ance of proper fingering and the execution of standard types of omaraent-

I5lbid.. pp. 40-41.

 9

ation. The most prominent member of the "colorist" school is Nicholas

Anomerbach (1530-1597).

Steady advances in organ construction were made throughout Europe

in the late Gothic and early Renaissance periods. Human mechanical inge

nuity, interest, and wealth contributed to the fullest development of the

organ.

Between 1500 and 1700, three types of instruments reflect the suc

cessive types of organ music in these two centuries: the "Gothic"^ organ,

the "Praetorius" organ, and the "Bach" organ. The "Gothic" organ, as

exemplified by the description in the previously mentioned treatise of

Arnolt Schlick, Spiegel der Oreelmacher und Organisten (1511), basically

consisted of one or several manuals with a pedal keyboard having separate

pipes.

Schlick supplies precise dimensions for the various parts of the

organs including the size of the keys, the length of the pedal keys, the

height of the manual keyboard above the pedals, and even the height of the

seat above the pedal surface. He also speaks of the proper placement of

the organ.

In terms of tonal resources, Schlick deals with a considerable

variety of organ stops at all pitches which were capable or providing the

greatest possible contrast between tone colors of various ranks of pipes.

Among those he mentions are the principal. octav. and superoctav. along

with various mixtures including the high pitched zimbel and the rausch-

pfeife. Some of the reeds referred to are the schalmei and the zink.

which was a quiet reed, also the trompete and posaune. One type of flute

Schlick refers to is the schwegel.

 10

In Germany, there was a two-fold distinction in the organization

of the registers: "thin" registers--open, narrow scaled pipes producing

a light transparent tone; "wide" registers--varied scales, covered, u n

covered, tapered, producing characteristic "solo" stops.

In contrast to the Renaissance organ, Friederich Blume makes these

comments regarding the multiplicity of pitches and timbres characteristic

of the early Baroque organ of Schlick and of the types to follow.

With the beginning of the Baroque, the organ is released

from the neutral sound-complex of Renaissance music by
acquiring an independent music of its own.
. . . with Praetorius, Sweelinck, and Samuel Scheldt, an
organ music begins that can unfold its wealth of tonal
color only on the organ, and is technically performable
only on the organ. The instrument itself departs from
the monochromatic diapason stops of the Italian-Renais-
sance organ and undergoes, in ways different according
to country and region, a thorough change to polychromat
ic registration and in so doing demands of organ compos
ition a well-distributed tonal language that utilizes
these possibilities. This idiomatic writing for organ
extends to . . . Boehm, Buxtehude, and Bach, gradually
sinking back after the end of the Baroque period to the
monotony of a grisaille-like neutrality.

Besides the usual division between secular and sacred, there was

one other--the Catholic Church in the South, and the Protestant Church in

the North. The geographic division, of course, was not quite that arbi--

trary.17 Most of the prominent composers were connected with musical life

of either the cathedral or the court.

IGpriederich Blume, Renaissance and Baroque Music (New York:

W. W, Norton and Company, Inc., 1967), p. 123,

l^The most important composers in South Germany: Johann Jakob

Froberger (1616-1667), Ferdinand Tobias Richter (1649-1711), Alessandro
Poglietti (d. 1683), Franz Matthaeus Techelmann, Johann Kaspar Kerll
(1627-1693), Johann Kaspar Ferdinand Fischer (1665-1746); Central Germany :
Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654), Johann Ulrich Steigleder (1593-1635), Johannes
 11

Characteristic musical forms of seventeenth century Germany and

Austria owe their existence to three basic influences: (1) the German

"colorists" and their embellished, idiomatic keyboard figuration, (2) the

Gabrieli, Merulo, and Frescobaldi influence from Italy, and (3) the Dutch

influence of Sweelinck, who transmitted the Anglo-Italian style to the

North and Central German schools.^

South German composers generally were inclined toward the tradition

of the "colorists," and in specific forms like the toccata they leaned

heavily on the Italian models of Merulo and Gabrieli.

North German composers used the chorale variation in the Sweelinck

manner.

The Central German school centered about Samuel Scheidt, and with

Scheidt, German organ music came into its own.^9

Much of seventeenth century keyboard music remained in manuscript.

That organ music which was published generally served two purposes:

music for use in the church service, and music for instructional purposes.

Klemme (1593-1657), Nicolas Adam Strungk (1640-1700), Johann Christoph

Bach (1642-1703), Christian Erbach (1573-1635), Johann Pachelbel (1653-
1706), Johann Erasmus Kindermann (1616-1655), Franz Xaver Murschhauser
(1663-1738), Delphin Strungk (1601-1695), Johann Heinrich Buttstedt (1666-
1727), Georg Muffat (1653-1704), Johann Krieger (1652-1735); North
Germany: Heinrich Scheidemann (1596-1663), Melchior Schildt (1592-1667),
Jan Reinken (1623-1722), Jacob Praetorius (1586-1651), Matthias Weckmann
(1621-1691), Vincent LUbeck (1654-1740), Franz Tunder (1614-1667), Johann
Nicolas Hanff (1655-1711), Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707), Nicolas Bruhns
(1665-1697), Paul Siefert (1586-1666), Georg Bhm (1661-1733), Johann
Kuhnau (1660-1722).

ISManfred E. Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York:

W, W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1947), p. 104.

I9lbid.. p. 105.
 12

For the most part, organ compositions based on Protestant chorales

are Important for the first category. Examples of these are the Tabulatur-

Buch (1650) of Samuel Scheidt and the Chorale (1693) of Johann Pachelbeli

Catholic liturgical music is represented by the Modulatio organica (1686)

of Johann Kaspar Kerll and Apparatus musico-oreanisticus (1690) b y Georg

Muffat. Among the didactic works are Samuel Scheldt's Tabulatura nova

(1624), and Johannes K l e m m e 's Partitura seu tabulatura italica (1631),

which contains thirty-six fugues arranged in order according to the twelve

church modes.

Publications of secular music for keyboard are more uniform in that

they present essentially one category of composition, namely, the suite.

There is a group of publications which by its content suggest a

more composite, general character. Many types of music for various pur

poses are included in addition to the fact that the instrumental medium

is frequently indicated as "clavier" in general, thus not restricting the

performance to any keyboard instrument in particular. Scheldt's Tabulatura

nova could possibly be considered one of this type. Some collections c o n

tain a variety of imitative contrapuntal works such as Johann Ulrich Steig

leder' s Ricercare tabulate organis et oreanoedis (1624) or Johann Erasmus

Kindermann's Harmonica organica (1645), Johann Jakob Froberger's Partite

di toccate. canzone, ricercari (1693), and Johann Kaspar Ferdinand

Fischer's Ariadne musica (1702). A group of chorales such as found in

Johann Pachelbel's Musicalische Sterbenseedanken (1683) is clearly as much

intended for performance on the harpsichord or clavichord as on the o r g a n . ^ 0

ZOKirby, op. c i t . , p. 86.

 13

Whereas keyboard music in the early seventeenth century was far

from being standardized, and though the designations were still inconsist

ent, there were, according to Grout, certain general types of composition

distinguishable in this period:

1. The ricercare type: pieces in continuous imitative

counterpoint. These were called ricercare. fantasia.
f a n c y , capriccio. f u e a . ve r s e t : . . . they lead
eventually to the fugue.

2. The canzona type: pieces in discontinuous imitative

counterpoint . . . .

3. Pieces based on a given melody or bass: principally

the theme and variations or partita, the passacaelia
or chaconne. the chorale partita, and the chorale
prelude.

4. Pieces in more or less stylized dance rhythms, either

strung loosely together or more closely integrated:
the suite.

5. Pieces in improvisatory or free-form style for solo

keyboard instrument or lute: called toccata. fantasia,
or prelude.21
\

The two principal types of organ compositions perfected in the late

seventeenth century during the mature Baroque in Germany were the cantus

firmus compositions and the free-form compositions.

There was a surprising lack of Catholic organ music by those com

posers active in the Catholic cities of the south perhaps for the simple-

reason that the organ functioned mostly as an instrument for accompaniment.

In contrast to this was the considerable amount of activity among

the Protestant organists and composers who utilized the cantus firmus set

tings based on the man y chorale melodies forming the basis of the Lutheran

2lGrout, op. c i t . . pp. 297-298.

 14

service. The chorale was for the congregation and was sung in German.

The melody itself was occasionally taken from popular songs of the time

it was simple and easy to sing.

The chorale is of fundamental importance in the Protestant liturgy.

There are chorales proper to specific seasons and particularly festivals

some for Advent, Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, Holy Week, Easter, Ascension,

Pentecost and Trinity--so that each chorale has its specified liturgical

character, function, and significance.

As the point of departure . . . the chorale has remained

a vital motivating factor from the Reformation to the
present day. Simple in itself, it has been the basis
for some of the greatest and most complex musical works
to be written within the framework of Western c u l t u r e . 22

Of great significance is the manner in which the chorale was p er

formed since the time of the Reformation. It was the practice of the six

teenth century that all verses of a given chorale be sung. The basic

reason for this was that the complete thought of the text might b e expres

sed. However, the inherent monotony in the performance of all verses of

a chorale brought about the practice of alternatim. The alternatimpraxis

involved alternate participation of three performing agents readily avail

able in the German Protestant service from the Reformation on. These

performing agents were the congregation, the choir, and the organ.

Through specific inter-relationships to each other, the important genre

220onald Charles Johns, "Johann Nepomuk David's Choralwerk:

A Study in the Evolution of a Contemporary Liturgical Organ Style."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, I960., p. 1.
 15

of the organ chorale developed.23

In the early practice of alternatim. the congregation sang the

chorale melody without accompaniment of any kind. The choir performed

polyphonic settings of those verses of the chorale entrusted to it. The

organ had a two-fold purpose: it alternated with the choir and congrega

tion in the performance of the various verses of the chorale, and it gave

pitch to the celebrant, the choir, and the congregation by means of an

intonation.24

The historical development of the organ chorale from Samuel Scheidt

to J. S. Bach followed along two lines: the North German style with its

preference for extended treatment and a free, rhapsodic type known as the

chorale fantasia; and the Central German style which favored shorter forms

and a simpler style, chiefly melody chorales or chorale variations.

A very acceptable and useful designation of thevarious types of

organ chorale as it developed from the time of Scheidt until the culmina

tion of styles in Bach is given by Apel:

Cantus firmus c horale: the chotale melody in long notes

usually in the bass.

Chorale m o t e t : each line of the chorale is treated in

imitation thus resulting in a succession of fugues.

Chorale f u g u e : the first line or initial phrase of

the chorale is treated as a fugue subject.

Melody or figured chorale: the chorale appears as a c o n

tinuous melody in the soprano, accompanied by contrapuntal
parts which usually proceed in definite figures.

2 3 lbid. . pp. 16-17.

24lbi d .. pp. 18-19.

 16

Chorale c a n o n ; the chorale melody appears in canon with

the musical material supporting the canon developed in the
figurai manner.

Ornamented chorale; the chorale used in the soprano with

elaborate and expressive ornamentations.

Chorale fantasia: free, "North German" treatment.

Chorale variations (partitas): a number of variations,

corresponding to the number of stanzas of the t e x t . 25

Two factors are very important in the classification of organ

chorale types: the cantus firmus and the accompanying material.

Although the cantus firmus may be varied to a certain

extent and may assume a different character because of
alteration in the form of ornamentation, diminution,
augmentation, canon, etc., the accompanying voices con
stitute a factor in the organ chorale which is extremely
variable . . . it is this freedom of the accompanying
voices and not the cantus firmus which accounts for im
portant differences between compositions, and makes of
each a unique phenomenon.

Prominent with the genre of the organ chorale during the seventeenth

century was that genre of "free-form" composition, which included the

toccata compositions involving irregular or free rhythm in an overall

effect of planned uncertainty. Also involved in the development through

out the century were related forms of the various types of pieces in imi

tative counterpoint.

In Germany, the toccata falls into the categories of the South

German style, where Froberger, Kerll, and Muffat were most prominent, with

the Italian models of Frescobaldi and Merulo being decisive; and the North

German style, which was more rhapsodic. The form of the toccata was

25Apel, op. c i t . . p. 534.

26J o h n s , op. c i t .. p. 26.

 17

sectional as in Froberger's, usually having three sections--"toccata-like"

passages at the beginning and the end, and a fugal part in the middle

along with several changes of meter. Kerll's toccatas generally had

four or five sections.

In North Germany, the scheme of alternating toccata and fugal sec

tions first appeared in the works of Matthias Weckmann. This idea devel

oped more artistically in the works of Dietrich Buxtehude and Nicolas

Bruhns, finally culminating in the works of J. S. Bach.

Two forms associated with the toccata were the prelude and the in-

tonazione. Murschhauser's preludes and intonazionen were much shorter

than the usual toccata and usually were restricted to one motive of "figur

ation pattern. Kindermann's preludes are extremely short, his intonazion

en are somewhat longer, and have a two-sectional form: the first in pre

lude style, the second, fugal. The idea of a prelude or toccata and fugue

in the same key is a seventeenth century development.

Various types of pieces in imitative counterpoint, such as the

ricercare. canzone. fantasia, and capriccio dominated the scene in the

early part of the seventeenth century under the influence of Sweelinck and

Frescobaldi.

Th e Sweelinck type of fantasia is preserved in the work of Scheidt

and Froberger; the ricercare continued well into the seventeenth century

in the work of Froberger, Poglietti, Pachelbel, and Krieger; the canzone

appeared in the work of Froberger, Kerll, and Buxtehude; the capriccio was

cultivated by Froberger, Kerll, and Poglietti.

The capriccio was a contrapuntal, sectional and thematic variation

using figurational elements. With a distinct tendency toward striking and

 18

surprise elements by the use of unusual, sharply characteristic themes,

the capriccio frequently became the vehicle for programmatic music.

Typical examples of this are to be found in the Capriccio Cucu and the

Der stevrische Hirt by Kerll.

Within the entire category of "free-form" compositional develop

ment was a tendency, in the works of the German composers, for these forms

to come together and combine into larger forms. The fantasia, toccata,

and prelude became indistinguishable from one another; and the older forms,

characterized by imitative counterpoint, though they did not die out, did

decline toward the end of the seventeenth century and were replaced by a

type of combination form under the generic designation of fugue. A symp

tom of this change is the uncertain terminology as the new fugue begins

to assert itself, i.e., Fuga sive Fantasia by Kindermann, and the Fuga

sive Canzona by Murschhauser.

The essential characteristics of the fugue as it developed in the

seventeenth century as compared to the earlier ricercar show the fugue

subject as having a more definite melodic character, a livelier rhythm

and energetic drive, short episodes set off by a lightening of texture,

and the use of sequences framed in a tonal organization with a clear d o m

inant-tonic relationship.

Final perfection of the fugue was inseparable from the full devel

opment of the major-minor system of tonality, making possible a systematic

use of key relationships in musical designs of longer duration.

Complementary to the major-minor tonal system was the application

of a system of equal temperament to the tuning of keyboard instruments.

Formulated by theorists after the early sixteenth century, the system

 19

was generally applied to keyboard instruments on the Continent by the

early years of the eighteenth century. The Ariadne musica of 1715 by

J. K. F. Fischer, a collection of keyboard preludes and fugues using nine

teen different major and minor keys, was the principal forerunner of the

Well-Tempered Clavier by J. S. Bach, which uses all twenty-four k e y s . 27

Important writings pertaining to the structural development of the

organ in the seventeenth century include the Syntagma musicum of Michael

Praetorius, Musurgia (1650) by Althanasius Kircher and two works, Orgel-

probe (1681) and Organum Gruningense redivum (1705) by Andreas Werck-

meister.

The second type of instrument in the gradual evolvement of the

organ after the "Gothic" organ of Arnolt Schlick was the "Praetorius"

organ exemplified in Michael Praetorius' Organographia (1619), the second

volume of his Syntagma m u s icum; a masterly, detailed description of old

and new organs, of manual and pedal keyboards, of bellows, dispositions

and various kinds of timbres, and methods of tuning organs, regals, and

harpsichords. "Praetorius is the only writer of the time who provides

a comprehensive insight into this important area of activity."^

The "Praetorius" organ retained "Gothic" contrast between individ

ual timbres, but softened differences, and muted the shrillness of extrav

agant sonorities. The result was a clarity of the individual voices with

in polyphony and a smooth blending into chords--an unforced transparency

27crout, op. c i t .. p. 344.

28Paul George Bunjes, "The Praetorius Organ," Unpublished Ph.D.

dissertation. University of Rochester, 1966., p. 10.
 20

of polyphonic texture.

"Compenius, Fritsche, and the Scherer family were amongst the most

distinguished north German organ builders of the late Renaissance and

early Baroque p e r i o d s , b r i d g i n g the gap from the "Gothic" to the

"Praetorius" organs. In the middle to late Baroque, Arp Schnitger's

organs exemplify the peak of the "Praetorius" style of organ building.

Arp Schnitger, the greatest German organ builder of the high

Baroque, was the successor to the Scherer family, who represented the

great tradition of organ building in North Germany in the sixteenth cen

tury.

Sumner gives some of the details regarding construction found in a

typical Schnitger organ. The wind pressure on Schnitger organs varied

from 3 to 3.6 inches. The "naturals" of the keys were covered with ebony

and the "sharps" with ivory or bone. The manuals had a keyboard of forty-

five notes, and the pedals had either twenty-six or twenty-seven keys.

The majority of Schnitger organs contained no wooden pipes. It is easier

to make and voice metal pipes than those of wood and the lead-tin alloy

is better than glue-joined wood in the damp climate of north German and

Dutch districts. English tin of ninety-fine per cent purity was used for

the show pipes, and for the principal-toned stops inside the instrument a

Lead-tin alloy of the proportion of 10:3. The flutes and cornets were made

of a metal containing an even larger proportion of lead. Brass was often

used for the tubes of smaller reeds.^0

29sumner, op. c i t .. p. 81.

30Sumner, op. c i t .. p. 87.

 21

Schnitger organs were fine examples of highly developed pedal

organs; on the larger instruments the flue tone would span from a 32 ft.

stop to a choice of mixtures; reeds were used from 32 ft. up to a 2 ft.

atop. Everything was independent.

The division of stops into "narrow" and "wide" groups, which was

developed in the Renaissance, continued into the Baroque period. The

"narrow" group consisted of bright-toned principal chorus with trompete

and the whole result was one of moderate power, contrapuntal tone par

excellence. An 8 ft. rank was capable of quiet, bright tone and not too

loud as an accompaniment to a solo played on the rckpositiv. There was

comparatively little difference in power between one stop and another.

The enormous difference in output between a soft eedackt and a trumpet on

a modern organ was unknown.^1

The "Praetorius" organ was brought to its logical conclusion in the

work of Arp Schnitger, who represents the German Lutheran tradition in

regard to functional design and construction of the organ in relation to-

the art of music in worship. With Schnitger, the true German organ reach

ed the peak of its development about 1700. After this, other influences

became noticeable.

The name of Johann Sebastian Bach in the late Baroque signifies the

ultimate attainment in music composition. Since it is beyond the scope

and intent of this paper to offer a detailed analysis of the quantity and

quality of Bach's compositional output for organ, to say nothing of his

attainments with all other instrumental and vocal media, it will suffice

S^Sumner, op. c i t ., p. 88.

 22

to recognize his esteemed position for all time in the art of music by

quoting a summary statement from Grout:

We can begin to understand the central position Bach

has in the history of music when we realize, first,
that he absorbed into his music the multiplicity of
styles and forms current in the early eighteenth
century and developed hitherto unsuspected potent
ialities in every one; and second, that in his music
the opposed principles of harmony and counterpoint,
melody and polyphony, are maintained in a tense but
satisfying equilibrium found in no other c o m p o s e r . 32

Bach had the good fortune of performing on some of the finest in

struments of the organ builders' art in his day. One of the finest was

the Schnitger instrument in the St. Jacobi Church in Hamburg. Alongside

the outstanding work of Schnitger stands the eminence of the Silbermanns,

Andreas and Gottfried, with whose work in the art of organ building Bach"

was very familiar. A particular anecdote by Ernst Flade relates that Bach,

on the occasion of one of his performances on a new Silbermann organ of

the Frauen-Kirche in Dresden, and having made the acquaintance ofSilber

mann, patted him on the back and said, "Your organs are excellent. You

are rightly called Silbermann, for your organs have a silver tone and

thundering basses. Just keep on."33

The Silbermann organ represents a third style of organ construction

often referred to as the "Bach" organ, for want of a better term. The

organ of Gottfried Silbermann, though still retaining the essential quali

ties of the true Baroque organ, foreshadows the trend toward increased

32Grcut, op. c i t . , p. 400.

33fians T. David and Arthur Mendel, The Bach Reader (New York:
W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1945), pp. 289-290.
 23

expressiveness which characterized the period after 1750, The "Bach"

organ was smaller, usually not exceeding two manuals and pedal, with about

thirty stops, having light wind pressure and a very elegant, mellow tone.

The Silbermann instruments derive from the Latin countries, and re

veal the Roman Catholic influences of the south, Andreas Silbermann, with

whom his younger brother Gottfried worked for a time, was influenced by

the work of Eugen Casparini, a German, born Eugen Caspar, After spending

three years in Bavaria during his youth, Caspar spent considerable time in

Padua, Italy, and adopted the Italian form of his name.

Some of Casparini's ideas concerning organ building, which were

further developed by the Silbermanns, show themselves in the following

ways:

1, Careful grouping of stops into narrow and wide

scales was abandoned and many varieties of scales
were employed,

2, Wood pipes were used for many of the pipe ranks

and especially in the lowest notes of the 32 ft,
and 16 ft, ranks in the pedal were made of this
material,

3, Larger proportions of tin were used than the pipe

metal which was common in the Schnitger organs,
and the tone of the pipes was thus brighter,

4, String tone and undulating stops became a feature

of the instrument and paved the way for the
later Romantic movement in organ building,

5, The cornets made from ranks of pipes in harmonic

series' gave a striking imitation of reed tone,

6, The general treatment of the tone mass was more

powerful and smooth than that of the Schnitger
organs,34

34sumner, op, c i t ,, pp. 90-91,

 24

After 1720, the type of German organ exemplified by the work of

Schnitger, according to the concepts of Praetorius, declined. The method

of building tonal pyramids with mutation and mixture stops, of making

choruses by adding harmonics of flue pipes and rich quiet reeds was giving

way to the use of highly spiced tones such as emanated from a stop like

the viol da g a m b a . the unda m a ris, and the synthetic cornet.

In addition to this gradually changing tonal concept, Silbermann

also introduced the "tremulant," a device which together with the "swell,"

already introduced in Bach's time, was the first step toward the so-called

"expressive" organ--an instrument capable of artificial crescendos and

decrescendos, culminating later in the conception of the organ as an imi

tator of the orchestra.

German organ music reached its apogee in the early years of the

eighteenth century in the works of Johann Sebastian Bach. After 1720, a

general decline, rather than a change, was observable especially in the

use of the organ chorale. By the second half of the eighteenth century,

the old contrapuntal emphasis in the various species of the organ chorale

was lacking; accompaniment became far simpler, more homophonie. In general,

the old established genres of organ music fell out of favor. By the end

of the century, no important composer paid much attention to music for

the organ.

By the year 1770, the entire concept of musical sound had changed,

even as musical style, too, had changed. After being in the center of

musical life in the church for so long, the organ, by nature polyphonic

and objectively impersonal, became outmoded. "Music moved outside the

church, although the organ was still confined there."35

35gachs, op. c i t .. p. 440.

 25

Though many large organs were being built in Europe in the eight

eenth century, they had little effect on the art of music, and musicians

looked elsewhere for their media of expression.

In the period from 1750-1900, efforts of organ builders were govern

ed by two ideals, both of which were extraneous to the organ itself:

romantic expressiveness, and the nineteenth century orchestra. Efforts

to expand the tonal resources of the organ in direct emulation of the

rapid development of the instruments of the orchestra were noted in 1795

by the German composer, organist, and organ builder, Justin Heinrich

Knecht (1752-1817) in a treatise entitled the VollstHndiee Oreelschule

of 1795 in which he states that the organ can be regarded somewhat as an

imitation of the large orchestra.36 Another proponent of this idea was a

most sensational contributor to the cause, the theorist, composer, teacher,

organist, organ builder, and abbe Georg Joseph Vogler (1749-1814).

As a student he was impatient of traditional discipline;

as a teacher he promised quick results by new methods;
as a theorist he expanded the recognition of vertical
relationships--tending away from polyphony toward
harmonic color; as an organist he played to the gallery
with sensational success, imitating thunderstorms,
"The Fall of the Walls of Jericho," "The Last Judgment
According to Rubens;" as an organ builder and designer
he was a worthy predecessor of H o p e - J o n e s . 37

As an acoustician, Vogler made various proposals regarding "simpli

fication," greatly reducing the cost and space requirements of the organ.

He substituted resultants produced by quints for low fundamental pipes;

36sumner, op. c i t . . p. 205.

37 e . Harold Geer, Organ Registration in Theory and Practice

(Glen Rock, New Jersey: J. Fischer and Bros., 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 288.
 26

he eliminated the multi-rank mixtures, leaving only a few single mutations

to color the tone; he substituted free reeds for reed pipes. He designed

and enclosed portable organs incorporating these principles, which he call

ed the "orchestrion," and toured all over Europe with it.

Without a doubt, many of the late eighteenth century organ builders

misunderstood the traditional function of compound stops in the German

organs of previous days. Mixture and cornet stops were often voiced too

loudly, and Vogler waged war against them and started a movement which was

to end a century later in the work of Robert Hope-Jones, which included

hardly any stop above a 4 ft. pitch.

Vogler did not understand the genius of the great

Baroque period of organ music and he sowed the seeds
of the orchestral organ, the orchestral arrangements,
and the third-rate descriptive organ fantasia. On
the whole, his legacy as far as organ building was
concerned was not good.38

Vogler's concept of the organ was primarily for concert purposes,

and not for the church. Not long after, the organ did indeed become a

concert instrument. Submitting to the new ideal of a powerful orchestra,

rich in colors, the organ at the beginning of the nineteenth century enter

ed the concert hall as part of the orchestra.

For more than a century following the death of Bach, organ music

suffered with the decline of polyphony. The great composers of the

"Classical" period were concerned with the development of new forms which

were imperfectly suited to the organ. Haydn left nothing for the instru

ment. Mozart, a master at many things including fugal writing, used the

organ only as another ensemble member, with the possible exception of the

38Sumner, op. c i t . , p. 207.

 27

three compositions which he wrote for the mechanical organ, the Adagio and

Allegro in F minor (K. 594), Fantasia in F minor (K. 08), and the Andante

in F Major (K. 616). Beethoven's organ music is very negligible;

Schubert's is nil.

The immediate pupils of Bach, some of whom were musicians of ex

ceptional talent, were simply overshadowed by their mentor. The follow

ing generation of organ composers paid homage to Bach, but their compo

sitional idiom reflected the music of their- contemporaries.

Johann Christian Rinck, who studied with Bach's pupil, Johann

Christian Kittel, wrote a great many chorale preludes and variations, and

many fugues also, but the homophonie style dominated his m u s i c . ^9

Since 1720, when the tonal concept of the organ began to take a

different turn at the hands of the Silbermanns by means of the intro

duction of imitative string stops to the organ and the influence of Vogler

to bring about changes in the organ from an instrument of the church to an

instrument of the concert hall, one particular technical problem became

almost immediate--the need for more wind pressure.

Three specific changes brought into the Silbermann organs which

necessitated the need for higher wind pressures were (1) the employment

of varieties of scales which implied the utilization of larger pipes and

consequently a larger volume of air by which to function, (2) the intro

duction of string and undulating stops or compound string ranks, and (3)

the more powerful tone mass desired for the entire organ.

The varied scales, of course, meant the stress on individual qual-

39ceer, op. c i t .. p. 285.

 28

Itles desirable in "solo" stops rather than the earlier chorus or ensemb

le tone. For a solo stop to stand out against the others requires larger

scaling, and more air.

The desire to equate the organ with the orchestra requires that the

basic instruments of the orchestra be present on the organ also. With the

introduction of string tone, the organ needed more wind, for the follow

ing reasons:

1. Violes are narrow in scale for the sake of reducing

the fundamental and octave harmonics and greatly in
creasing both the number and loudness of upper h a r
monics and partiels. As Violes of all species have
slender bodies it is necessary to hit them with h i g h
er wind than a Principal . . . it has been discover
ed . . .that a slim flue pipe makes a "pulse" type
of sound wave. This means that the wave lingers a
relatively long time in the bottom of the pipe b e
fore suddenly and very abruptly pulsing upward to
ward the slotted top . . . .

2. The . . . harmonic bridge. You should associate it

with higher pressure pipes. When first made in the
pipe shop the Viole is overblown with high wind, but
the voicer fixes by hand a round but sometimes oval
strip of metal or hardwood across the lower area of
the mouth opening. This slows up the sound wave's
motion in and out of the mouth enough to permit the
more steady fundamental vibration to become louder,
as well as several other of the lower pitched h a r
monics.40

The intent of an overall increase in^the power of the tonal mass presumes

the basic necessity of higher wind pressures.

In the progress of time, the organ had followed all the tendencies

of the real orchestra in the nineteenth century in terms of an ov e r

whelming power of sound, the refined mixing of timbres, expression, and

40stevens Irwin, "String Stops," The American O rganist. Vol. 52,

No. 2 (February 1969), pp. 20-21.
 29

the swift and continuous transition from one dynamic shade to another.

The main inventions for the organ in that time were reflections of or c h

estral tendencies. An organ which contained a maze of imitations of o r c h

estral solo stops, flutes, oboes, cors a n g lais, clarinets, trumpets, and

violins was necessarily motley in s o u n d . ^1

Two devices commonly used for achieving "expression" at the organ

were the "Venetian swell," and the German "Rollschweller." The "Venetian

swell," already known to Bach, simply consisted of a box, containing some

part of the pipe work, with shutters that opened or closed gradually when

worked by a pedal. The "swell" of the late Baroque may have placed the

Oberwerk behind very thin shades that faded the tone a mere five of ten

decibels, as compared to the "swell" in the nineteenth century of Robert

Hope-Jones using thick laminated shades lined with lead sheathing that

raised or lowered the dynamic a full 44 decibels.^2

The second device, the "Rollschweller" or crescendo pedal, permit

ted a very gradual, though rapid crescendo from the softest stop to full

organ.

Key action of the organ passed through various stages of develop

ment. At the time of the Baroque, the key action took the form of track

er, i.e., mechanical action. This type of action was very successful as

long as wind pressure remained low, and as long as organs remained at a

reasonable size. The enlarged organ with the addition of many technical

features, necessitated increased wind pressures which in turn caused the

41Sachs, op. c i t . . p. 441.

42lrwin, op. c i t .. p. 18.

 30

mechanical action to become very cumbersome. Such an action was not able

to provide the appropriate machinery by which to perform on such an instru

ment with any ease. The organ became a very difficult instrument to hand

le.

In 1832, Charles Spackman Barker invented a "pneumatic lever"

which facilitated keyboard playing by equalizing key pressure. Instead

of the key mechanism acting on the valves directly, the keys, having a

direct linkage using trackers, acted on small bellows which then opened

the valves by wind pressure. The "Barker lever" was followed in quick

succession by other attempts to enable the organist to perform on large

organs of high wind pressure with comparative ease. The Barker "pneumat

ic lever" and the others to follow not only served to equalize key action

but was also adapted to stop action.

The so-called "tubular pneumatic" action had its origins in the

work of Prosper-Antoine Moitessier in the year 1845 in Montpellier, France.

Mechanical action was replaced by tubes containing exhaust air under press

ure. In 1850 Moitessier built an organ with this action for the church

of Notre Dame de la Dalbade, at Toulouse,

In 1866, Fermis, a schoolmaster and village organist of Hanterire

near Toulouse, improved on Moitessier's action by combining tubes convey

ing compressed air with the "Barker lever." An organ with this revised

system of action was built for the Paris Exhibition of 1867, and came to

the attention of Henry Willis of England. This revised action utilizing

the Barker principle has come to be known as "tubular pneumatic" action.

43Sumn-' op. c i t . , p. 317.

 31

With the introduction of "tubular pneumatic" action it now seemed

possible to separate the console from the pipes in order to place the con

sole in more advantageous positions, since mechanical action provided but

one possibility of placement, namely, that the console be directly beneath

fehe pipes. However, this new action did not find much favor even after

some development of it, for the further the console was removed from the

pipes, the more sluggish was its operation.

The next development of organ action successfully combined elec

tricity with the Barker pneumatic. This type of action, properly called

"electro-pneumatic" action was first devised by Dr, Albert Peschard (1836-

1.903) and was made by Barker in 1861.^4

"Electro-pneumatic" action consists of an electro-magnet or solen

oid used to open a small valve, which in turn lets wind into a larger

pneumatic which pulls down the pallet or pipe valve.

The most recent type of action is called the "direct electric"

action. This system employs electro-magnets to open and close the valves

directly. William Sturgeon, the inventor of the electro-magnet, had this

system in mind when he attempted to control the opening and closing of the

valves on an organ built by William Wilkinson in 1826. The idea was ripe,

but a constant source of electrical power available from batteries was not

equal to such a heavy l o a d , 45

Such was the development of the components of the pipe organ--the

wind supply, the tonal resource, and the action--up to the twentieth cent

ury.

44gumner, op. c i t .. p. 319,

45Sumner, op. c i t .. p. 319.

 32

The literature for the organ in the nineteenth century is sparse,

aince few composers wrote for the instrument. Brief mention will be made

of those who did make contributions to the literature for the organ in

nineteenth century Germany.

Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote three preludes and fugues

(Opus 37), and six sonatas (Opus 65). Throughout these works Mendelssohn's

preoccupation with Baroque forms is quite evident. The preludes and fugues

speak for themselves. In the sonatas Mendelssohn made use offugues,

chorale melodies, and the "toccata" style,

Robert Schumann (1810-1856) wrote six fugues on the name B. A. C. H.

(Opus 60). These were written either for a pedal piano or organ. Here

too one finds the use of contrapuntal technique reminiscent of the Baroque,

such as the "ricercar" style, eieue. and French overture style,

Franz Liszt (1811-1886) produced a small body of organ music in

cluding the Fantasia and Fugue on Ad nos, ad salutarem undam written in

1850, and the Prelude and Fugue on B. A. C. H. from 1855. Both works have

a relation to the Baroque "toccata" and "fugue" tradition.

Liszt, under the influence of the German Cecilian movement of the

nineteenth century, came to believe that church music should be "pure"

and "serene.I' This movement was responsible for the very romanticized

accompaniments of Gregorian chant. It was in this spirit that Liszt

wrote a major work, the M i s sa pro oreano (1879), plus a number of short

er pieces.

Johannes Brahms' (1833-1897) output for organ consists of a Fugue

in A flat major (1864), Prelude and Fugue in A minor (1856), Prelude and

Fugue in G minor (1857), and the Eleven Choral Preludes. Opus 122 (1896).
 33

All of Brahms' music reveals the influence of the Baroque p e r i o d , and of

Bach in particular.

While the additions to the organ literature by these outstanding

composers is certainly laudable, such contributions were plainly in the

minority as far as the composers' over-all work is concerned.

Though the organ as the instrument of the church was "stage center"

through the Baroque period, and though the emphasis on the function of the

organ seems to have changed in relation to the rest of the musical world,

yet the literature for the organ continued to be cultivated in one way or

another in countless churches all over Europe, What was the reason for

such a sudden and universal decline of the organ and its literature after

the Baroque period? A very basic one rests in the fact of the new m u s i c

al proclivities of the nineteenth century which had a decisive effect on

the repertory of organ music.

The organ chorale, which earlier had been a contrapuntal elaboration

based on the chorale melody, now became an expression of the mood of the

chorale text. J. C. Kittel (1732-1809) in Per angehende praktische O rgan

i s t . indicated that it was not the melody of the chorale that the organist

was to employ, but the thought, emotions, and sentiments of the chorale

that organist must seek to express.^6 The chorale melody became super

fluous, and was converted into a Romantic character piece of the organ.

The cantus firmus type of chorale prelude lead a somewhat modest

existence: the contrapuntal element was replaced by the homophonie con

text, made simpler and readily comprehensible to the congregation. This

46Kirby, op. c i t .. p. 347.

 34

type of gemeindmflssiee (suitable to the congregation) was prominent in

the work of Johann Georg Herzog (1822-1909), the author of a standard

treatise on organ playing, Oreelschule (1867).

This gave rise to a new type of music for the organ called the

"religious adagio." Customary titles for such pieces in Germany were

Gebete (prayers), TrOstung (consolation), Stiller Friede (quiet peace),

and Idylle. The "free-forms," the toccata, praeludia. and the related

forms culminating in the f u g u e . were now interpreted more freely as out

spoken concert pieces, wherein the virtuoso exploitation of playing tech

nique and the expanded coloristic resources of the organ became of utmost

importance. The term fantasia became more appropriate and was often used

in these instances.

These free fantasies in turn gave rise to works conceived on a

symphonic scale as was appropriate to the development of the organ of the

time. A typical large scale symphonic work is the Sonata on the 94th Psalm

by Julius Reubke (1834-1858).

Reubke was perhaps the only composer ever to achieve

immortality through a single composition; his Ninety-
fourth Psalm is the most isolated work in the whole
realm of organ literature . . . this sonata was the
first program work of the nineteenth century type
to be written for the organ, and it remains unmatched.^7

A later development, taking place in France, was the genre of the

"symphony" for organ solo.

Nineteenth century Germany supplied a host of composers frequently

associated with the foregoing developments in organ m u s i c . ^8 The nineteenth

47Geer, op. c i t .. p. 287.

48Priederich Johann Gottlob (1789-1864), Johann Gottlieb (1797-1856),

Michael Gotthard Fischer (1733-1829), Johann Gottlob TtJpfer (1791-1870),
 35

century German composers in particular gave a n important place to organ

music in their compositions, cultivating it along with their piano music

and other types of composition.

Joseph Rheinberger (1839-1901) dealt primarily in character pieces.

His most important contribution to the repertory of organ music is a set

of twenty sonatas for organ. His intent was a complete set of twenty-

four, so that all major and minor keys would be represented. Furthermore,

he drew on the standard forms of concert organ music, the toccata, the

prelude, and f u gue, enlarging the form by the insertion of a slow m o v e

ment in between. Rheinberger nowhere in his sonatas made use of chorale

melodies.

Max Reger (1873-1916) stands out as the outstanding German keyboard

composer of the late nineteenth century. There are several collections of

organ pieces but they are by no means character pieces in the sense of the

"religious adagio." M a n y of them are in the form of toccata,prelude,

fantasia, fugue, and passacaglia.

The difference in Reger's organ music as compared with Rheinberger's

is his emphasis on cantus firmus technique, as it relates to the chorale

prelude.

In Reger's use of the chorale prelude there are instances of small,

simple types such as the Leicht ausfUhrbare Vorspiele (Opus 67), 1902,

and the Kleine Choralvorspiele (Opus 135a), 1914, both of which belong to

August Gottfried Ritter (1811-1885), Adolf Friederich Hesse (1809-1863),

w ho maintained the old Cantus Firmus type of chorale prelude along with
the new and less stringent "religious adagio," Wilhelm Rust (1822-1892),
Gustav Adolf Merkel (1827-1885), and Christian Heinrich R inck (1770-1846).
 36

the gemeindemflssige type mentioned earlie...

Reger, however, put greater emphasis into the creation of large

concert works using chorale melodies and drawing on style elements of the

toccata and fugue of the Baroque. They are called "chorale fantasias."

There are seven.

1. Bin Fc:ste Burg (Opus 27), 1898.

2. Freu* dich sehr. o meine Seele (Opus 30), 1898.

3. Wie schOn leuchtet uns der Morgenstern (Opus 40), 1899.

4. Straf mich nicht (Opus 40), 1899.

5. Alle menschen mssen sterben (Opus 52), 1900.

6. Wachet auf. ruft uns die Stimme (Opus 52), 1900.

7. Hall e l u ia. Gott zu loben (Opus 52), 1900.

In each case the chorale melody is preceded by a fantasia; in some

cases, as in the Opus 52, a fugal movement is added for a finale. Reger

employed the same thematic material throughout and at the same time attempt

ed to give expression to the emotional content of the chorale. Reger attain

ed a sort of Gesamtkunstwerk in these fantasias by the fact that the essen

tial quality of the symphonic poem is combined with a cantus firmus setting

while at the same time maintaining a standard form of organ music such as

a toccata and f u g u e .

Many features common to nineteenth century German music reach a

culmination in Reger's work. Two decisive aspects are evident; the p re

vailing density of texture, and the extreme use of chromaticism.

In Reger's organ music, one finds great emphasis on detail, and at

the same time in terms of sonority, a striving for an orchestral or

symphonic effect. It is the harmonic effect that is successfully produced

 37

by Reger, for his harmonic vocabulary was very elaborate. . he must

be regarded as the leading exponent of keyboard music in Germany at the

end of the nineteenth century and possibly as the leading German composer

of organ music since the death of B a c h . "49

At the threshold of the twentieth century the organ had lost its

identity in the sense that its traditional music had been either forgotten

or misunderstood and it became an inefficient imitation of the orchestra.

Let us not imagine that there has been continuous

progress in the organ as a musical instrument.
The superb equipment of the organ as a machine,
the elegance and convenience of a console of modern
design, do not stand in the place of artistic tonal
appointments bearing the mark of all art works,
that of unity in diversity.50

One of the great merits of the "romantic" organ was the facility

which it provided for an easy performance. The introduction of the pneu

matic lever, followed by various tubular-pneumatic actions, lightened the

touch of the keys to a considerable extent. The energy provided by the

wind supply of the organ was also used to move the sliders of the stops,

in addition to the many devices for changing whole groups of stops quickly.

Some of these technical advances were viewed with mixed feelings,

however. The tubular actions produced a slow, sluggish emission of sound

and often negated all attempts at proper attack of notes. The electro

pneumatic was far superior and provided instant response. However, the

facilities for stop changes were often abused by organists, and good rhy

thm, phrasing and form were too frequently sacrificed for restless tonal

49Kirby, op. c i t .. p. 354.

50Sumner, op. c i t .. p. 201.

 38

changes.

A brief comment must be made regarding one Robert Hope-Jones (1859-

1914), a self-taught organ builder. "He made genuine advances in the elec

trical side of the organ mechanism, though . . . he did much damage to the

tonal structure of the organ both in England and A m e r i c a . "51

The Hope-Jones organ was a "one-man orchestra" and obviously a poor

substitute. New and extreme tonal qualities were added to the instrument

such as d i a p h o n e s . 5 2 Diapasons were provided with leathered lips and blown

with high wind pressure so there was no blend between one rank of pipes and

another. The organ was stripped of its crowning glory-rits mutations and

mixtures. The organ was often placed in thick concrete swell boxes in v a r

ious parts of an auditorium orchurch and controlled by electric action

from a movable console.

The organs built or designed by Hope-Jones represent the logical

conclusion to the creeping tendency of an instrument conceived along roman

tic-symphonic lines, whereby the claims of the great historic organ music,

perfectly suited to the genuine instrument with proper ensemble tone, syn

thetic solo tone of mutation ranks, and general unforced musical tone, is

forgotten.

Organs resulting from the Hope-Jones concept are exemplified by the

following. Any of the large European organs were left far behind by the

SlSumner, op. c i t .. p. 231.

52 a valvular reed, invented by Hope-Jones, developed from the fog

horn, refined and improved by John Compton. It has some value as a power
ful, all pervading pedal stop and as a smooth horn-like tone on the m a n
uals. It was used to a considerable extent in cinema organs, where a few
ranks of pipes on a fairly heavy wind pressure were extended to many pitches.
 39

"World's Greatest Organ" at the World's Fair in St. Louis (1904), which,

thereafter, was brought to Philadelphia in 1917, greatly augmented in size

and set up in the John Wanamaker store. This organ has five manuals, 232

stops, and eighteen thousand pipes. A description at the inauguration of

this organ gives further detail.

The organ weighs over 375,000 pounds. More than 120,000

feet of lumber were used in its construction. Total
space occupied by organ and blowers, 118,602 square feet.
The blowers furnish an aggregate column of air at varied
pressures of 20,800 cubic feet per minute. The incan
descent lights strung along the organ chamber would light
the streets of a small town. The largest pipe is of wood,
32 feet long, 27 inches wide, and 32 inches deep in the
middle, and weighs 1,735 pounds. It is so large that two
men can crawl through it side by side on their hands and
kn e e s .^3

This organ at Philadelphia kept the blue ribbon for sheer size for

fifteen years. However in 1932 it yielded to an enormous organ designed

and built by Emerson Richard and Midmer-Losh for the Convention Hall at

Atlantic City, New Jersey. Thus the present "World's Greatest Organ" has

32,882 pipes; 1,233 stops including all possible couplers and seven m a n

uals. The wind pressure is forced up to one-hundred inches.

The next inevitable step after Robert Hope-Jones was the Wurlitzer

unit organ. The Hope-Jones patents and plant were acquired by the Rudolph

Wurlitzer Company in 1910. The Hope-Jones influence on organ design in

England and America was entirely unfortunate. The cinema organ, with its

extended ranks of pipes plus other assorted affects, its high pressure, e n

closed pipework, and convenient electric action, was the direct result of

the work of Robert Hope-Jones.

53sachs, op. cit.. p. 451.

 40

"If the organ reached its apogee in the Baroque period . . . it

certainly was in its nadir in the movie-palace period of the 1920's.

The repertory of English and American organists towards the end of

the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries consisted

primarily of music based on orchestral transcriptions and original roman

tic pieces.

"The decadent period was one of tangential experimentation and

great excesses characterized by the most radical departures from estab

lished practices and an almost complete disregard for tradition."55

On the basis of the foregoing historical overview of the structure,

function, and literature of the organ, there is evidence of a gradual

evolvement in each of these three areas as long as they were related to the

needs of the church. It was in relationship to service in the church that

the organ and its literature developed from its early usage to the high

point it had attained in the late Baroque.

With the breaking of this relationship, both structure and litera

ture of the organ degenerated to the level of an instrument and a litera

ture without any true identity.

It is this historic backdrop which will provide a clearer viewpoint

of the significant developments which were to follow.

54joseph Edwin Blanton, The Organ in Church Design (Albany, Texas:

Venture Press, 1957), p. 51.

55lbid.. p. 51.
 THE ORGAN-REFORM MOVEMENT

CHAPTER II.

Though a strong interest in the Baroque forms was evident in the

compositions of Mendelssohn, e.g., in his Six Sonatas fur O rgan. Opus 65,

(1839-1845), these compositions may be ascribed to Mendelssohn's enthus

iasm for Bach and the Lutheran chorale rather than to an expression that

had an organic basis in the spirit of the time. "A renewal of interest

in polyphony, the organ, and along with these, the organ chorale, had to

wait some one-hundred and fifty years until the Classical and Romantic

periods had, in turn, run their course.

Some of the first evidence of a re-awakening was to be seen in the

year 1865 when the musician Moritz Hauptmann wrote a letter to F. Hauser

complaining about the sentimental playing of certain organists.%

This particular attitude, concurrent with a strong interest in

early instruments, prompted by the discovery of an old Silbermann "Hammer-

klavier" in a castle in Potsdam, led to a new appreciation of old organs.

In 1883, on the occasion of the two-hundredth anniversary of the

^Donald C. Johns, "The Protestant Chorale in Contemporary German

Organ Music," The American Music T e a cher. Vol. 13 (March-April), p. 14.

ZKlaus Michael Fruth, Die deutsche Orgelbewegung und ihre Einflsse

auf die heutige Orgelklangwelt (Ludwigsberg: Verlag E. F. Walcker, 1961),
p. 17.

41
 42

birth of Gottfried Silbermann, the interest in the organs of the Silber

mann brothers began to grow.

Recognition and discussion of the merits of the old Silbermann

organs over the Romantic factory organs of the day continued among organ

ists and organ builders.

In 1892, the organ builders Schubert and Rossbach were the first,

since the late Baroque, to praise and to indicate a preference for the

"slider chest" mechanism, which had been the mechanism since before the

time of Schlick.3

Soon thereafter, the organist Emile Rupp began to publish essays

in which he spoke out against the builders using high wind pressures.

In 1906, after ten years of study and discussion of the old and the

new with every organist and organ builder with whom he came in contact,

Albert Schweitzer undertook to speak out for the ideal organ in his pamph

let, The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France.4

Because this pamphlet was the first clear statement of some very

penetrating observations on some essential points concerning mechanical

design, construction, and placement of the organ, it became the first

basic document of the German organ reform movement.

Specifically, Schweitzer pleaded for a return to scaling practices

based on the collective experience of previous generations of great organ

builders. He was particularly uncompromising in his stand for the return

3lbid.. p. 18.

^Albert Schweitzer, Deutsche und franzOsische Orgelbaukunst und

Orgelkunst. 1906 (Wiesbaden: Breitkopf und HQrtel, 1968).
 43

to the slider chest because he believed that really musical voicing for a

well integrated ensemble was possible only with the slider chest. Regard

ing key a ction. Schweitzer said.

The best method of connecting the keys and the pipes

is the purely mechanical one. On an organ with such
mechanism, phrasing is easiest. All small and medium
sized organs should, therefore, be constructed with
it.5

Schweitzer also advocated the return to lower wind pressures in order to

produce better musical results. He decried the attempts to imitate, in

a forced manner, the sound of stringed instruments.

That a very great variety in the sound of the pipes

should be aimed at, and that the pipes should be
installed to produce tones which remind one of the
violin, the cello, or the double bass, is quite
natural. But one must not go too far in that
direction. The violin-, or cello-, or double bass-
quality of tone must only be hinted at, and not be
allowed to make itself conspicuous in the combined
sounds of the whole instrument. The organs of
today, however, contain too many of these stringed
instruments, and these too strong, so that the
organs acquire thereby the tone of an orchestrion.&

Finally, he insisted that organ placement be properly considered,

e.g., that the organ be placed above the entrance, opposite the chancel.

"There it stands high and free, and the sound can travel in every direct

ion, unhindered."7

Schweitzer's ideas on reform attracted sufficient attention to

prompt the Congress of the International Musical Society, held in Vienna

^Albert Schweitzer, Out of My Life and Thought (New York: New

American Library of World Literature, 1963), p. 60.

&Ibid. . pp. 60-61.

?Ibid.. p. 61.
 44

in 1909, to Include a section on organ building. This resulted in a set

of "International Regulations for Organ Building," dealing more with tech

nical than musical matters.

Schweitzer favored a fieform in organ construction to make available

an organ which would be, presumably, more compatible to the music of J. S.

Bach and his predecessors. Actually Schweitzer considered as ideal the

organs of the French builder, Aristide Cavaille-Coll, which were supposedly

modeled along the lines of the Silbermann organs of the late Baroque; The

obvious preference which Schweitzer had for the work of Cavaille-Coll and

certain Alsatian builders was always resented in Germany. As a consequence,

when the organ reform movement finally got under way in Germany after World

War I, although he was acknowledged as the instigator of the reform,

Schweitzer was relegated to the role of the "grand old m a n . "8

The work of Wilibald Gurlitt gave the necessary impetus to the idea

of a reform when the so-called Praetorius-Organ was constructed in 1921

at the University of Freiburg in Breisgau. This instrument was construct

ed according to the specifications which Praetorius set down in the Syntag

ma Musicum I I ; Organographia (1618).

This organ is considered worthy not primarily as an instrument with

a wide range of color possibilities or subtle blending properties, but

because of its eminent suitability for the contrasting of different voices

of a polyphonic composition.

That the Romantic organ did not possess this clarity for dealing

^Lawrence I. Phelps, "A Short History of the Organ Revival,"

Church Music I . (1967), p. 14.
 45

with polyphonic Literature satisfactorily is evidenced by Schweitzer's re-

'marks on hearing one Herr Lang, organist of the Stiftskirche, perform a

Bach fugue.

When I heard the harsh tone of the much lauded instrument,

and in the Bach fugue which Lang played to me perceived a
chaos of sounds in which I could not distinguish the separ
ate voices, my foreboding that the modern organ meant in
that respect a step not forward but backward, suddenly b e
came a certainty.9

One other criticism generally leveled at the Romantic organ was the

attempt t a make of it an imitation of all instruments of the orchestra.

Instead, according to Oskar Shngen, criticism should really be aimed at

the emphasis on the string stops which are typical of the Romantic organ,

a fact which denied the basic character of the organ as a wind instrument.

A return of the organ as a wind instrument became a central aim of the

organ reform movement. " . . . the organ movement wants the organ return

ed once again to its original character as a wind instrument, it reaffirms

the rediscovered fixity and abstractness of organ tone, the 'law of the

organ.'

In the wake of the construction of the Praetorius-Organ, and with

it the increased knowledge of the Baroque Klangideal which it provided, a

number of other old organs were discovered in various cities in Germany

which helped to round out the picture of organ building in the Baroque

period.

9Schweitzer, op. cit. , p. 59.

lOOskar Shngen, Der Wiedereeburt der Kirchenmusik (Kassel: Baren-

reiter, 1953), p. 133. " . . . die Orgelbewegung will die Orgel . . .
wieder auf ihren Grundcharakter als Blas-instrument zurckfhren, sle be-
jaht die wiederendeckte Starrheit und Abstraktheit des 'Gesetz der Orgel.'"
 46

The important representation of the high Baroque was to be found in

the St. Jacobi Church, in Hamburg, by Hans Henny Jahn, who discovered the

potentialities of the old Schnitger organ there. The late Baroque Klng-

ideal was embodied in the Silbermann organ at Freiberg, in Sachsen.

Organ conferences were held in order to point out to organists and

organ builders the significance of the rediscovery of the Baroque Klang-

ideal. The first of these conferences, led by Hans Henny Jahn, took place

in Hamburg in 1925, centering about the Schnitger organ at the St. Jacobi

Kirche, A second conference took place at Freiberg, in Breisgau; The

central topic here was the early Baroque organ represented by the Praetor-

ius-Organ. Wilibald Gurlitt traced the history of the Klangideal of the

organ and made clear the basic ideas of the organ reform movement. Compo

sitions were performed at these conferences which would in a practical way

reflect the precepts of the movement. At this first Freiberg conference,

the old music performed was restricted almost exclusively to the presen

tation of contemporary c o m p o s i t i o n s . ^ A third conference was held in

Freiberg in Sachsen the following year, 1927, under the leadership of

Christhard Mahrenholz, and was devoted in a large part to the late Baroque

organ of Silbermann in the cathedral of Freiberg. Three matters are to be

noted which came out of this conference: (1) much time was spent discuss

ing liturgical matters in relation to the organ; (2) the old music pre

sented, centering around Bach, gained prominence over the new; and (3)

Baroque forms were adopted, with a striving for Neo-Baroque form as the

foundation of style.

llFruth, OP. c i t .. p. 41.

IZFruth, op. c i t ., pp. 41-42.

 47

Mahrenholz, one of Germany's outstanding liturgical

experts and reformers, established from the begin
ning a close connection between organ reform and a
general reform and revival of interest in the litur
gy and the music of the church. The Freiberg con
ference gave the decisive impetus to the organ re
form movement in Germany, which eventually led to a
general surge of interest in reform throughout most
of Europe and North America.

The ideal of the Neo-Baroque approach to style in composition is

synonymous with one of the important manifestations of the New Music.

generally designated as Neo-classicism. The chief exponent of Neo-classic

ism in Germany was Paul Hindemith.

The organ reform movement came into being at about the same time as

Neo-classicism, and showed a similar reaction to the excesses of the nine

teenth century and in addition shared its retrospective nature, though the

organ reform movement was within a more limited sphere.

Two names cloesly associated with the reform movement as it parai

led Neo-classicism were Max Reger and Karl Straube. Reger's importance

for the movement Lies in his concern with the organ music of Bach. He

thought of himself as a leader in the return to the music of Bach, speci

fically by developing a formidable contrapuntal technique and using it in

connection with organ chorale forms, and in so doing, by drawing attention

to the organ as a vehicle for the composer, and the importance of musical

structure as opposed to the mere exploitation of modern organ sonority.

ISPhelps, op. c i t .. p. 14.

14Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of M u s i c . (Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Harvard University Press, 1944), p. 489. Apel defines New Music simply as
anti-Romanticism.

l^Donald Charles Johns, "Johann Nepomuk David's Choralwerk: A Study

in the Evolution of a Contemporary Liturgical Organ Style." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University, I960, p. 39.
 48

Karl Straube's contribution was not creative, as was Reger's, but

historical, represented by his editions entitled Alte Meister des Orgel-

spiels.16 In the first edition of 1904, Straube states his intention to

revive a neglected area of organ literature; however, he betrays a typic

al Romantic orientation in terms of the performance of this music. Between

the first edition of 1904 and the second edition of 1929, a reorientation

had been effected reflecting an attitude toward performance practice in

line with the tenets of the organ reform movement.

Straube became convinced of the desirability of performing early

music upon instruments of the period, adhering as much as possible to the

style of the period. His second edition of Alte Meister des Orgelspiels

of 1929 consequently provides registration for the works according to the

stop list of the St. Jacobi Church in Hamburg.^

Both Reger and Straube reflect the parallel movement of Neo-class

icism and the organ reform movement inasmuch as their efforts direct atten

tion back-to the classical masters of the Baroque period.

The three conferences cited, led by Jahn, Gurlitt, and Mahrenholz

respectively, were perhaps the most important in that they helped to clari

fy the direction of the organ reform movement for organists and organ

builders, and by way of practical demonstration revealed the unfamiliar

Klangideal of the Baroque.

l^Alte Meister des Orgelspiels. ed. Straube (Leipzig: C. F. Peters,

1904), Forward.

^7Johns, op. c i t .. p. 40.

ISAlte Meister des Orgelspiels. ed. Straube, Neue Folge; (Leipzig:

C. F. Peters, 1929), F oreward.
 49

Subsequent conferences were held, and one especially was signifi

cant- in the overall direction of the movement. Again, Freiberg was the

location, and the date was June, 1938. Fruth's summary of this conference

points up some far-reaching implications which are having their effect to

this date. (1) Both contemporary and old works were performed, but with'

sharper distinction between sacred and secular organ music. (2) Works

were favored which were written for "die Kleinorgel," i.e., the small

organ. (3) The Reger school no longer had the carrying power it once had

for contemporary organ music. Instead, Pepping and Distler now came into

prominence as composers of sacred works.19

The results of the various organ conferences, between the years

1925-1938, served as a basis for the main points which evolved as the plat

form of the organ reform movement in Germany. The following is derived

from a discussion of the movement by Lawrence I. Phelps,

1. The organ is primarily a polyphonic instrument; All

aspects of its design and construction must be worked
out toward the goal of producing the transparent tonal
textures indispensable for the ideal presentation of
the polyphonic literature. The scaling of the pipework
is to derive empirically from the requirements of each
situation according to time-honored principles of
variable scalings to be observed in the work of the
old masters. The voicing of each pipe is to be such
as to develop a musically transparent and functional
tone, which inevitably means working entirely on
key-chambered or slider chests, using pipes with
open toes and minimum wind (usually well below three
inches) and avoiding the use of nicks, and at all
times using these and other appropriate techniques
in a manner consistent with the requirements of each
situation.

19Pruth, op. c i t .. pp. 42-43.

 50

2. The organ is ideally a sensitive and responsive

keyboard instrument, and the performer must be
placed close to his instrument and have direct
control of the k e y mechanism: Only direct m e c h
anical key action is suitable and musically
acceptable.

3. The organ should speak freely toward the main

listening area and therefore must be placed in
a freestanding and somewhat elevated position
within the room it is to serve, and it should
preferably be located on the central longest
axis of the listening a r e a ; in order to a c com
plish the most efficient projection of the sound
of the instrument throughout the room, in order
to provide maximum resonance, blend, balance,
and warmth of tone, the pipework of each d i v i
sion should be encased in a suitable shallow
enclosure, open only on the side toward the
listening area, with the Principal rank of the
division standing "en facade" in the open side,

4. The tonal design of the instrument should be

developed according to the requirements of the
literature to be p l a y ed. Polyphonic literature
is given first consideration.

5. The names chosen for the stops should be a simple

indication of the function, tone, or type of pipe
or pipe c o nstruction, according to well established
traditions.

6. As a basic method for building a tonal design

appropriate to the requirements of the traditional
polyphonic literature, the "Werk principle" concept
as developed in the North German or Schnitger school
is to be used as a g uide. This provides for the
development of the integrity of the individual
division by assuring its completeness at whatever
size may be required while at the same time providing
a well defined contrast between each division in
respect to both pitch and quality of tone. The
Principal of each division will thus be at a
different octave pitch and the other stops chosen
accordingly.

7. The Physical arrangement of the organ and its

architectural appearance should also be worked out
according to the principles of the functional
"Werk" c o n c e p t , of Schnitger. The displayed facade
of the organ offers a functional presentation of
the tonal design of the instrument and the pitch
 51

relationship of the component divisions.

These divisions should normally have a shallow,
vertical structure with the manual divisions
placed generally one above another with the pedal
at the sides, but above all, the treatment should
be suitable to the individual situation.

8. Suitable acoustics for an organ require that the

major surfaces of the room reniain natural and '
"untreated." Acoustical control in new buildings
should be achieved through the careful design of
the shape of the building and other surfaces,
and not through the use of absorptive devices.20

Organ building activity generally came do a halt in Germany during

the war years between 1938 and 1945. Among contemporary German builders

are names like Rudolph von Beckerath of Hamburg, Karl Schuke of Berlin,

and Paul Ott of GBttingen. Among several smaller builders who have pr o

duced distinguished instruments are Alfred Fhrer of Wilhelrashaven, Emil

Hammer of Hanover, and FOrster and Nicolaus of Lich. "Since about 1950

uneneased organs have become virtually extinct in Germany, and no builder

with any pretense to artistic worthiness has produced an instrument with

electric key action."21 In general, there was a rather strict adherence

in Germany, to the basic tenets of the organ reform platform.

Elsewhere on the European continent, organ building closely follow

ed the examples set in Germany. Of particular interest is the work done

in Denmark by the Marcussen firm headed by Sybrand Zachariassen. Curiously,

World War II had little or no effect on the production of this firm. Be g i n

ning already in 1920, the Marcussen company produced practically nothing

but mechanical action instruments, built with very fine cases. Their

20Phelps, op. c i t .. p. 15.

21phelps, op. c i t .. p. 18.

 52

craftsmanship was excellent in almost every aspect of organ building.

Organ reform in Holland made rapid progress after the war. The name of

D. A. Flentrop is the most prominent in the production of mechanical action

instruments in well designed cases. He is yet to be challenged by any

other Dutch builder. Finally, one must not forget the work done by Josef

v on Glatter-Gtitz and the Rieger firm in Austria. The firm has produced

some very small, ingeniously designed, self-contained, mechanical action

instruments.

In the United States, the impetus for reform got under way around

1930. Walter Holtkamp of Cleveland and G. Donald Harrison, who had arrived

from England to join the Skinner Organ Company in Boston, were the two

builders with a predominant influence on the movement, although they w o r k

ed independently of each other and their approach to organ building took

somewhat different directions.

Holtkamp adopted certain of the architectural and dispositional

characteristics of the early phases of the movement in Germany, especially

evident was his preference for completely exposed pipework.

Harrison, on the other hand, arrived in America with a very good

knowledge of English organ building, a fine appreciation of the work of the

Frenchman, Cavaille-Coll, and, added to this, a rather detailed knowledge

of the work of Gottfried Silbermann. Harrison's ideas developed into what

became known in the United States as the "American Classic" organ.

Rejecting the North German concepts of tonal design reminiscent of the

"Praetorius" organ as exemplified by Schnitger in the eighteenth century,

Harrison preferred the mellow flue choruses of the Silbermann instruments,

combined with the fiery reeds of the Cavaille-Coll instruments, topped off

with a Positiv division, which derived from the combination of French and
 53

German classical concepts. Christhard Mahrenholz, a prime mover of the

reform in Germany, would have referred to this as a "compromise" instru

ment. It was this type of instrument that constituted the typical main

stream design to be found in America for many years.

Holtkamp'8 philosophy was definitely closer to that of good classic

al practice. He worked within a smaller frame than Harrison; he was more

selective in what he felt was worthy literature, and made no pretense that

his instruments were suitable for larger Romantic works. Holtkamp's

instruments rarely had an enclosed Positiv. and rarer still were the instru

ments with more than three manual divisions. Holtkamp preferred to let

the tone of well designed pipes speak for themselves.

Harrison had a preference for a smooth tonal finish. His goal was

to produce an instrument on which all of the organ's literature could be

interestingly performed regardless of the tonal background of the school

that produced it.

The still prevalent idea that stylistic performance can be

accomplished by collecting samplings from tonal concepts
of various master builders and periods betrays a naivetd'
which ignores completely the basic differences between
different periods and s c h o o l s . ^2

The preceding comment signifies the type of progress in organ reform in

America which prevailed during the 1930's through the 1940's.

This strong consciousness of sound and color pervaded

the movement in America and delayed the full under
standing and appreciation of the essentials of the art
of building and playing the organ. Until very recently
the general concept of the organ in America seldom got
beyond the clumsy machine for making music-like sounds.
If more of us had had earlier knowledge of the work of
the old master builders, w e might not have been so
easily deluded into thinking that tonal reforms con-

22Phelps, op. c i t .. p. 24.

 54

slsted mainly of Baroque-style stoplists and

that brighter toned pipes would provide the
panacea and lead us immediately to an ideal
instrument. Only in the past decade or so has
the experience and knowledge gained by travel
in Europe and firsthand acquaintance with fine
European organs brought to a substantial number
of Americans a real awareness of the essentially
polyphonic nature of the organ and its true value
a a a functional and sensitive i n s t r u m e n t . 23

Shortly after the second World War, around 1949, Robert Noehren,

through firsthand acquaintance with the North German and Dutch instruments,

became aware of the vast differences between the functional sound of the

old European instruments and the heavy-handed synthetic effects of the

American reformers. By 1950, after subsequent trips to Europe for discuss

ions with reformers there, Noehren was convinced of the possibility of

producing- work comparable in musical effect to the old masters, and he was

completely convinced of the musical superiority of mechanical action over

all other mechanisms.

It was Noehren's interest in the renovation of old actions while

using new and revoiced pipework in the rejuvenation of the old organ in

Grace Episcopal Church in Sandusky, Ohio, that brought about a collabo

ration with the organ builder, Herman Schlicker, of Buffalo, New York.

This particular project was the beginning of Schlicker's rise to promi

nence in American organ building.

The turning point in the American reform occurred in the year 1957

with the installation of a 44 stop, four-manual instrument by Rudolph von

Beckerath, with complete encasement and mechanical key and stop action, in

the Trinity Lutheran Church, Cleveland, Ohio.

23phelps, op. c i t .. p. 21.

 55

Not only did it bring to America for the first time

a modern encased mechanical action instrument with
traditional classic voicing reminiscent of the finest
instruments of Arp Schnitger, but it also marked the
very first time that sounds of this stature had ever
been heard in North America;24

The Rudolph von Beckerath organ in Cleveland served as a model for

several young builders in this country; the two most notable are Charles

Fisk, formerly of the Andover Organ Company in Andover, Massachusetts, and

Fritz Noack, who established an organ company in Massachusetts. Noack was

formerly an apprentice in the von Beckerath shop in Hamburg, Germany.

Both Fisk and Noack have devoted themselves exclusively to the production

of high quality, mechanical action instruments with suitable encasement.

Since the arrival of the von Beckerath instrument in Cleveland more

than ten years ago, the voicing practices of many North American builders

have also undergone a slow change in an attempt to produce a more trans

parent, functional sound. The practice of heavy nicking of pipes in this

country, quite common until the mid-1950's, has all but disappeared. The

more conscientious voicers now use only a few, rather small nicks.

Representative of this type of construction are names like Casa-

vant, who recently organized a new department in 1960 to build modern

mechanical action instruments; Schlicker, who has long pioneered for better

tonal practices in America and who also has made numerous mechanical action

instruments in the past few years; and Reuter, who as a result of the estab

lishment of a recent partnership with the Emil Hammer Orgelbau of Hanover,

Germany, is now providing mechanical action instruments under the name of

"Hammer-Reuter."

24phelps, op. c i t . . p. 27.

 56

. . . the trend so clearly established in the past ten

years toward a complete acceptance of the principles
and ideals that have impelled the organ movement in
Europe will continue in America. This will mean the
already growing demand for mechanical action encased
instruments will continue to i n c r e a s e . 25

Though much was learned from the practice of the old masters and

important points were noted and discussed from the very beginning of the

reform movement, yet it took many years of trial and error to establish

some of the more subtle, but important ideas. One of the most significant

ofthese was the matter of the organ case. Whereas some of the finest in

struments of the German reform were built without cases, this method soon

gave, way to the complete casework with the larger pipes in front.

Fesperman discusses the platform of the organ reform relative to

the Schnitger masterpiece at Z w o l l e . 26 This instrument is the epitome of

the organ builders art, indigenous to the music of Bach. The organ at

Zwolle is the largest of the Schnitger instruments; four manuals and pedal

with a total of 63 registers. Almost point for point it exemplifies the

details sought in the platform.

The organ case provided visual form on the basis of structural and

musical requirements. Within the overall organ case were separate cases

for the pipes of each division, related in dimensions and location to the

other parts of the organ. A large instrument would have a main division

of Hauptwerk based on 8 ft. pitch, a RUckpositiv based on 4 ft. pitch, a

Brustwerk based on 2 ft. pitch, and a Pedal division based on 16 ft. pitch.

25phelps, op. c i t .. p. 31.

26john Fesperman, The Organ as Musical Medium (New York; Coleman-

Ross Company, 1962), pp. 17-23.
 57

High towers utilized as a "housing" for the Pedal pipes stood on both sides

of the main case, the Hauptwerk and the Brustwerk were directly above the

keyboards, and the RUckpositiv rested on the gallery rail, directly b e

hind the organist. Physical dimensions of each case ideally corresponded

to the basic pitch of each division, all of different heights: 16 ft. for

the Pedal, 8 ft. for the Hauptwerk. 4 ft. for the RUckpositiv and 2 ft. for

the Brustwerk. Each division thereby possessed its own resonating char

acter. The total case was generally high and very shallow, rarely more

than four feet deep, even on the very large organs. Only the front side

was open. There were practical reasons for this: to keep dust out and to

blend and project the sound. At the front of each case were placed the

P restant rank of open principal pipes on which the scale and voicing of the

rest of the division was based. These pipes were usually made of pure tin

or copper, not only for appearance, but for the bright, clear tone which

they could project.

With the typical Schnitger instrument, each division was designed

to be tonally complete within itself. Coupling of two or more divisions

was hardly necessary and rarely desired, although it was always possible

due to the carefully balanced linkage of the action.

Such were the ingredients in achieving the functional unity of both

tonal and visual design as incorporated in the "Werk principle."

The action demanded in the platform of the reform movement was

mechanicalr complemented by the slider chest. It was a superior com

bination for several reasons: (1) the organist had control over the speed

of the opening of the valve, and consequently over the attack. Real artic

ulation became possible. Simultaneous or successive notes struck with

force had a more incisive attack on a well balanced action than when such
 58

keys would be depressed more gently; (2) because all pipes of one note re

ceived their wind from the same channel of a chest, there resulted greater

unanimity of speech and blend of sound. In addition, such tone channels

helped produce a distinct and characteristic attack not obtainable by any

other system; (3) the organist could feel the action through the key-

providing a higher degree of sensitivity, causing in turn the organ to

sound better, by encouraging the organist to play more accurately; and

(4) this type of action required the location of the keyboards within the

instrument,, rather than outside of it as a remote control apparatus.

The disposition of an organ followed the basic practice of build

ing each division on the Prestant Principal stop. A complete disposition

would usually have a complete Principal chorus and a smaller flute chorus.

If the basic Prestant was an 8 ft. pitch, the disposition would include

4 ft., 2 2/3 ft., 2 ft., and a Mixture. The flute chorus was begun in each

division when possible, usually including 8 ft., 4 ft., and 2 ft., with a

16 ft. appearing in the Hauptwerk. Reeds were essential on the pedal at

16 ft. pitch and desirable on the Hauptwerk at 8 ft. pitch. Each of the

subsidiary divisions also had at least one reed. Mixture pitches of the

different divisions were a critical factor in giving character to each

division. The type of mixture used in each division was related to the

basic pitch level of that division. The Hauptwerk would employ the basic

term Mixtur to describe the lower pitched mixture, usually at 1 1/3 ft.

pitch, the RUckpositiv mixture at 2/3 ft. was likely to be called the

Scharff. and the Brustwerk mixture of 1/3 ft., called the Zimbel. The

Pedal division of a Schnitger organ like that at Zwolle would usually e m

ploy a mixture the same as or similar to that on the Hauptwerk.

 59

All pipes in the complete disposition of an organ, in order to secure

the great variety of tonal quality, encompassed a great variety of pipe

shapes and sizes.

Paul Bunjes has provided a classification of the tonal resource

"that differentiates those factors which exercise a determinant influence

on the eventual speech and behavior of the vibrating air c o l u m n s . "27

This particular classification has been derived from the descriptions and

specifications found in the writings of Praetorius.^

There are two basic orders of pipes which determine the method used

to excite a column of air, the labial order which utilizes the method of

edge tone, and the lingual order which involves a reed tongue as the method

of excitation of the air column.

A second factor is found in the shape of the air column and "its

concomitant degree of isolation from the surrounding atmosphere."^9 The

two basic shapes of pipes used for centuries have been cylindrical and

conical columns. Consequently, within the labial order, five families of

pipes can be distinguished: (1) open cylindrical, (2) open conical,

(3) covered cylindrical, (4) covered conical, and (5) those partly cover

ed. In the lingual order, four families are possible: (1) pipes having

a cylindrical resonator, (2) pipes having a conical resonator, (3) pipes

having a multiple resonator, and (4) pipes having a fractional resonator.

27Paul Bunjes, "A Classification of Basic Organ Voices,"

Church Music I . (1967), pp. 35-37.

28paul George Bunjes, "The Praetorius Organ," Unpublished Ph.D

dissertation: University of Rochester, 1966.

29Bunjes, op. c i t .. p. 35.

 60

A third Influential factor involves "the relative mass of the air

column in the pipes measured by its cross-sectional area."30 Five genera

are distinguished here: (1) very narrow-scaled pipes, (2) narrow-scaled

pipes, (3) moderate-scaled pipes, (4) wide-scaled pipes, and (5) very

wide-scaled pipes.

Species of pipes that span the "open cylindrical" family of the

labial order are the Salicional. the Fugara. the Principal, the Hohlfloete.

and the Nachthorn.

Species of pipes within the "open conical" family of the l a b i a l ~

order are the Spitzgambe. the FlachfIBte (or SpitzfIBte) , the Gemshorn.

and the BlockfIBte.

Species of pipes representing the "covered cylindrical" family of

the labial order are the Quintade. the Barduen. the G e d ackt. and the

GedacktfIBte.

In the "covered conical" family, only one species has emerged and

has found a place on modern instruments. This is the Spitzgedackt. The

"covered conical" family presents an area of development which can effect

ively enrich the tonal resource of the organ.

The "partly covered" family of the labial order presents a rich a r

ray of species, but only a few have found application in the modern organ.

Species which have been exhibited are the Rohrquintade. the Rohrbarduen.

the Rohrgedackt (closely related to the Spillfeife). and the RohrfIflte

(or its close relative, the KoppelfIBte).

The species represented in the "cylindrical resonator" family of

30Bunjes, op. c i t .. p. 35.

 61

the lingual order are the Krummhorn. the Dulzian. the Chalumeau, and the

Zink.

The family of "conical resonators" of the lingual order is exliiblt-

ed in the following species: the Schalmei. the F a g o t t . the Trompete. and

the Posaune.

These 29 registers . . . serve as convenient models of

the basic organ voices . . . . All other voices in the
existing repertory are but mild deviations from the
standards which these define . . . .^^

The voicing of pipes as prescribed in the platform of the reform

movement, and as exemplified by the Zwolle organ of Schnitger was uncomp

licated as possible, meaning that the pipes had virtually no nicking at the

mouth^Z and had completely open foot-holes. Loudness was not regulated at

the foot of the pipe, but at the mouth of the pipe. Intensity resulted

not from individual loud stops, but from the total sound, comprising the

blended sound of ranks of different pitches coming from a common chest and

resonating case.

Wind supply on the Schnitger at Zwolle was adequate and steady

enough to meet all legitimate musical demands, including coupling. The

wind pressure for the manual divisions was 3.38 inches, and 3.9 inches for

the pedal division.

The scale of the pipes was always related to the basic Prestant

stop, which in turn was related to the acoustics and size of the building.

SlBunjes, op. c i t . , p. 37.

S^Attack noise or "chiff," characteristic of some flue registers

did not occur in all voicing as one is often led to believe. It is less
frequently found in Schnitger's work and more frequently in Silbermann's.
 62

The Zwolle organ is housed in a very resonant building, and is

placed free-standing in the west gallery. Again in matters of acoustics,

this instrument exemplifies ideal placement, and matters such as place

ment and resonance of the building are critical factors in the organ-

builders art. "It is impossible to have a completely successful organ in

a dead building, because the organ and the building, not the organ alone,

make the sound."33

With an understanding of the preceding development leading to the

organ reform movement in Germany under the influence of men like Schweitzer,

Jahn, Gurlitt, and Mahrenholz; along with later developments in other parts

of Europe and North America; with the statements of the platform of the

reform movement serving as guidelines in matters dealing with the organ

case, acoustics, action, disposition, scales, and voicing, it is now

possible to proceed to a discussion of those matters which were directly

influenced by the reform movement and in a reciprocal manner aided in the

return of the organ to its rightful place in the church where its integ

rity was reestablished.

33Fesperman, op. c i t . . p. 22.

 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORGAN-REFORM MOVEMENT

CHAPTER III.

If the organ reform movement had accomplished nothing else, it

would have been sufficient that the organ, as an instrument of integrity,

had returned to its proper place in the service of the church. That this

had happened is indeed a fact. "Hand in hand with the organ movement came

a reexamination of the organ's function in the liturgical church,

The primary influence of the reform movement was upon an area of

investigation which had as one of its main goals the rediscovery of early

music for the organ. The organ movement attempted to create an instrument

which was suited to reproduce stylistically faithful interpretations of the

pre-Bach masters, "in order to make those compositions available to the

music-loving world again."2

Interest in early music around the year 1850, as evidenced by M e n

delssohn and others in their enthusiasm for Bach, had become a recognized

discipline using the scientific method in music research. This was all

^ part of an effort in Germany that "musical studies, particularly those in

the field of music history, should be raised to the same level of serious-

iLarry Palmer, Hugo Distler and His Church Music (St, Louis: Con
cordia Publishing House, 1967), p. 15,.

^Klaus Michael Fruth, Die deutsche Orgelbewegung und ihre Einflsse

auf die heutige Orgelklangwelt (Ludwigsburg: Verlag E. F. Walcker and Co.,
1961), p. 38.

63
 64

ness and accuracy which had long been adopted in the other fields of

knowledge . . . ."3

These early efforts in music research resulted in, among other

things, the three earliest, complete editions of the organ works of J. S.

Bach: the C. F. Peters Edition, edited by Friedrich Konrad Griepenkerl

and Ferdinand Roitsch; the Bach Gsellschaft Edition, edited by C. F. Beck

er, Wilhelm Rust, and Ernst Naumann; and the Breitkopf and HHrtel Edition,

edited by Ernst Naumann. The other notable editions of Bach's organ works

concurrent with the original three editions and those following which are

very important to this day are the Novello Edition (1881-1895), edited by

Frederick Bridge, James Higgs, Ivor Atkins, John Dykes Bower, and Walter

Emery; the G. Schirmer Edition (1912-1913, 1954, 1967), edited by Charles-

Marie Widor, Albert Schweitzer, and Eduard Nies-berger; the S, Borneman

Edition (1938-1941), edited by Marcel Dupre; and the Neue Ausgabe SMmt-

liche W e r k e . (three volumes to date, 1958, 1961, and 1964), edited by Hans

Klotz and Dietrich Kilian.

Each edition has pursued a different format for varying purposes.

The C. F. Peters Edition was published as an Urtext edition, i.e., in con

trast to the generally overedited clavier music of the time. The Bach G e -

sellschaft Edition was excellent, but it utilized a large format which p r e

cluded any possibility as a performing edition for organists. The Breit

kopf and Hrtel Edition was to be practical, based on the Bach Gesellschaft

Edition, but the inclusion of rather dated dynamic markings, registration

and manual changes, phrasing marks, "makes the edition . . . of value only

3Willi Apel, "Musicology," Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge:

Harvard University Press, 1951), p. 473.
 65

as an example of the aesthetics of another era.*'^ The Novello Edition is

essentially Urtext with the exception of occasional fingerings, a n d p e d a l -

ings and phrasing. The original Novello Edition did not, however, contain

any of the organ chorales. Using the Gesellschaft as its source, the G.

Schirmer Edition possessed a musical text which was beyond any doubt the

clearest engraving of any of the editions. The only drawback was that it

remained rather incomplete for many years. The later additions in no way

suggest that these volumes appeared a half century later than the first

five. Gotsch comments, "It would seem safe to assume that all of the m a t

erial, regardless of the date of publication, may be looked upon as supply

ing a faithful record of the aesthetic attitudes of Albert Schweitzer to

ward the organ works of Bach in the period before World W ar I, when he

was a dominant figure in the performance and study of Bach's works.

The S. Borneman Edition, a complete edition, prepared from the Gesell

schaft. was a pedagogical attempt, giving explicit directions for perfor

mance. The most valuable signs are those for fingering, which are metic

ulously done, leaving nothing to chance. The Neue Ausgabe Smtlicher Werke

of Bach's works is the latest edition begun in 1954. The organ works appear

in the Series IV of this edition, which is published in a format and at a

price that makes it desirable and possible for every organist to have.

The scholarly interest in the early music, begun before the reform

movement, but given a bold, new impetus at the onset of the reform movement

because of the rediscovery and reconstruction of the early instruments once

^Herbert Gotsch, "Editions of Johann Sebastian Bach's Organ Works:

A Comparative Evaluation," Church Music I I . (1968), p. 50.

5lbid. . p. 51.
 66

identified with this music, has grown and continues to the present day.

Such scholarly approaches to the arly organ music has encouraged both

honesty and accuracy in the performance of a heritage of literature which

is indigenous to the organ as an instrument of real integrity,.

In addition to the scholarly research into the organ woi ; of Bach,

the reform movement had initially been responsible for the rediscovery of

the music of many of the German pre-Bach masters. This strong interest

was noted as one of the basic points of discussion at the Freiberg c on

ference in 1926, the concern being whether the Praetorius-organ was truly

capable of dealing effectively with the type of composition exemplified by

such men as Froberger, Scheidt, and Pachelbel; Sweelinck and Buxtehude, and

many others/^

Many outstanding editions by such German publishers as C. F. Peters,

Breitkopf and Hflrtel. BHrenreiter. and Schott have been brought to the a t

tention of organists throughout the world. These well edited early organ

works have been well received as a prime source of worthy church music.

Closely allied with the scholarly interest in old music and old

instruments, which served as the basic point of departure of the organ

reform movement in Germany, was the understanding that any movement i n

volving church music, whether revival or decline, takes in not only mus i c

al change, but a complex process in which different kinds of forces and e v

olutionary tendencies play a sizeable role. The function of the organ,be

cause of its kinship with the church, was closely affected by the current

theological and liturgical thinking around the 1920's. It is these other

6See Appendix A for a more complete listing of published early

works for the organ.
 67

non-musical factors which contributed immensely to another area to be dis

cussed.

Regarding the current theological position and church music, Stihn-

gen makes this observation.

In theology, the Luther-renaissance and Karl Barth's

dialectic theology had created a completely new
situation: a new earnest occupation with the Word of
God as the only foundation of the church replaced the
theology of religious experience. Not only
theological dignity was regained for music, but to
church music was assigned again its original task to
"bring in motion" the Word of God. Whereas hitherto
church music was to awaken devout feelings and senti
ments, now the preaching of the Gospel and praise of
God became the two poles of its activity.?

Peter Brunner redefines the place of art in worship according to

the new situation when he states, "the dominant material in which art

appears in worship is the word." Brunner goes on to state that the word

voiced in worship is subject to a particular condition; "It is not a word

of proclamation on the part of an individual, but on the part of the congre

gation, not a word of prayer of an individual, but of the congregation,

even when spoken by an individual. In proclamation and prayer, the word

must be designed for service to the c o m m u n i t y . I n reference to ICor

inthians 14, Brunner alludes to the general theme of theApostle Paul as

being "intelligibility" as the modus of the word serving the congregation

as opposed to the appropriation of "strange sounds," in referring to the

?Oskar SOhngen, "What is the Position of Church Music in Germany

Today?" Cantors at the Crossroads. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing
House, 1967), p. 203.

BPeter Brunner, Worship in the Name of Jesus (St. Louis: Concor

dia Publishing House, 1968), p. 263.

9lbid., p. 264.
 68

matter of speaking in tongues. The Apostle becomes quite specific when he

says, "but in church worship I would rather speak five words that can be

understood, in order to teach others, than speak thousands of words with

strange sounds."10 Brunner continues, "The modus of intelligible" speech

reflects the work-character, and so the form-character, and so the commun

ity-character, of this word."11 He then offers a basic principle applic

able to all the arts of worship.

. . . the artistic word must never as such obtrude in

worship; it must, rather, be so exclusively devoted
to the subject it presents that it consigns itself
to oblivion in the conduct of worship.12

In speaking of the forms used in the relation of the music and the

word, Brunner says:

In these musical forms we must take heed that the content

of the word is of prime importance and the manner in
which the word is alive in the person expressing it is of
lesser importance . . . . It is precisely at this point
that the musical form must resist the temptation to dim
the message of the song or to veil it completely by an
expression of subjective emotion.13

Finally, the conduct of worship according to the New Testament

church as compared with the Old Testament temple worship requires a mini

mum of implements. The New Testament church requires a Bible, a table or

altar, the proper vessels for the celebration of Holy Communion. The

whole number of articles required to implement a.worship service because

of practical need or objective relevance could be increased right down to

1^1 Corinthians 14:19.

llfirunner, op. c i t . . p. 264,

l2Brunner, op. c i t .. p. 265.

l^Brunner, op. c i t ., p. 275.

 69

the garb necessary for those who render special services in worship.

These elements are related to the worship event. The further removed cer

tain elements become in relation to the implementation of worship, the more

ornamental they become. Brunner makes these comments about ornamentation

in relation to the worship event.

. . . genuine ornament is never an object of idle and

empty play. With regard to the ornamentation used in
worship, we must be warily intent on making it relevant
to its special function.

In respect to the necessary subtlety of ornamentation in worship, Brunner

concludes.

The ornamentation in worship will show peculiar restraint

. . . . The ornamentation adorns by possessing the adorn
ing element as though it did not possess it.15

The very close association of theology and liturgy is quickly ascer

tained in these comments of SOhngen.

The liturgical movement rediscovered the worship service

as the heart and core of the life of the church. The
liturgical order of the worship service was joyfully
accepted and put into practice; not only as the proper
form of that great Opus Dei with which God serves his
congregation in Word and Sacrament, not only because
the organization in fixed sacred forms is wholesome for
everybody in the sense of the old rule: "Preserve order,
and order will preserve you," but also because the
liturgical act of standing and praying in the presence of
God placed the individual on an equal footing with the
congregation. All individual and personal thoughts and
feelings disappeared before the presence of the Holy
God, and there remained only the collective basic
experience of the congregation, which with one mouth,
like a great praised the deeds of God.l^

l^Brunner, op. c i t . , p. 278.

15Brunner, op. c i t .. pp. 278-279.

l^Shngen, op. c i t . , p. 203.

 70

The great significance of this new stance of church music in relation to

liturgy is further clarified by SBhngen.

For church music this meant the regaining of its

original soil and of an area of growth. Church music
was no longer merely a piece of ornament and decoration
for spiritual edification, but it again formed an
integral part of the theological-musical makeup of the
worship service.17

This new encounter of music with the worship service proved to be a well-

spring of overflowing productivity.

The organ reform movement, through the theological-liturgical move

ments of the .920's exerted a tremendous influence on that area of creative

endeavor which we shall refer to as the "new church music."

These relationships of the reform movement and liturgical thought

concerning new music were an important segment of the discussions at the

Freiberg conferences of 1927 and 1938 respectively.

One of the loudest criticisms of the reform movement was that

voiced by Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht, which in essence decried the irrele

vance of "historicism." He states the matter as follows: " . . . the

organ movement and the liturgical movement found common ground in reach

ing back across the centuries of the Old, which enriched the present and

yet did not provide the immediate historical background for the present."!

Brunner warns that worship must guard against two possible devious

paths, (1) "the archaization of the artistic style," and (2) "the complete

surrender of the artistic style to the cultural situation of the d a y . "19

17sWhngen, op. c i t . , p. 203.

lHans Heinrich Eggebrecht, Die Orgelbewegung (Stuttgart; Musik-

wissen-schaftliche Verlags-Gesellschaft m b H . , 1967), p. 19.

1 ^Brunner, op. cit. , p. 267.

 71

It was the first point that concerned most critics of the reform movement.

Fruth recognizes the danger expressed by the critics of the move-

in the following statement:

It is a well known manifestation, that in every movement

forces are at work which are unfavorable to the movement
through their exaggerated formulations and demands.
Outside criticism is then often justified in starting.
In our case, one concludes from the favored position
afforded the old music, that the organ movement was
merely historical, and void of any real life. However,
to it is also owed the furthering of contemporary music.

Furthermore, not only was contemporary music fostered as a result

of the movement, but an entire contemporary German school of organ com

position came into being.

The reform movement was not only effective in reviving

forgotten masterworks and examples of Baroque organ
construction, but provided the impetus necessary to
the young German composers of the 1 9 2 0 's to consider
again the organ as a worthy instrument for serious
composition. The interest stimulated by the m o v e
ment has been sustained to the present day, and to it
can be ascribed the presence in Germany of a contempo
rary school of organ composition, the primary concern
of which has been the organ c h o r a l e . 2 2

Decisive changes occurred in the compositional approach to church

music. A radical breakthrough began already in the years preceding World

War I. Shngen describes the new approach.

It involved a determined detachment from the late

Romantic art of the end of the century, a new
elaboration of all musical means from the rudiments,
a break with functional harmony and tonality, a
rediscovery of the primary forces of music, the
emancipation, indeed, the freeing, of rhythm, but
also the return to genuine melody, melody which does

20Pruth, op. cit.. pp. 40-41.

2lDonald C. Johns, "The Protestant Chorale in Contemporary German

Organ Music," The American Music Teacher. Voll 13 (March-April, 1964).

22 l b i d . . p. 14.
 72

not depend functionally on harmony and the eight-

measure period, the introduction of the serial and
ostinato principle, instead of the Classic-Romantic
development technique. It consisted . . . of the
will to find the back from the ivory tower
[ a r t for art's s a k ^ concept to art rooted in life,
from the egocentric expression of feeling to the
feeling of being bound in fellowship, and finally,
to an ideal of music making in which the composer
receded entirely behind his task. With this
stylistic change, music had completed a process of
withdrawing radically from romanticism, individuali
zation, and refinement. Music had found its way home
to the basic elements of m u s i c . 23

The name of Max Reger was associated with Neo-Baroque

preferences of many composers at the turn of the century, and it was the

work of Reger which provided the basis for much twentieth-century keyboard

music in Germany. The linear concept of music, which is clear in the work

of Reger continues in contemporary German music with additional emphasis

on imitative counterpoint, experimentation with different organizations

of rhythm, and a certain sort of objectivity in the musical composition,

suggesting an impersonal quality.

The name of Paul Hindemith is most prominent in the development of

contemporary German music along Neo-Baroque lines. Hindemith made an i m

portant contribution to the literature for the organ in his three sonatas,

two of them composed in 1937 and the third in 1940.

Where the music of Hindemith covers a wide spectrum of writing for

most solo instruments, chamber ensembles, and full orchestra, and though

his musical style has been a definitive one for contemporary German church

23shngen, op. c i t . , p. 204.

24p. E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music (New York: The

Free Press, 1966), p. 401.
 73

music, yet he is not thought of as a composer for the church. However,

his stylistic influence was felt in the numerous young German composers

of church music in the years following.

The works of Igor Stravinsky, Bela Bartok, and early Paul

Hindemith were like a signal beacon of a new departure
for an entire generation. What is decisive . ... is the
fact that the basis for a new awakening of liturgical
music, of church music proper, was given at the same time
by this stylistic change. New music and new church music
came from the same root.25

One other important barrier from the past which had been broken was

that of the sharp distinction formerly held between that music which was

sacred, and that which was secular.

. . . a period had begun which was characterized by styl

istic equality in sacred and secular music. The composer
did not have to change pens if he w a n t e d to write a secu
lar work today, a sacred one tomorrow. Simultaneously,
church music was blessed with composers who could be con
sidered true masters . . . .26

The new church music was initially pursued by a team of three:

Johann Nepomuk David (b. 1895), Ernst Pepping (b. 1901), and Hugo Distler

(1918-1942). Other composers of equal prominence who continued in the

same manner as David, Pepping, and Distler were Helmut Bornefeld (b. 1916),

and Siegfried Reda (1916-1969), both disciples of Distler.

One of the most prolific composers of the new organ school is

Johann Nepomuk David. An Austrian by birthj David came to Germany in 1934,

and, except for a short period immediately following the second World War,

has lived there ever since. His considerable contribution to the litera

ture of the organ chorale is embodied in thirteen volumes containing

25shngen, op. c i t . . p. 204.

2&S0hngen, op. c i t ., p. 204.

 74

forty-two works entitled Das Choralwerk.27 In the early settings of the

ChoraIwerk. composed between 1930 and 1935, David's intimate acquaintance

with the style of J. S. Bach is readily apparent. These settings on the

whole tend to be quite conservative, employing functional harmony qnd V-I

cadences. In subsequent volumes of the collection, however, the tonality

and approach to the organ become considerably richer, until in the last

volumes composed in 1959, 1964, and 1967j one is confronted, at times, with

a pointillistic technique that is not unlike that of Anton Wehern, though

within a tonal framework.

The various settings of the ChoraIwerk reveal David as a formidable

contrapuntist, whose utilization cf imitative forms is not mere academicism,

but rather the means of a vital, expressive style. Particularly character

istic and useful examples of David's work are to be found in the small

partitas, such as Erhalt uns. Herr.' bel deinem Wort (Vol. I); Ach wie

flchtie. ach wie nichtie (Vol. Ill); and the large partitas, Unttberwind-

lich starker Held. Sankt M i c hael, and Es ist ein Schnitter. heisst der Tod

(Vols. IX-X). These works and the last volumes of the ChoraIwerk certainly

constitute some of the most satisfactory organ music to be composed in the

first half of the twentieth century.

The second pioneer in the field of the new church music in Germany

is Ernst Pepping, who is presently a professor of composition at the M usik-

hochschule in Berlin. Owing to his many years' association with the K irch-

enmusikschule at Spandau in Berlin, Pepping's work was closer to the music

tradition, of the Protestant church in Germany. Pepping has produced a

quantity of organ chorale compositions roughly equal to that of David, the

core of which is represented in his Grosses Oreelbuch (1939), in three

volumes; and in his Kleines Oreelbuch (1940). Each of these displays a

 75

similar approach to the organ chorale, though the Kleines Oreelbuch tends

to be less difficult technically, and contains more settings for the m a n

uals alone.

Pepping's style, though basically linear, is quite unlike that of

David. Whereas imitative procedures are a primary characteristic of David's

style, they tend to be exceptional in that of Pepping. His polyphony d i s

closes, rather, an approach in which one voice at a time predominates, the

others giving the impression of being secondary members of the texture.

As a result of this however, there is a playful quality about many of Pep

ping 's settings that is not possible to achieve as readily in a mo r e v i gor

ously imitative approach. An excellent example of this quality is to be

found in the setting of the chorale tune, Sollt' ich meinem Gott nicht

sineen. from the Kleines Oreelbuch. The piece begins as a bicinium in

which cross rhythms abound. Later extra voices are added, forming, at times,

six-part chordal structures that underline important cadence points, and

delineate certain characteristic rhythmic aspects of the chorale melody,

which for the most part is freely paraphrased in the composition. Another

good example of the colorful, variegated type of writing is to be found in

Durch Adams Fall ist ganz verderbt. from the ZwOlf Choralevorspiele. Like

Bach, Pepping makes use of a falling seventh as a textual reference, and

furthermore, permits himself the inclusion of an imitative idea in this

setting.

Much of Pepping's creative energy has been expended in the area of

choral composition, and much of his writing for the organ exhibits a strong

vocal quality.

The third representative of prominent contemporary German composers

was a very active supporter of the new church music until a very tragic.
 76

early death cut short a brilliant and promising career. Hugo Distler is

best known for his magnificent choral works. Only his Opus 8, containing

two partitas and a miscellaneous group of settings of seven different

chorales, remains as a testimony to his ability and originality within

the organ chorale genre.

Fruth points out that at the Freiberg conference of 1938, the Reger

school of composition, which for some years was considered as the standard,

was no longer in the lead. In its place was a group of composers led by

Pepping and Distler. In addition, Distler's music is now held up as the

ideal model of composition which best exemplifies the aims of the organ

reform movement. There were two reasons for singling out Distler in this

manner; (1) "for one thing, because he became great in it ^the reform

m o v e m e n t } , and for another thing, (2) because his style has become norm

ative for a whole number of living c o m p o s e r s . "^8 With Reger's composit

ion no longer considered the ideal in respect to the movement, Distler's

style is secured by the fact that "it shows a clear relationship to Schtz'

music; and so he does not tie into the late Romantic period,"29 as was the

case of Reger.

The 1938 Freiberg report describes Distler's style as either a

linear-polyphonic style or as a flexible-homophonic style; free dia-

tonicism is normative. His harmonic resource is a secondary manifestation

and results from the prevailing polyphony. His rhythm is extremely clear

but varied, serving the formal arrangement of the work. One of the strong

28pruth, op. cit.. p. 43,

29pruth, op. cit., p. 44.

 77

characteristics is the swinging (einschwingen) of the line along with

traces of ostinato and a strong motif-determined arrangement. Distler

expands the possibilities of articulation in performance by various in

dications of non-legato. He also reaches back to the pre-Bach masters

in his use of the large forms such as the Partita, the Fu g e . and the

Chaconne.

The quality of Distler's works is equal to the best yet produced

by the contemporary German school. The partita based on Nun Komm. der

Heiden Heiland is typical of the scope of Distler's writing for organ.

A Toc c a t a , with brilliant work for both pedals and manuals, opens the p a r

tita. This is followed by a Choral mit Variationen. i.e., a setting of

the tune by Balthasar Resinarius, a sixteenth century German composer,

and seven variations in a rich exploitation of melody, texture, and organ

sonority. These include a bicinium (Var.l), a toccata-like figuration

of the tune (Var. 4), and a more complex imitative setting in four parts,

with the two upper voices engaging in a canonic pattern in eighth notes

that recalls certain of the motives from the opening toccata movement,

and the two lower voices rendering the cantus firmus in canon in whole

notes (Var. 6). Following the variations is a monumental Chaconne. based

on the opening phrase of the chorale melody. The work then closes with

a reprise of the opening toccata. Apparently desiring that the work be

used within the service, Distler suggests at the end of the score that the

individual variations from the partita may be used as chorale preludes.

Without a doubt, the most striking features of Distler's style is

SOFruth, op. c i t ., p. 44.

 78

its rhythmic vitality and freedom, in Nun Komm. der Heiden Heiland. there

is a persistent rhythmic drive in all movements. A unique feature of the

work- i-s the fact that it does not employ bar lines, and this is, to some

extent, responsible for this drive, for it forces the performer to seek

out the sense of the individual contrapuntal lines, rather than merely

to align his performance to the general metrical mold.

Though Distler has left only the aforementioned organ chorales,

his example and spirit were continued by two of his disciples, who were

also prominent members of the contemporary German organ school, Helmut

Bornefeld and Siegfried Reda.

Bornefeld's contributions to the literature of the organ chorale

consist of eight partitas and two volumes of chorale preludes for the v a r

ious seasons of the church year. These works are part of a larger group

of compositions involving--in addition to the organ--the choir, solo voices,

and other instruments, entitled Das Choralwerk. In addition to the above,

Bornefeld has composed six books of BegleitsMtze. i.e., chorale harmoni

zations intended as accompaniments which may also be used as simple pre

ludes. With the exception of the BegleitsMtze. the settings of Bornefeld

are difficult technically, and uncompromising in their tonal language.

Taking the Partita VII, based on the chorale Christus. der ist mein

L e b e n . as an example, one finds indications of a more daring style for the

organ in frequent meter change, absence of beat feeling, and floating,

wandering melodic characteristics. The fourth movement, Phantasie. shows

what the composer calls schichtige structure, i.e., if only one voice or

hand occurs at a given point, then only one staff is used, so the number

and arrangement of staves will vary throughout a movement or section.

 79

Actually, such a device is intended to give a clearer picture of the poly

pi anal structure of the music, where each voice is considered as a separ

a te entity.

Stylistic variety is seen as a result of frequent change in harmon

ic idiom in different movements. While some movements are traditional in

rhythmic, harmonic, and formal designs, others are more advanced, giving

an unusual amount of stylistic diversity to the whole work. Bornefeld

never terminates a movement with a major chord, but instead ends with

polyharmonic sonorities. Bitonality is also a characteristic element in

the composition. Canonic treatment is traditional by contemporary stand

ards. The composer's strong desire to indicate clearly the interpretation

of the work leaves very little to the imagination of the performer.

Text painting is also evident in this Partita, there being a close

resemblance between the pointillism of the fourth movement and the style

of Webern, and a somewhat vague semblance of Messiaen in the sounds of the

various chordal structures and progressions. 'Yet the several movements of

this Partita reveal variety and contrast proceeding with unity and control.

Siegfried Reda had been most concerned with the fusion of church

music and current secular styles, and up to the time of his sudden death

in 1969, had been regarded as a leader in the avantgarde of church music

in Germany, In addition to more ambitious works, Reda has produced several

smaller works such as the Vorspiele zu Psalmliedern des evangelischen K i r -

chengesangbuchs. the Cantus-Firmus-Stcke zu den Wochenlieders der Festen-

zei t .- a collection of Choralvorspiele containing a rich variety of settings

employing-ten different chorale melodies, and the very useful Choral-Spiel-

Buch containing thirty short settings, playable on the manuals alone.

 80

Reda, formerly a professor of composition and director of the

Institut fr evanaelische Kirchenmusik at the Folkwane-Schule in Essen,

was himself a superb performer who made extreme technical demands in his

own works. Among them were three chorale concertos, which appeared at the

end of World War II, revealing the influence of Hindemith, and in some

cases that of his teacher Pepping. However, in the Triptychon, 0 Welt, ich

muss dich lessen. Reda seems to have been well along the way to his most

recent stage of development, which m ay be seen in the Meditation, Ein Ltmm-

lein eeht und trMgt die Schuld. In these meditations or variations, the

chorale melody is almost impossible to recognize; motives from the tune

are not used literally but are paraphrased by the composer, who not only

extracts the basic substance of a phrase or motive, i.e., its direction

and contour, but alters the original intervals at will. Reda's Ic.te style

will undoubtedly not appeal to a great many people, but his striving for

a valid contemporary style within the tradition of the church is a sure

indication of the vitality of the new organ music in Germany.

A final representation of the new,church music is Johannes Driess-

ler (b. 1921), who, though relatively young, has been a prolific composer

of organ chorales, most of which are contained in a single opus in eight

volumes entitled, Oreelsonaten durch das Kircheniahr. Each volume contains

two or three sonatas, each movement of which may be used as a separate

organ chorale. Typical of the entire opus is the first volume, containing

chorales appropriate to the season of Advent, and consisting of two sonatas,

each in three movements. The first sonata, for example, has a toccata based

on Nun komm. der Heiden Heiland. an aria on Es kommt ein Schiff eeladen.

and a fugue on the melody 0 Heiland. reiss die Himmel a u f . Like Distler,
 81

Driessler does not use bar lines. His style, though eminently linear on

the surface, makes frequent use of filler notes, creating a textural d e n

sity that often detracts from the clarity of the linear motion. These

fillers are used, too, as adevice to make the texture more dissonant

than it might otherwise be.^^

The influence of the German school of contemporary composition for

the organ has led to many advances in stylistic trends in recent organ

literature. Styles ranged from the use of the most mild harmonic d i s

sonance to the most severe atonal practices including the utilization

of modified forms of serial composition. Altogether, the compositional

styles also reveal a strong preference, by the composers, for contrapuntal

and imitative techniques as in the Baroque period.

Above all, whatever techniques and styles have been used have''Been

selected generally according to the necessary demands of the function of

organ literature in the liturgical worship service.

31Johns, op. c i t .. pp. 14-15, 28-29.

 THE ORGAN-REFORM MOVEMENT AND ITS RELATIONSHIP

TO NEEDED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN

PERFORMANCE AND PEDAGOGY

CHAPTER IV.

Five areas of concern involved in the future of the organ and church

music as a consequence of the organ reform movement are: (1) the relation

ship of the organ to the worship of the congregation; (2) the need for a t

tention to basic worship music requirements, specifically in terms of the

importance of the small pipe organ; (3) the elevation of the art of organ

improvisation within the functional liturgical framework of the church;

(4) the consideration of new perspectives in hymn accompaniment--an approach

to creative accompaniment of congregational singing as opposed to tradition

al four-part harmonic settings to which the organ has been relegated since

it took on this particular function; and (5) the need for a systematic

curriculum, preparatory to the pursuit of organ study, which utilizes the

technical challenge and literature of the harpsichord.

The Relationship of the Organ to Congregational Worship

Second only to the oftimes feeble attempts at educating the laity

of the church in a meaningful and relevant application of its theology,

which in times of crisis, has caused the vast organizational church to a p

pear totally ineffective, is its program of education in congregational

82
 83

worship at the local level, which in m any quarters is virtually non-exist

ent.

Coincidental to the organ reform was the liturgical reform which

stressed once again a functional, meaningful, objective approach to w o r

ship, even though the enemies of both of these movements were often tempted

to label them as antiquarian.

When not functioning in its historical musical-liturgical capacity,

the organ has been used on the other end of the scale as an entertainment

device for worship. It has often been abused in a manner reflected by the

average uninformed layman and many similarly uninformed clergymen, as e x

pressed in the following statement.

"While the organ plays softly." Who hasn't read this

or a similar phrase in a program of worship or in a
liturgical order? Soft music on the organ "belongs"
--just like the soft strain of "Musik by Muzak," which
coddles the ears of fastidious diners without disturbing
their conversation. Soft organ music "belongs"--for it
suits an age when music has become a sort of acoustical
wallpaper, a subliminal tranquilizer, ever heard, but
never listened to.l

The lack of meaningful education of the laity in matters dealing

with worship has more recently become quite evident in the Roman Catholic

church, where for centuries the layman played a passive role. Now, after

Vatican Council II, meaningful involvement of the layman in worship at the

parish level calls forth drastic measures which reflect the real crisis

afflicting this enormous church body. Liturgical conferences have provided

an appropriate exchange of ideas on how to deal with the problem. The

^Ulrich S. Leupold, "The Organ in Worship," Res p o n s e . Vol. IV, No. 1,

(1962), p. 36.
 84

problems discussed in various essays indicate the need for solutions to

very basic needs in the worship of the church. The following excerpt

points out the fundamental character of the problem and how it is necess

ary to approach a solution of it.

Organization on the parish level is an absolute

necessity. We are dealing with worship and this
involves much more than music. It involves . . .
awareness. We are made aware through teaching,
explanation, example. Understanding begins to
come from awareness. Too often the lack of
vigorous vocal participation is blamed on the
choice of music or the inability of the congre
gation to sing, whereas the more fundamental prob
lem causing this poor participation is often-times
disinterest. The people do not want to participate.
They do not know why they should participate.2

To anyone outside the church, these suggested solutions appear self-

evident, But the problem of church music for many years has been the v a r

iety of attitudes it has assumed, from a cloistered aloofness on the part

of the musicians themselves, who have not been willing to condescend to

communicate at the level of the common man, to the attitude of the prag

matic layman, who already in his own mind, for one reason or another, has

relegated the whole matter of music and worship to the category of a non-

essential item in his worship life and the church's budget. Furthermore,

for a very long time, worship has been a little game between the profess

ionals. "For too many years in too many places there has been a guessing

game going on between sanctuary and choir loft as to what who will do

when . . . . I would venture to say that the greatest gap exists between

ZRobert I. Blanchard, "Church Music Today--The Center Position,"

Crisis in Church M u s i c . Proceedings of a Meeting on Church Music conduct
ed by the Liturgical Conference and The Church Music Association of A m e r i
ca (Washington, B.C.: The Liturgical Conference, 1967), pp. 69-70.
 85

church musicians and celebrants."^

A further block to congregational worship in church is the fact that

the church musician himself lacks self-understanding and is many times in

articulate abdut his profession. When the local parish lacks a rationale

or structure for the worship music program, it is impossible to communi

cate intelligently any goals to be achieved to the layman.

It-was the organ reform movement that not only returned the organ

to its proper place in the service of the church, but through the influence

of men like Karl Straube, elevated the position of church musician to that

of a respectable profession on the basis of a clear understanding of the

important function performed by the organ and organist in the worship ser

vice. Shngen compares the former status of the church musician with that

accorded him after the reform.

As long as church music was a refuge for musicians who were

not good enough for the concert stage and opera house , . .
as long as the position of church musician was, as a rule,
only on a part-time basis, there was no hope that church m u
sic could again occupy a respectable place in the framework
of German musical life. We are indebted to Max Reger, who
was the first to again challenge organists with formidable
artistic demands, and to his friend Karl Straube, who . . .
applied the most exacting standards to the education of the
young generation of church musicians, so that the new church
musician, musically too, stood at the highest level of the
demands of his time. And in the same way, the social posi
tion of the church musician had experienced a basic upgrad
ing within the church . . . .^

The church musician was well trained. He clearly understood his

particular, relevant function within the framework of worship, in which

3 Ibid.. p. 70.

^Oskar Stihngen, "What Is the Position of Church Music in Germany

Today?" Cantors at the Crossroads, ed. by Johannes Riedel (St. Louis:
Concordia Publishing House, 1967), pp. 203-204.
 86

respectful capacity he was in a much better position to effectively c om

municate to the laity.

Though the organ and the liturgical reform movements have caused

the initial reawakening of the functional aspects of church music and w o r

ship, there is still the need for further development of an awareness and

understanding at the parish level of the relationship of the position and

function of the church musician to the organized church in this country.

The Function of the Liturgical Organist

The organ functions to serve as an extension of the human voice to

be used for the praise of God. Many examples of early organ music--the

intonation which served not only to give pitch to a congregation or choir

but to introduce material about to be sung; organ settings of portions of

the liturgy which were to be played before, in alternation with, or instead

of the singing of that portion of liturgy--support the thesis that the

organ in the liturgical service is definitely related to the voice of the

church in the liturgy.

The organ is the usual means by which all musical portions of the

worship service are coordinated and unified (with the exception of litera

ture specifically designated for other musical forces, e.g., choirs and

instrumental groups).

The specific functions of the organ in the liturgical service in

clude accompaniment of congregational and choral singing; providing hymn

preludes, intonations, and alternatim stanzas for the antiphonal rendition

of hymns; providing appropriate music for specific actions within the ser

vice, e.g., during the offering, during the distribution of the elements

at Holy Communion; the rendition of preludes and postludes to the service.

 87

The Training of the Liturgical Organist

Basic techniques essential to the training of the liturgical organ

ist include, first of all, the establishment of skill in the principles of

organ technique which has been founded on previous keyboard training akin

to the style of the organ.

In addition, it is necessary that a basic knowledge b;-. gained r e

garding the conceptual theory of the modern organ, such as: the success

ful placement and functional layout of the organ; the recent developments

regarding the rich and pliable tonal elements available on the organ; the

diversity of tone in the panoramic color pallette of the organ; the neces

sity of an effective and systematic incorporation of the tonal resource

of the organ; and, the development of the sensitive control mechanism which

effectively conveys the impulses, of the fingers to the pipes in the most

direct, simple, and influential manner.

Since the hymn is the basic vehicle of musical response available

to the congregation, it is necessary that the liturgical organist acquire

a thorough understanding of the historical development and characteristic

styles of the hymns of the Christian church, also, the ability to accom

pany the various hymns in accordance with the particular style involved.

Likewise, since the liturgy of a church provides another opportun

ity for dialogical worship, it is also necessary that there be a thorough

understanding of the historical development of the liturgies of the Christ

ian church; a pursuit of in-depth study of liturgies, i.e., an understand

ing of the specific theological implications of a liturgy in the fact that

every musical statement in a service is also a theological statement;

 88

finally, the cultivation of ability to perform the music of the liturgy

with sensitive, stylistic propriety.

With the wealth of organ literature available, the liturgical organ

ist must possess a thorough acquaintance with the current standard organ

literature, with a special emphasis on individual musical-theological needs.

The renewed interest in the function of improvisation in liturgical

worship requires a study of the basic skills concerned with it. (For a

more complete statement on Improvisation, see page 98.)

Performance practice in liturgical worship requires the develop

ment of sensitivity regarding choice of tempi and registration for the

accompaniment of singing, i.e., the ability of the organist to adjust to

small agogic margins dictated by the music, by the size of the congrega

tion and/or choir, and by particular acoustical properties of a building.

In the use of hymn preludes, intonations, and alternatim stanzas,

the organ is not only expected to fulfill utilitarian functions as estab

lishing tonality, tempo, and the meter of a hymn to follow, but--in the

case of alternatim stanzas--also to provide musical contrast and variety,

by serving as vehicles to expose, undergird, and comment on the musical-

theological content of a hymn.

Special music for certain junctures within, and prelude to a ser

vice, may or may not be hymn-related, but may serve to rally a congrega

tion to the specific significance of an occasion.

Finally, a word of caution about the misuse of the organ in the w o r

ship service. First, it is important that the organ not be utilized as a

generator of "mood music," i.e., the choice of inappropriate organ liter

ature, and the use of the organ for background and incidental music.
 89

Second, the object of worship is negated when an organist maintains the

practice of favoring members of the congregation with musically inferior

and highly sentimental selections. Third, a misuse of the organ is pos

sible when an organist plays music not originally intended for the organ,

i.e., music that is liturgically irrelevant, consisting of transcriptions

from the orchestral or piano literature.

Basic Worship Requirements--The Small Pipe Organ

Because the great tradition of the pipe organ in the worship li^e

of the church has most recently been threatened by the response to current

needs of the church by the keyboard-and-pedal electronic devices, we come

to a second vital concern now to be considered.

Sociologically, the membership of the church is no longer concen

trated within the big city. In the United States we have seen the decen

tralization of the big city cathedral into a multiplicity of small neigh

borhood parishes. With the church now being spread out, as it were, into

smaller rural or suburban parishes, memberships number only a fraction of

the size of the former big city churches. Financial support for the big

city church consisted mainly of endowments and predictable contributions

from many people from all walks of life. The small parish, h o w e v e r , must

meet all expenses from the resources of a small group, usually made up of

the average middle class. At worst, the source of funds consists of a

subsidized amount from the parent church organization. Essentially, the

small parish lacks financial resources. When funds are not readily avail

able, many of the essentials for the conduct of worship are placed at the

bottom of the list until some monetary assistance is forthcoming.

Among the specific problems facing the small parish is the provision
 90

for the musical accompaniment of its worship. Such a parish usually faces

this problem at the beginning of its history and, for reasons of reliabil

ity, practicality, and simplicity, the solution to this need has usually

been some form of keyboard instrument. But satisfactory keyboard instru

ments are usually regarded as expensive, and the fiscal limitations of the

small parish are very real.

The typical pipe organ, which in the opinion of many organists,

clergymen, and laymen, is a rather complete two- or three-manual organ,

equipped to play all the standard literature for the organ, has tradition

ally provided the most effective music for corporate worship, but requires

an expenditure beyond the capacity of most new small parishes. Walter

Holtkamp, Jr. reveals what is probably the basis of the typical American

attitude concerning the type of instrument to be purchased.

There has long been a fiction espoused by the United States

organ world, propounded by salesmen and reinforced by the
editorial policies of the trade magazines, which goes some
thing like this: one-manual organs are only for Unbarbered
professors and other eccentrics, two-manual organs are for
those of insufficient means who simply cannot do the right
thing by their church or school, three-manual organs are
just fine and put one in the solid middle class. A four-
manual organ is definitely going first class; five and
above permit a salesman's early retirement, and are, of
course,, beyond criticism.

In discussing the two-manual organ as a unique instrument, Holtkamp

indicates that it is just part of a continuous line which includes one-,

two-, three-, and four-manual instruments. He continues.

It is interesting to note, that in our trade journals,

one-manuals are unmentionable, two's are relegated to

^Walter Holtkamp, Jr., "The Two-Manual Limited--An Approach to

Integrity of Instrumental Form," The Diapason. No. lO (September, 1968),
p. 17.
 91

. . . the annual pariah issue; three's are the bread

and butter; four's guarantee at least a half page.?

Holtkamp was no doubt thinking of a recent issue of one of the trade m a g a

zines which hailed the 222 rank, 5-manual organ in a five page article

dealing with " . . . a great American Organ." Holtkamp continues,

" . . . perhaps we m a y stop counting manuals as evidence of excellence and,

instead, address ourselves to the investigation of a more rewarding cri

teria for quality."9 The criteria here suggested is that of "integrity,"

when defined means completeness, material wholeness, a condition of h a v

ing no part wanting.

Integrity can be found on small instruments. The small one- and

two-manual organ does possess a completeness which, in consideration of

the musical problems of the typical small parish, is the best answer to

fulfill the musical functions which are an essential part of worship in such

a parish.

The electronic instrument is probably the most common keyboard

instrument used by m a n y parishes that are not at all aware of other p o ssi

bilities, and if they were, would prdbably feel that they could not afford

a pipe organ of any kind. Statements proclaiming the electronic instrument

as ideal for the small parish are typified in the following: there is a

comparatively short waiting time for delivery; installation does not r e

quire extensive construction or alteration of the building; this type of

? Ibid., p. 18.

Charles Hickman, "The Dedication of a Great American Organ,"

M u s i c . Vol. 1, No. 1. (October 1967), pp. 35-39.

^Holtkamp, op. c i t . . p. 18.

 92

instrument is available for less than ten thousand dollars. One claim

put forth is that these instruments do not require maintenance. This is

not entirely true. Probably the most serious drawback of the electronic

instrument is that it makes its least effective sound when carrying out

its most important function--accompanying congregational singing. In this

circumstance it is difficult for it to provide an ensemble which has lin

ear clarity and a freely delivered, unforced tone.

Contrary to the opinion of many organists, the single item of great

est importance to the organ is not the stoplist. The integrity spoken of

by Holtkamp is applicable to any size organ, whether it be of one- or four-

manual design. Holtkamp summarizes the idea of integrity in relation to

organ design.

Integrity of tonal form applies to the individual pipe,

the stop, the division, and ultimately to the total i n
strument. The pipe is designed for a specific quality
within the stop; the stop is designed for a specific
function in the division; the division has a position
in the total instrumental form, and this instrument has
a job to do in the room.^^

A stoplist of this type of basic two-manual organ suitable for the

small parish with limited financial resources is typified in the follow

ing examples, one of an American builder, the other of a European builder.

The Schlicker Organ Company, Buffalo, New York:

I Gedeckt 8'
Principal 4'
Blockfloete 2'
Mixture III-IV

lOHoltkamp, op. c i t .. p. 19.

 93

II Quintadena 8'
Rohrfloete 4'
Principal 2'
Quint 1 1/3'

PEDAL
Subbass 16'
Gemshorn 8'
Choral bass 4'

The E. F. Walcker Company, Ludwigsburg, West Germany:

I Floete 8'
Prinzipal 4'
Sesquialteral-II
Mixtur II-III

II Gedeckt 8'
Rohrfloete 4'
Prinzipal 2'
Quinte 1 1/3'
Zirabel II

PEDAL
Subbass 16'
Trompete 8'
Choralbass 4'

Both of the organs above have mechanical action and are on low wind pres

sure.

The integrity of the one-manual pipe organ mentioned earlier should

also be an object of prime consideration as an instrument for worship in

the small parish. Several arrangements of one-manual designs are possible.

The following dispositions typify some of these designs by some of the

small organ builders in this country. Again, similar organs are avail

able from prominent European builders. The following is an example of a

one-manual disposition with one independent pedal stop.

The C. B. Fisk Organ Company, Gloucester, Massachusetts:

Manual Spitzprincipal 8'

Chimney Flute 4'
Fifteenth 2'

Pedal Bourdon 16' Manual to Pedal Coupler

 94

Another one-manual organ, similar to the above, has a somewhat larger m a n

ual disposition.

The W. Zimmer and Sons Organ Company, Charlotte, North Carolina:

Manual Gedeckt 8'

Principal 4'
Quintadena 4'
Blockfloete 2'
Zimbel II
Krummhorn 8'

Pedal Subbass 16'

This latter design clearly represents a disposition like any secondary

division of a larger organ, having an independent tonal crown of its own.

Another possibility of one-manual design consists of a manual d i s

position without independent pedal, but having a "pulldown" pedal or what

is actually a permanent manual to pedal coupler instead. Such a plan is

the following disposition.

The Noack Organ Company, Andover, Massachusetts:

Manual Gedackt 8'

Principal 4'
Flute 4'
Blockfloete 2'
Mixture III Pulldown Pedal

A third possibility is simply the utilization of one manual. The

following example is such a disposition.

The Noack Organ Company, Andover, Massachusetts:

Manual Gedackt 8'

Principal 4'
Waldfloete 2'
Scharff III

A variant of the simple one-manual design with no pedal is obtained

by dividing the chest into bass and treble segments and having the various

stops play separately in either range. Such a division makes either an

 95

ensemble or a solo and accompaniment arrangement possible. The following

disposition represents such a plan.

The Andover Organ Company, Methuen, Massachusetts;

Manual Gedeckt 8'

Principal 4*
Rohrflute 4'
Gemshorn 2' Chest divided, treble and bass.

As in the case of the cwo-manual designs spoken of earlier, the

preceding one-manual dispositions use mechanical action on low wind pres

sure.

Basic criteria such as the following provide good reasons why the

typical small parish can seriously consider the one- and two-manual instru

ments just described as functional worship instruments.

1. The instrument should be an organ in the strictest

sense of the terra,

2. The instrument should be at its best in accompanying

congregational singing,

3. The instrument should be within the financial reach of

the small parish,

4. As much as possible of its cost should be devoted to

those parts which produce the tone, and as little as
possible to mechanism,

5. The instrument should be self-contained, so that it can

be installed without difficulty,

6. Th e instrument should be able to provide the other

music attendant upon worship (preludes, voluntaries,
and various kinds of accompaniment),

7. An ample body of literature should be available which

was written specifically for the instrument, and which
is appropriate to Christian worship.

llThomas Gieschen, "Pipe Organs for the Smaller Parish," Church

Music 2 , (1968), pp. 28-29,
 96

The potential of the small pipe organ placed in the setting of the

present-day parish of modest means is better understood by a statement of

Walter Holtkamp, Jr. regarding the "American" way of thinking.

We are known internationally for big instruments, not

for great instruments. There is no greatness without
integrity of form and this integrity can only result
from artistic restraint exercised by musician, sales
man, and builder. The burden is on all of us, but it
starts with the musician. He must forsake apparent
quantity for quality, remembering that less is m o r e . 12

Basic Understandings and Attitudes in Relation to

Performance Practice and the Small Pipe Organ

Both the organist and congregation in a liturgical church are m u t u

ally responsible for the effectiveness of liturgical worship. First, it

is necessary that the organist understand and appreciate that "the only

reason for music in the church is to assist in making a worthy offering

unto the Lord."13 Second, it is necessary that the worshipping congrega

tion understand and appreciate that music in the church is not for their

entertainment, "but for their strengthening and elevation through their

experiencing it,"l^

The reason for stressing such an understanding as basic to the e f

fectiveness of worship and the small pipe organ is the common association

of worship in America with the large pipe organ and all of its array of

mechanism and tonal luxury.

The small pipe organ is a basic instrument for use in carrying out

12Holtkamp, op. cit.. p. 19,

l^Lawrence I. Phelps, "Designing a Two-Manual Organ," The Diapason.

No. 10 (September 1961), p. 41.

14lbid.. p. 41.
 97

the essential functions of an organ in the church. Virtuosity for its own

sake and entertainment of the masses does not belong here.

In the training of the liturgical organist, there are certain a t

titudes which must be cultivated early. Always, one must desire to attain

a high level of professional competence; in addition, one must realize that

the level of professional competence required in the setting of a cathedral

or a small parish differs only in the amount of work required; further, one

must realize that the small one- and two-manual organ possesses an integ

rity equal to the largest church organ; the need for an open mind toward

an appreciation of all the masters of church music composition; an aware

ness of the many compositions of the masters of church music through the

ages that are capable of performance on the small pipe organ; and, the

appropriation of the conviction that the performance of hymns is no less

important than the performance of the literature of the organ.

Performance practice skills when related to the small pipe organ,

require the same basic knowledge needed in the performance of the litera

ture on a large organ. There is one exceptional difference: the necessity

of a creative imagination regarding registration when playing a pipe organ

of very limited resources.

Where the first two areas of concern dealt with the need for better

rapport and understanding between the church musician and the layman re

garding the function and relevant meaning of worship music, and the appli

cation of the tonal resources of the organ to the needs of the contempo

rary small parish, the following two areas of study have to do with the

creative aspect of music for the organ in relation to the worship service.
 98

The Art of Improvisation in the Liturgical Church

As the organ reform movement created Incentive for liturgical r e

newal and integrity in organ construction, so also did the movement revital

ize interest in the art of improvisation in relation to the liturgical s er

vice.

The art of improvisation--spontaneously developing and

embellishing musical thoughts--was already practiced in
the early Renaissance. In the Baroque era it had reached
its heights, both in ornamentation of vocal melodies and,
more strictly, in instrumental forms. Whereas this tech
nique in the nineteenth century served mostly as a means
of demonstrating virtuosity, a new trend in our time r e
turns to loftier aims, especially in Protestant liturgic
al music.15

Improvisation at the organ was expected of all organists of the

seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in order to hold responsible church

positions. Their ability to improvise fugues, chorale preludes, and contra

puntal fantasies was cultivated to a degree of finesse nearly equal to that

of composed music. Today, the fluent improvisations of visiting European

organists remind us unpleasantly that they have few peers in this country.

It is rather significant that the art of improvisation, aside from recent

attempts involving whole orchestras in "chance music," has resided tradi

tionally in the areas of jazz and church music.

In a day when instrumental performance leans heavily on printed com

positions of the masters of bygone days, the development of improvisational

technique at the organ would satisfy a.-.Loag.=feLt,.need .for. contemporary

creativity which would speak the musical language of the present, especially

IScerhard Krapf, Organ Improvisation, with a Foreward by Paul A.

Pisk, (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1967), p. v.
 99

in the music of the church.

In musical improvisation, the composer's creative act and the lis

tener's aesthetic experience occur simultaneously; the joint creation-ap-

preciation,event can occur only once; the composer and performer are one

and the same person. Improvisation is creative; performance of composed

music is re-creative. Several conclusions might be drawn.

First, the specific vocal or instrumental medium to be used is clear

ly of more importance to the improviser than to the composer. The improvi

ser must address his efforts to the particular instrument he is to play.

There is no doubt that.the musical ideas originate in his mind, which he

dictates to his fingers. No instrument can furnish its player with well-

proportioned melody, logic of form, clarity of texture, and effective cli

max.

The instrument can supply its player with ideas through the tone

colors it possesses and through means of control over its tonal resources

that it offers. Highly colorful organ stops suggest single-line solo play

ing; an organ with two or more manuals suggests echo effects; an organ

supplied with many combination pistons and a crescendo pedal suggest long,

gradual crescendos and diminuendos. However, not only the specific m u s i

cal resources offered by the instrument, but the "feel" of the instrument

in the hands of the player can be a stimulus to his imagination. Impro

visers must be sensitive to the features of their instrument. In the case

of the -organist, the resources and the limitations of a certain instrument

may affect the improvisation both negatively and positively. The instru

ment may not have the stops cr manuals to permit the expression of some

musical ideas that he conceives, arid thus it will be a restraining influ

ence upon his imagination.

 100

Second, the improviser may also make optimum use of the setting in

which his music is to be played and heard. A composed piece of music is

a completely formed work of art and demands a suitable form of exhibition

if it is to be appreciated. In improvisation, the setting becomes con

stant, the music variable. However, the improviser has an advantage over

the performer of composed music, for he can achieve a blend of music and

setting. This advantage is particularly important to the church organist.

Since services of worship often do not exist for the purpose of displaying

organ music to best advantage, the burden of adaptability is often heavier

on the church organist than on the concert performer. Whether an organist

improvises or plays composed music, "music accompanies worship . . . in

order to give an aesthetic dimension to the discursive content of the ser

vice. To suit his improvised music to the verbal content of the service,

taking into account also such matters as the acoustics of the building, the

cultural tradition of the congregation, and the season of the year, is no

easy task for the organist.

The improvising organist must also adapt to certain practical con

ditions. The most common of these is the requirement that he extemporize

a piece of a certain exact length, in order to bridge a gap or accompany

a certain liturgical action. This restriction may sometimes make it diffi

cult for him to. give his extemporization a satisfying musical form. But

the task of adapting materials to the needs of the moment also extends to

providing new settings of old and well-known melodies. Gregorian chants,

chorales, hymn and psalm tunes are the common property of church-goers of

IGphilip Gehring, "The Aesthetics of Improvisation," Festschrift,

ed. by N. W. Powell (Valparaiso, Indiana: Valparaiso University, 1967),
p. 81.
 101

all ages and places. These melodies are simple and ageless in style.

" . . . basic melodies of the church are timeless, but the counterpoint

to them, i.e., the organist's setting is a product of the present age."l?

Third, through improvisation, a performer can sometimes achieve a

closer, more immediate bond with an audience than is possible in the pe r

formance of composed music. The improviser can choose his style and form,

sometimes even his thematic material, with respect to the present audience.

With the organist, the demands of the occasion sometimes require a certain

flexibility in his performance that cannot come from a composed piece of

music. The physically present audience can act as a stimulus to the im

provising musician in the same manner that it can inspire the public speaker.

Fourth, improvisation is likely to be characterized more by the d i

rect expression of the performer's musical feeling, than by his tonal

craftsmanship, although craftsmanship can hardly be said to play a second

ary role.

. . . in improvisation, where discovery, self-expression,

and performance are all simultaneous, and where the i m
proviser's discoveries are not held u p to the revealing
light of repetition and close scrutiny, one naturally
finds the performer's emotions of discovery and express
ion in full force. Moreover, these emotions may overflow
into the audience, which may take delight in the emergence
of a good melodic phrase and share sympathetically the
player's satisfaction that he has said all he wanted to say.

Shared emotion, thougi. not absent in the performance of compositions, is

likely to be stronger and more immediate in improvisation.

Fifth, a final distinctive feature of any improvisation is its

1 7lbid.. p. 83.

18lbid. . p. 86.
 102

iniqueness. Once an Improvisation is recorded and later written down, it

becomes a composition, and is no longer an improvisation. This uniqueness

of an improvisation no doubt contributes-to the listener's enjoyment by

the fact that what he does not hear the first time, he will never hear.

The cultivation of the facility for liturgical improvisation should

be one of the basic tools of all church organists. A renewed appreciation

and development of this skill must be developed and taught in the United

States. More carefully written pedagogical materials are needed, and more

time must be spent in the music schools of our universities to take up the

challenge and raise the standards in this neglected area of the church

organist's art.

Assumed Prerequisite Skills for the Study of Improvisation

Some of the basic prerequisites which are usually assumed for the

study of liturgical improvisation are an adequate organ technique and a

thorough facility with music theory.

Specifically, a developed keyboard and pedal technique along with

an intimate acquaintance with with organ literature of all historical

periods, is required.

Facility in harmony is expected to the extent of being able to play

at sight two-, three-, and four-part harmonizations to given melodies;

modulation using simple motifs organized in recognizable formal structures;

and transposition of hymns to any tonality. Contrapuntal facility is e x

pected to the extent of the ability to analyze and apply the practices of

eighteenth century instrumental counterpoint. In formal analysis, one is

expected to have a. complete understanding of the elements of musical forms

and their structural characteristics. Finally, knowledge, understanding.

 103

and facility is assumed to the extent of being able to analyze contempo

rary idioms, and understand contemporary composers on their own terms.

Preliminary Skills to be Cultivated Specifically in

Relation to Liturgical Improvisation

At the organ it is necessary to develop basic techniques of hymn

playing, particularly the playing of the bass line with or without pedal,

the soprano as cantus firmus in the pedal with alto, tenor, and bass in

the manuals, and the soprano as cantus firmus in the right hand with alto

and tenor in the left hand and the bass in the pedal.

. Also certain basic drills in keyboard harmony must be cultivated at

the organ, such as harmonization at sight in three and four parts, with

and without pedal; using melodic phrases successively as soprano, alto,

tenor, and bass, adding two and three parts.

Advanced skills to be cultivated at the organ include the ability

to fluently transmit to the keyboard a mentally preconceived harmonization

of a given hymn; shape a cantus firmus into a florid line with chordal a c

companiment; render cantus firmus lines in inner voices; render cantus

firmus in the bass with appropriate drastic alteration necessary for the

consequent harmonic accompaniment; reshape the cantus firmus, melodically

and rhythmically for use in variations; and, derive short motives and e x

tended phrases from a given cantus firmus. It is necessary to cultivate

the ability to commit to memory, instantly, entire phrases and perceive

their possibilities for contrapuntal elaboration; to play a pedal cantus

firmus in augmentation; to produce the feeling of conclusion by means of

sound cadential treatment of the final cadences; and finally, to achieve

formal integration of an entire improvisation.

 104

Liturgical Improvisation

Three essential structures are most frequently used in liturgical

improvisation: the hymn intonation, the free hymn accompaniment, and the

hymn prelude.

The hymn intonation may utilize three basic patterns. First, the

chorale fuehetta. as exemplified in the 44 ChorHle zum PrHambulieren by

Johann Christoph Bach,^^ which applies fugal patterns to the material of

the hymn. Second, the chorale stretto. exemplified in the classic final

cadence of the fifth canonic variation on the chorale, Vom himmel hoch.

by J. S. Bach. Third, the employment of procedures opposite the two p r e

ceding examples: a relaxed contrapuntal treatment within a relatively

homophonie texture. Such intonations are very suitable for hymn tunes not

ordinarily conducive to imitative treatment.

The freely accompanied hymn either serves as a congregational stanza

or as an organ chorale. As a congregational stanza, it may underscore text

ual elements, forestall congregational apathy caused by the exclusive use

of one setting for all stanzas, or it may simply induce freshness and spon

taneity into congregational singing. The organ chorale may be used as an

alternatim stanza. Used in this manner it usually quotes the entire cantus

firmus phrases without any interludes.

Hymn preludes may utilize any one of several familiar patterns:

the cantus firmus treatment, which enlarges the organ chorale by short

interludes between individual cantus firmus lines; the ostinato patterns

l^Kassel: Barenreiter-Verlag, 1929.

 105

such as the hymn passacaglia. or the use of drones; the ritornello. used

as an introduction and coda and as contrast between cantus firmus sections;

the bicinium. which employs two parts only--one which renders the cantus

firmus, the other supplying chorale related interludes; the canonic treat

ment of a cantus firmus; the chorale fugue, whereby the individual cantus

firmus phrases are utilized as fugal subjects and precede the quotation

of each cantus firmus line in the form of a fugal exposition; the ornament

ed, cantus firmus; and the "echo" hymn.

In liturgical improvisation the organist performs utilitarian func

tions in the worship service and in no way desires to demonstrate his vir

tuosity for its own sake.

The Creative Accompaniment of Congregational Hymns

The accompaniment of hymn singing in the church is a matter which

involves not only organists. Everyone in the church is involved--organists,

clergy, and laymen--for the use of the organ to accompany congregatio.^l

song is a musical phenomenon that has been familiar to all for a long time.

In most church denominations, even where only a minimum of music is pre

ferred, the organ is required for hymn accompaniment.

The point of departure for creativity in hymn accompaniment is that

form of accompaniment utilizing the traditional four-part settings found

in the average hymnbook.

In speaking of creativity in hymn accompaniment, the writer is not

referring to the reharmonized settings of hymn tunes such as those common

ly in use by Bairstow and Thiman, but rather to an entirely new approach

that sets the organ apart from the congregation, giving to it a complete

ly independent accompaniment. Such use of the organ has been proclaimed

 106

most recently on the continent by Willem Mudde, kantor at the Evangelical

Lutheran Church, The Hague, Netherlands, who goes directly to the basic

problem in the following statement:

(1) The organ accompaniment of congregational singing

has hardly changed since it was first introduced
and, when viewed in the light of current develop
ments in church music, must be considered an u n der
developed field.

(2) Traditional hymn accompaniment is a child born of

the dissolved marriage of choir and organ music
and is still kept in "harness" by the cantionales
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

(3) The current form of hymn accompaniment has proved

itself unable to conduct congregational singing
adequately and does not sufficiently consider the
nature of the organ as an instrument.

(4) . . . relieve the organ of its hymn conducting

function . . . entrust this function to a choir
or to a melody instrument (e.g., trumpet), and
thus . . . provide the organist with the oppor
tunity to apply himself completely to the task
of accompaniment.

(5) If an organist uses fully his instrument with its

wide range of possibilities--principals, mixtures,
and reeds, polyphonic and homophonie textures,
plenum and contrasting registers--wide perspec
tives in the art of organ playing will open b e
fore him. There should be no fear to introduce
this art into the church service, for it is a l
ready there, established in the form of hymn-
preludes, which have a long and distinguished h i s
tory as church music.

(6) For the present, since it has become customary once

again to sing our hymns per omnes versus, the idea
of an accompaniment-partita may serve to introduce
the new style. In the partita the accompaniment
develops gradually from the older, simple vocal
styles to the new artistic and instrumental styles.^0

20willem Mudde, "New Perspectives in Hymn Accompaniment," Festschrift,

ed. by Newman W. Powell (Valparaiso, Indiana: Valparaiso University, 1967),
pp. 92-97.
 107

Since this area of concern involves a complete departure from the

traditional practice of congregational singing, specific directives for

handling such an approach are yet to be discovered.

At best, only statements dare be made dealing with some of the cur

rent trends surrounding such a complete departure from congregational sing

ing.

Reflections on Current and Future Progress Regarding

the Congregational Hymn Accompaniment

Current attempts to supplant the traditional four-part vocal set

tings of hymns have been in the form o f contemporary three-, four-, and

sometimes five-part reharmonizations, some of them utilizing more contra

puntal activity and polytonal harmonizations.

The problem of teaching new hymns to a congregation by means of the

organ becomes quite apparent when such hymns are more rhythmically and m e

lodically complex than the traditional four-part choral setting. The teach-

of lively congregational singing also needs a lively example provided by

the singing human voice, not an impersonal instrument, such as the organ.

Performance practice regarding the new approach to accompaniment of

congregational song radically departs from the traditional scheme in three

ways: the unison singing choir has the responsibility of leading the con

gregational song; a melody instrument of moderate to great power, such as

an oboe or a trumpet, assists the choir in this responsibility; and the

organist accompanies congregational song, i.e., instrumental playing inde

pendent of the choir, melody instrument, and congregation.

Various possible methods available to inaugurate and acclimatize the

congregation to independent organ accompaniment are: conducting congre-

 108

gational singing by means of a song leader; playing the cantus firmus on

solo stops of the organ with the left hand in tenor position, thus per

mitting the right hand and pedal to be available for free instrumental fig

uration in keeping with the nature of the organ; use of an "accompaniment

partita" as a stepping stone to more diverse forms of accompaniment, where

by each verse of a hymn is slightly different from the preceding verse,

thus permitting the organ a gradual departure into more independent accom

paniment .

Such use of the organ in congregational worship would definitely d e

clare it as an instrument of integrity in its own right, no longer fulfill

ing a subservient role; also, the efforts of the church organist as a com

plete musician could once again be directed to such creative aspects of his

position, i.e., composition and improvisation, which were, at one time,

held in high regard in the music and worship of the church. At all times

such creative efforts would be tempered by the musical capacities of the

congregation.

Preparatory Study to the Organ; The Technique and

Literature of the Harpsichord

A fifth area of concern deals with the problem of an effective a p

proach to preparatory study of the organ. The contributions which Ameri

can organ builders have made toward the refinements of the mechanism in

the construction of electro-pneumatic organs has been very notable. In

comparing the achievements in this area of the organ builders on the Eu

ropean continent with those in North America, Karl Ferdinand Mller com

ments: "The Americans are far ahead of us in pneumatic organ construction.

2^Karl Ferdinand Mller, "Church Music Among American Lutherans,"

R e s p o n s e . Vol. IX, Mo. 4, (1968), p. 155.
 109

With the development of sophisticated refinements of the modern

electro-pneumatic organ has followed the assumption that present day pre

paratory keyboard study for the organ should be pursued at thepiano;

Statements regarding such preparatory study are usually made in the very

first few statements of most organ methods. Marcel Dupre makes this brief

comment in the Foreword of his Methode d*Orgue;

It is obvious that a certain amount of piano technique

should have been previously acquired. Rapid progress
on the organ greatly depends on t h e degree of excellence
which has been attained in piano-playing, but the stu
dent should have sufficient technique to enable him to
perform correctly at least all the scales and arpeggios
in their various combinations.^2

Harold Gleason states in the Introduction of his Method of Organ

Playing that "a well-grounded piano technique is essential for the organ

ist, and it is impossible to achieve real proficiency without it."

C?r?ason supplements this statement with a thorough listing of piano com

positions under the heading "Graded Course in Piano Playing,"2^ which in

cludes ten grades of piano material. Gleason proposes that the "study of

the organ should not begin until the student has mastered, musically and

technically, the first six grades of instruction in piano,"25 which in

volves the Bach Three-part Inventions, and Sonatas of Haydn, Mozart, and

Beethoven, in addition to a high degree of attainment in all scales and

arpeggios.

22MarceI Dupre, Methode d*Orgue (Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1927).

23Harold Gleason, Method of Organ Playing. (New York: Appleton-

Century-Crofts, 1965), p. 1.

24Ibid. pp. 225-226.

25lbid.. p. 1.
 110

The necessity of a good piano technique as the basis of organ study

is also underscored by the eminent instructor in organ, Mildred Andrews,

David Ross Boyd Professor of Music at the University of O k l a h o m a . T h e

relationship of preparatory piano technique to the commencement of study

at the modern electro-pneumatic organ, then, is quite evident.

However, the organ reform movement, having brought about the return

of instruments with slider chests and mechanical action, gave cause for

serious consideration of the numerous subtleties of sensitive articulation

possible with such an instrument.

If we seriously intend to make music, the formation

of the sound must be influenced and controlled out
of the player's own will. Making music will only have
a lively effect if it is the exact result of the play
er's impulse and intention. With an organ this is
possible only if the impulse of the player's touch n u
ance is conveyed from the key to the pallet by a direct
mechanical connection. With a pallet proportional to
the pipe, and correct voicing, the pipe will react to
the touch nuances with different speeds in the develop
ment of the harmonic series; the tone becomes alive.
In a series of scientific tests this observation has
been proved correct many,years ago. If the direct con
nection between the key and the pallet is interrupted
by a pneumatic or electric action, the possibility of
influencing the initial speech by the touch is lost.2?

Though the thrust of interest in organ construction has favored the

electro-pneumatic organ in recent years, several major organ builders in

North America have either begun or further increased their output ofsli

der chest, mechanical action organs at the insistence of those in the or

gan. profession whose interest in such instruments has grown tremendously

2&Mildred Andrews, "How to Deal With an Audition," Music. Vol. 2,

No. 11, (November 1968), p. 41.

^^Rudolph von Beckerath, "Designing a Two-Manual Organ," The Dia

p ason. No. 10 (September 1963), p. 14.
 Ill

in the last several years. The total or partial production of numerous

small organ companies in America is devoted to the mechanical action organ.

Also, many schools of music in this country have added mechanical action

organs to their teaching and performing facilities in the last few years.

On the basis of the intense interest on the part of many young o r

ganists; the increased production in this country; the numerous imported

models from Europe; and the demand of many churches and schools of music

regarding the mechanical action organ, this writer suggests the need for

studies leading to the development of curricula utilizing the harpsichord

and its literature, because of its similarities to the organ, as a basis

for preparatory study of the organ, whether that be mechanical action or

electro-pneumatic.

There are several excellent reasons for considering the harpsichord

as preparatory study to the organ. One of them is basically historical,

when one considers the fact that organists of the Baroque period received

their early keyboard training on either the harpsichord or the clavichord,

for the piano was not yet in existence. The harpsichord and the mechanical

action organ have several common ties which significantly relate the tech

nique and literature of the two instruments. These relationships are e v i

dent primarily in the key action of both instruments, i.e., the direct

linkage of the lever(s) to the source of tone, and the immediate response

of the sound; the approach to phrasing and articulation, particularly in

regard to the possibilities for variety of touch; the similarities in m a t

ters of dynamics; the similarities in the stylistic characteristics of the

basic literature for both instruments; and the similar approaches necessary

for the preparation of the literature of the two instruments for performance.
 112

One notable common tie has to do with the matter of legato touch.

Harich-Schneider speaks of this initial bond by saying that, "all of our

sources agree on the legato being the basis of a cultured harpsichord

style: here is the common ground of the organ and harpsichord."28

Hermann Keller, in speaking of the organ, indicates that "from the very

beginning, a fine clean legato has been considered the very heart of organ

playing."29 Both Harich-Schneider^ and Keller^^ also speak of the v a r y

ing degrees of articulation possible beyond the basic legato touch on the

harpsichord and organ respectively. In addition, "the various degrees of

tone duration and tone coherence are attained only by a longer or shorter

holding-down of th k e y . "32 Likewise in relation to the organ, Keller

speaks of articulation in terms of tone duration and shortened notes in

order to achieve accent as opposed to the pianists' use of dynamic and ago-

gic accents.33

Aside from the similarities in technique and performance between

the harpsichord qnd organ, there is a basic difference in the fact that

organ tone may be sustained as long as a key is depressed, whereas harpsi-

28Eta Harich-Schneider, The Harpsichord : An Introduction to T e c h

nique. Style, and Historical Sources (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing
House, 1954), p. 17.

2Hermann Keller, The Organ Works of Bach, a Contribution to Their

History. Form. Interpretation, and Performance, trans. by Helen Hewitt
(New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1967), p. 57.

3Harich-Schneider, op. cit. , p. 17.

3^Keller, op. c i t ., p. 55.

32Harich-Schneider, op. c it.. p. 17.

33Keller, op. c i t ., pp. 56-57.

 113

chord tone dissipates within a short time after the key has been struck.

In either case, an understanding of the performance problems of articulation

in the harpsichord literature is of great value in approaching the same p r o

blems in the organ literature.

One of the most important matters of similarity existing in the

teaching of the harpsichord and the organ, and one which is often complete

ly overlooked in teaching any keyboard instrument, is the necessity of p r o

per fingering. "90 per cent of all mistakes in both manuals and pedals

are a result of poor fingering and poor pedal m a r k i n g . R e g a r d i n g the

need for proper fingering at the harpsichord, Harich-Schneider reminds us

that " . . . the artistic fingering rules of the old masters aimed at good

articulation, clear phrasing, and a maximum lucidity in the part progres

sions."^^ In drawing a comparison between the pianist and harpsichordist

she goes on to state:

Pianists may eventually succeed in covering occasional

flaws by means of dynamic variety or by using the piano
pedal. Not so w i t h the harpsichordist. The short, p r e
cise, and almost unvarying tone of the harpsichord m e r c i
lessly reveals the awkwardness of any inappropriate f i n
gering. 36

Performance materials of both harpsichord and organ have a stylis

tic common bond in that the literature of both instruments is essentially

contrapuntal. "The most typical harpsichord music is contrapuntal and

therefore demands a special kind of technique, different from the virtuoso

S^Andrews, op. c i t .. p. 41.

35Harich-Schneider, op. c i t ., p. 19.

^^Harich-Schneider, op. c it. . p. 19.

 114

style."37 Virtually the entire literature in the history of the organ has

been shown to be basically contrapuntal. As was pointed out in an earlier

chapter, whether one considers the predecessors or the contemporaries of

Bach, or the few notable composers for the organ in the Classical and R o

mantic periods, or the more recent composers of contemporary German organ

music, the forms that are predominant are the various contrapuntal forms

used by the many composers through all the ages. Likewise, in considering

the teaching of performance materials for the organ, "the organist must be

able to think and hear contrapuntally."3

Since it is commonly understood that there was very little differ

ence in style characteristics between early sacred and secular music and

that early music was intended to be performed either at the harpsichord

or the organ, there is a wealth of excellent literature available for p u r

poses of technical instruction. The necessity of bridging a style gap from

one keyboard instrument to another would be non-existent. In alluding to

the basic problems of the beginning organist, Harris indicates that one of

the big problems of moving from piano to organ is the fact that "a. new

style of keyboard literature must be learned."39 The beginning organ stu

dent, who has grown accustomed to the percussive attack of the piano in

addition to the other devices available to the pianist in performance of

that literature, often has difficulty in relating to the literature of the

organ and its proper performance.

3?Harich-Schneider, op. cit., p. 19.

3Andrews, op. c i t . . p. 41.

39DaviQ S. Harris, "Organ Teaching," Music. Vol. 2, No. 5, (May 1968),

p. 23.
 115

Since the organ is primarily a medium for contrapuntal

music, the trained pianist who has absorbed the style
and approach of a later era, on approaching the organ
for the first time, is likely to regard it with sus
picion if not outright hostility,^0

In the Saemtliche Werke of J. K. F. F i s c h e r , o n e finds virtually

no difference in instrumental style between the nine partitas in the Musi-

calischer Parnassus for the clavier, the Les Pieces de Clavessin. and the

Ariadne Musica for the organ.

Also in the preface to the anthology of early keyboard music, the

Spielbuch fr Kleinoreel oder andere Tasteninstrumente. editor Wolfgang

Auler makes these comments:

It offers a wealth of hitherto unfamiliar material for

all keyboard instruments. For even though they are i n
tended for the special sonorities of the old regal and
positiv organs, these works from the 16th to 18th cen
turies need not be so limited. The old methods of per
formance allow greater latitude; as long as the pedal
is not mandatory, all keyboard instruments are equally
acceptable.42

Of particular significance is the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book^S which

is a virtual compendium of early music which could be used for the purpose

of teaching keyboard literature ranging frdm the time of about 1550 to

1620; varied in style, possessing the same technical challenge as the o r

gan music of the period. A further advantage is the similarity of approach

to such problems as ornamentation as in the organ literature.

40lbid.. p. 23.

41Johann Kaspar Ferdinand Fischer, Saemtliche Werke fr Klavier und

Creel (New York: Broude Brothers, 1965).

42Wolfgang Auler, (New York: C. F Peters Corporation, 1951).

4^Xhe Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, editied from the original manu

script by J. A'. Fuller Maitland and W. Barclay Squire (New York: Dover
Publications Inc., 1963).
 116

This common bond between harpsichord and organ literature is ev i

dent not only in early keyboard works, but also in the contemporary litera

ture. This bond is evidenced by the indications for performing media on

the title pages of such works as the Choral-Spiel-Buch fr Tasten-lnstru-

mente by Siegfried Reda,44 or the BegleitsHtze fr Tasten-oder Melodie

instrumente zum Gemeinde. Chor oder Einzelgesang by Helmut B o r n e f e l d . ^ S

It is the opinion of this writer that a student with previous study

in the technique and literature normally associated with the harpsichord,

would be able to proceed to the organ with much better insight into tech

nical and stylistic problems; with much less waste of valuable time ; and

a more positive attitude for proper motivation, than he would if he had

first studied the piano.

For proof of this opinion, one only need listen to performances by

the many fine European and American organists who have pursued the study

of harpsichord. Such performances always possess definition, accuracy,

and understanding, no matter which period of literature is being performed.

The need is clearly evident for a systematic curriculum of harpsichord

literature for the purpose of teaching a proper approach in keyboard tech

nique before pursuing the study of the organ.

44(Kassel: Barenreiter-Verlag, 1957).

45(Kassel: Barenreiter-Verlag, 1950).

 117

Summary Considerations Pertaining to Areas of

Concern in Church Music Curricula

On the basis of the five areas of concern just discussed, specific

considerations are offered in the hope that a proper evaluation will be

made of the practical results in church music curricula throughout the land.

(1) As a vital part of his education, the church musician must pro

perly understand his position in the total context of the church's program.

Church music curricula must reflect the need to broaden the scope of under

standing of the church musician's place in relation to the overall plan of

the organization and function of the church. The tendency on the part of

the church music leadership in many parishes to become isolated, self-cen

tered ministries must be lessened by viewing the ministry of music in pro

per perspective with the other ministries of the church,

(2) In order to carry on a more intelligent, and meaningful program

of church music, it is necessary for the church musician to possess a basic

understanding of the theological stance of the primary church bodies in

this country. Such concern should be reflected in the required course work

of the church music curricula.

(3) There is a pressing need for the church organist to possess a

working knowledge of basic subject matter, so often taken for granted, and

more often not even considered, in the following areas: organ design and

registration; phrasing and articulation; hymnology and liturgies, with a

stronger emphasis on the historical development of each in addition to b a

sic instruction in proper stylistic performance of hymns and liturgies.

(4) Courses in organ literature must emphasize a broader spectrum

of theentire literature, from all periods, styles, and nations. Primary

 118

stress, in the past, on the works of J. S. Bach and 19th century French

literature is not at all adequate to the need for a comprehensive repertory

for the contemporary church organist.

(5) A basic requirement in every church music curriculum is the ne

cessity of supervised apprenticeships under the auspices of the university

schools of music, whereby potential church organists might observe proper

church music planning and practice under qualified church musicians.

(6) It is the responsibility of every university school of music

boasting a complete curriculum in church music to provide various types of

organs, I'arge and small, for use in teaching and practice, in order to pro

vide students ith the necessary experience in adapting various types of

instruments to the challenges of liturgical music for the organ.

(7) Only through a comprehensive development of a course of study

in organ improvisation can church music educators expect to promote creativ

ity in the practice of church music. It is necessary that the university

schools of music recognize the need for the establishment of such a com

prehensive course of study if this is to be accomplished.

Fundamental skills of students in keyboard harmony should not be

assumed, but rather should be tested frequently for evidence of practical

ability. Specifically, extensive skill should be attained in fluent per

formance from figured bass; also fluent skill should be developed in score

reading not only from the standard clefs, but also from the movable C clefs;

transposition must be methodically taught, not just talked about. Careful

evaluation of the music theory curriculum is necessary to determine whether,

if any, objectives in the practical application of music theory are being

fulfilled. It is not enough that such courses are merely taught, with the
 119

consequent burden of practical application placed entirely on the should

ers of the student.

(8) It is a fact that very few graduate church music students qual

ify in meeting the minimal requirements of the American Guild of Organists

for a Service Playing Certificate, to say nothing of the Associate (AAGO)

or Fellow (FAGO) degrees. Very many graduate organists must continue study

ing for several years after receiving a graduate degree in church music in

order to qualify for the above degrees. It is therefore desirable that the

initiative for the proper certification of the church organist become a re

quired part of the church music curriculum at the university level.

(9) What had been said earlier regarding curricular needs in impro

visation applies directly to the matter of creative accompaniment of con

gregational singing, for it too entails a cultivation of the art of im

provisation.

(10) It is in the university church music department where initia

tive must be taken to set up appropriate standards for technical profi

ciency of students preparatory to the study of the organ. It would seem

appropriate, as interest in the harpsichord and the mechanical action o r

gan is rapidly increasing, that now is the time to carefully consider add

ing courses in harpsichord as a prerequisite to the study of the organ.

 CONCLUSION

"History is not a one-way process that moves on a level of contin

uous progress from the past directly into the future, but it is similar to

a system of concentric circles whose determinative, selective, and organ

izing center is any given present time."^

The purpose of the organ reform movement was to reassess the basic

position of the organ in relation to its structure, function, and litera

ture. An attempt was made to adapt the organ to the real problems that

confronted it in the twentieth century on the basis of tradition and exper

ience.

The impact of the reform movement has led to a more careful rval

uation of church music education, specifically in terms of relevant w o r

ship practices, creative church music, and a sound pedagogical approach

to the teaching of the organ.

iQskar SOhngen, Per Wiedergeburt der Kirchenmusik (Kassel: Baren-

reiter, 1953), p. 107.

120
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Harvard University Press, 1944.

Blanton, Joseph Edwin. The Organ in Church Design. Albany, Texas:

Venture Press, 1957.

Blume, Friederich. Renaissance and Baroque Music. New York:

W. W. Norton and Company, 1967.

Brunner, Peter. Worship in the Name of Jesus. St. Louis:

Concordia Publishing House, 1968.

Bukofzer, Manfred E. Music in the Baroque E ra. New York:

W. W. Norton and Company, 1947.

David, Hans T. and Mendel, Arthur. The Bach Read e r . New York:
W. W. Norton and Company, 1945.

Eggebrecht, Hans Heinrich. Die Orgelbewegung. Stuttgart: Musikwissen-

schaftliche Verlags-Gesellschaft m.b.H., 1967.

Fesperman, John. The Organ as Musical Medium. New York: Coleman-Ross,

1962.

Fruth, Klaus Michael. Die deutsche Orgelbewegung und ihre Einflsse auf
die heutige Orgelklaiigwelt. Ludwigsberg: Verlag E. F. Walcker,
1961.

Geer, E. Harold. Organ Registration in Theory and Practice. Glen Rock,

New Jersey: J. Fischer, 1957.

Gleason, Harold. Method of Organ Playing. New York: Appleton-Century-

Crofts, 1965.

Grout, Donald Jay, A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton

and Company, i960.

Harich-Schneider, Eta. The Harpsichord : An Introduction to Technique.

Style, and Historical Sources. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing
House, 1954.

121
 122

Keller, Hermann. The Organ Works of Bach, a Contribution to Their History.

F o r m . Interpretation, and Performance. Translated by Helen Hewitt.
New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1967.

Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. New York: The Free Press,
1966.

Klotz, Hans. The Organ Handbook. Translated by Gerhard Krapf. St. Louis:
Concordia Publishing House, 1969.

Krapf, Gerhard. Organ Improyisation. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing

House, 1967.

Palmer, Larry. Hugo Distler and His Church Music. St. Louis: Concordia
Publishing House, 1967. >

Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instruments. New York: W. W. Norton

and Company, 1940.

Schweitzer, Albert. Deutsche und franzHsische Orgelbaukunst und Orgel-

kunst. 1906. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf und HHrtel, 1968.

Out of My Life and Thought. New York: New American Library

of World Literature, 1963.

SBhngen, Oskar. Per Wiedergeburt der Kirchenmusik. Kassel: Barenreiter,

1953.

Cantors at the Crossroads. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing

House, 1967.

Sumner, William Leslie. The O r g a n : Its Evolution. Principles of Con

struction. and U s e . London: Macdonald and Company, 1952.

Periodicals

Andrews, Mildred. "How to Deal With A n Audition." M u s i c . Vol. 2, No. 2,

November, 1968, p. 41.

Blanchard, Robert I. "Church Music Today-The Center Position." Crisis

in Church M u s i c . 1967, pp. 69-70,

Bunjes, Paul. "A Classification of Basic Organ Voices." Church Music 1,

1967, pp. 35-37.

Gehring, Philip. "The Aesthetics of Improvisation." Festschrift. 1967,

p. 81.

Gieschen, Thomas. "Pipe Organs for the Smaller Parish." Church Music 2.
1968, pp. 28-29.
 123

Gotsch^ Herbert. "Editions of Johann Sebastian Bach's Jrgan Works: A

Comparative Evaluation." Church Music 2, 1968, p. 50,

Harris, David S. "Organ Teaching." M u s i c . Vol. 2, No. 5, May, 1968,

p. 23.

Hickman, Charles. "The Dedication of a Great American Organ." M u sic.

Vol. 1, No. 1, October, 1967, pp. 35-39.

Holtkamp, Walter Jr. "The Two-Manual Limited - A n Approach to Integrity

of Instrumental Form." The Diapason. No. 10, September, 1968,
p. 17.

Irwin, Stevens. "String Stops." The American Organist. Vol. 52, No. 2,
February, 1969, pp. 20-21.

Johns, Donald C. "The Protestant Chorale in Contemporary German Organ

Music." The American Music Teacher. March-April, 1964, p. 14.

Leupold, Ulrich. "The Organ in Worship," Res p o n s e . Vol. IV, No. 1,

1962, p. 36.

Mudde, Willem. "New Perspectives in Hymn Accompaniment." Festschrift.

1967, pp. 92-97.

Mller, Karl Ferdinand. "Church Music Among American Lutherans." Response.

Vol. IX, No. 4, 1968, p. 155.

Phelps, Lawrence I. "A Short History of the Organ Revival." Church Music 1^,
1967, p. 14.

"Designing a Two-Manual Organ." The Diapason. No. 10, Septem

ber, 1961, p. 41.

von Beckerath, Rudolph. "Designing a Two-Manual Organ." The Diapason.

No. 10, September, 1963, p. 14.

Unpublished Materials

Bunjes, Paul George, "The Praetorius Organ." Unpublished Ph.D. disserta

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Johns, Donald Charles, "Johann Nepomuk David's Choralwerk: A Study in the

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 124

Music Manuscripts

Buxheim Oreelbuch. c. 1460, Ms., Munich Staatsbibliothek Cira. 3526.

Tablature of Adam Ileborgh of Stendhal. 1448, Ms., Curtis Institute of

Music, Philadelphia.

Pauradnn, Conrad. Fundaraentum organisandi. 1452, Ms., Berlin Staatsbiblio

thek 40613, bound with the Locharaer Liederbuch.
 APPENDIX A

Early Keyboard Music for Use at the Organ

in the Liturgical Worship Service

Auler, Wolfgang, ed. Spielbuch ftir die Kleinoreel oder andere Tasteninstru-
a e n t e . 2 vols. New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1951.

Bach, Johann Sebastian, Or, elchorle Manualiter. Kassel und Basel : Baren
reiter, 1956.

Bernischen Organistenverband. Oreelchorflle des 1 7 . und 1 8 . Jahrhunderts.

Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1951.

Biggs, E. Power, ed. Treasury of Early Organ M usic. New York: Mercury
Music Corporation, 1947.

Buszin, Walter E . , ed. Anthology of Sacred M u sic. 3 vols. St. Louis;

Concordia Publishing House, 1948.

Buxtehude, Dietrich. Orgelwerke. 2 vols. New York: C. F. Peters Corp

oration, 1938.

Davison, Archibald T., Pfatteicher, Carl F . , eds. The Church Organist's

Golden Treasury. 3 vols. Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania: Theodore Pres
ser Company, 1951.

Fischer, J. K. F. Sflmtliche Werke fr Klavier und O r g e l . New York: Brou-

de Brothers, 1965.

Fleischer, Heinrich, Goldschmidt, E . , Gieschen, T., eds. The Parish Or

g a n i s t . 11 vols. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1953-
1962.

Frescobaldi, Girolamo. Ausgewdhlte Orgelwerke. 2 vols. Leipzig: C. F.

Peter Corporation, 1943.

Kauffmann, Georg Friederich. Harmonische Seelenlust. PrSludien ilber die

bekanntesten Chorallieder fr Orgel. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter,
1951

Keller, Hermann, ed. Achtzig Choralvorspiele deutscher Meister des 17 .

und 1 8 . Jahrhunderts. New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1937.

125
 126

Kaller, Ernst, Klaus, Gregor, Klotz, Hans, Phillips, Gordon, Valentin,

Erich, eds. Liber Oreani. Eine Sanunlung alter liturgischer Orgel-
rausik, 10 vols. Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1933-1961,

LUbeck, Vincent. Orgelwerke. New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1940.

Maitland, J. A. Fuller, Squire, W. Barclay, eds. The Fitzwilliam Virginal

Boo k . 2 vols. New York: Dover Publications, 1963.

Muffat, Georg. Apparatus musico-organisticus. Leipzig: C. F, Peters

Corporation, 1888.

Pachelbel, Johann. AusgewHhlte Orgelwerke. 3 vols. Kassel und Basel:

Barenreiter, 1934.

Piechler, Arthur. Das praktische Orgelbuch. 2 vols. Mainz: B. Schott's

SWhne, 1952.

Quoika, Rudolf, ed. Orgelwerke AltbOhmischer Meister. Wiesbaden: Breit

kopf und HSrtel G. m.b.H., 1948.

Rohr, Heinrich, ed. Orgelspiel im Kircheniahr. 62 leichte Choralvorspiele

alter Meister fr Orgel (ohne Pedal), auch Harmonium oder Klavier.
Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1951.

Scheidemann, Heinrich. Fnfzehn Prludien und Fugen fr Orgel. Lippstadt:

Kistner und Siegel Co., (no date).

Scheldt, Samuel. AusgewHhlte Werke fr Orgel und Klavier. New York: C.

F. Peters Corporation, 1940.

Das GBrlitzer Tabulaturbuch vom Jahre 1650. Leipzig: C. F.

Peters Corporation, 1940.

Schweiger, Hertha, ed. A Brief Compendium of Early Organ Music. New York:
G. Schirmer, Inc., 1943.

Seiffert, Max. Organum. Vierte R e i h e : Orgelmusik. Lippstadt: Kistner

und Siegel Co., (no date).

Stanley, John. Voluntaries for the Organ. 3. vols. London: Oxford Uni
versity Press, 1957.

Straube, Karl, ed. Alte Meister des Orgelspiels. 2 vols. Neue Folge.
Leipzig: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1929.

ed. Choralvorspiele alter Meister fr den praktischen Gebrauch

bearbeitet. Leipzig: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1907.

Sweelinck, Jan Pieter. Ausgewhlte Werke fr Orgel und Klavier. 2 vols.

New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1957.
 127

Telemann, Georg Philipp. ZwOlf leichte Choralvorspiele fr Orgel Manual-

iter oder Klavier. Leipzig: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1936.

van Noordt, Anthoni. Psalmbearbeitungen fr Orgel 1659. Kassel und Basel:

Barenreiter, 1954.

Walther, Johann Gottfried. Ausgewhlte Orgelwerke. 3 vols, Wiesbaden:

Breitkopf und HMrtel, 1966.

Zrcherischer Organistenverband, ed. Orgelmusik im Gottesdienst. 2 vols.

Zurich: Eulenburg G.m.b.H., 1965.
 APPENDIX B

Contemporary European Organ Music for Use

in the Liturgical Worship Service

Ahrens, Joseph. Choialpartita fr Orgel, Lobe den Herren. Mainz: B.

Schott's SOhne, 1949.

Bender, Jan. 30 Kleine Choralvorspiele. 3 vols. Kassel und Basel: Bar

enreiter, 1949.

Twenty Short Organ Pieces. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing

House, 1956.

Bornefeld, Helmut. Choralpartita I, Wir glauben all an einen Go t t . Kas

sel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1949.

_________ . Choralpartita II, Der Herr 1st mein getreuer Hirt. Kassel und
Basel: Barenreiter, 1949.

_________ . Choralpartita III, Nun K o m m . der Heiden Heiland. Kassel und

Basel: Barenreiter, 1950.

_________ . Choralpartita IV, Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr d a hin. Kassel
und Basel: Barenreiter, 1951.

. Choralpartita V, Gott der Vater wohn uns b e i . Kassel und Basel:

Barenreiter, 1951.

. Choralpartita VI, K o m m . Gott SchHpfer. Heiliger Geist. Kassel

und Basel: Barenreiter, 1953.

. Choralpartita VII, Christ, der ist mein L e b e n . Kassel und Basel;

Barenreiter, 1955.

. Choralpartita VIII, Das Te Deum deutsch, Herr G o t t . dich loben

w i r . Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1957.

. Orgelstcke. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1949.

. BegleitsHtze. 6 vols. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1950.

. Choralvorspiele. 2 vols. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, i960.

128
 129

Bornefeld, Helmut. OreelchoralsHtze. 3 vols. Kessel und Basel: Baren

reiter, I960.

Burkhard, Willy. Variationen ber den Hasslerchen Choralsatz, Aus tiefer

N o t . Mainz: B. Schott's SOhne, 1932.

Variationen ber den Hasslerchen Choralsatz, In dulci iubilo.

Mainz: B. Schott's SOhne, 1932.

. Choral-Triptychon fr O r g e l . Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter,

1954.

. Fantasie und Choral, Ein Feste Bure ist Unser Gott. Kassel und
Basel: Barenreiter, 1954.

. Partita, Wer nur den lieben Gott lsst w l t e n . Kassel und Basel;
Barenreiter, 1957.

. Prludium und Fue e. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1957.

_________. Partita, Grosser Gott. wir loben d i c h . Kassel und Basel: Bar
enreiter, 1958.

David, Johann Nepomuk. Choralwerk fr Oreel. 16 vols. Leipzig und Wi e s

baden: Breitkopf und Hrtel, 1930-1968.

Partita fr Orgel. Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen. Wien:

Doblinger, 1958.

David, Thomas Christian. 5 Orgelchorle. Wien: Doblinger, 1962.

Degen, Helmut. Weihnachtamusik ber Kommet. ihr Hirten. Kassel und Basel:
Barenreiter, 1952.

Distler, Hugo. Orgelpartita, Nun k o m m . der Heiden Heiland. Kassel und

Basel: Barenreiter, 1960.

______ . Orgelpartita, Wachet a u f . ruft uns die Stimme. Kassel und Basel:
Barenreiter, 1961.

_________. Dreissie Spielstcke fr die Kleinoreel oder andere Tasteninstru-

m e n t e . Kassel und Basel : Barenreiter, 1964,

________ . Kleine Oreelchoral-Bearbeituneen. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter,

1964.

Doppelbauer, Josef Friederich, Partita fr Oreel. Wien: Doblinger, 1960.

Driessler, Johannes. Oreelsonaten durch das Kircheniahr. 8 vols. Kassel

und Basel: Barenreiter, 1954-1956.

Fortner, Wolfgang. Praeambul und F u e e . Mainz: B. Schott's SWhne, 1935.

 130

Heiller, Anton. Sonate fr Orgel. Wien: Universal Edition, 1946.

________ . Zwei kleine partiten fr Orgel. Mainz: Ars Viva Verlag, 1951,

Hindemith, Paul. Sonata I for Organ. London: Schott and Co. Ltd., 1937.

________ , Sonate II fr O r gel. Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1937.

________ . Sonate III fr Orgel. Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1940.

Klotz, Hans. Neunzehn Vorspiele zu Evangelischen Kirchenliedern fr die

O rgel. Kassel und Basel : Barenreiter, 1947.

Kropfreiter, Augustinus Franz. Dreifaltigkeits - Triptychon fr Orgel.

Wien; Doblinger, 1963.

Micheelsen, Hans Friederich. Choralmuslk fr O r g e l . Kassel und Basel:

Barenreiter, 1959.

Das Holsteinische jOyeelbchlein. Stcke fr die Kleinorgel.

Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1968.

Each, Walter. Partita, 0 unbeeiegter. starker He l d . S t . Michael. Wien:

Doblinger, 1960.

Peeters, Flor. Hymn Preludes for the Liturgical Year for O r gan. 24 vols.
New York: C. F. Peters Corporation, 1966-1969.

Pepping, Ernst. Partita Uber den Choral, Wie schn leuchtet der Morgen-
stern. Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1933.

________ . Partita ber den Choral, Wer nur den lieben Gott Iflsst wa l t e n .
Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1933.

_________. Grosses Orgelbuch. 3 vols. Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1941.

Kleines Orgelbuch. Leichtere Choralvorspiele und Orgelchorle.

Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1941.

. Toccata und Fuge Uber den Choral, Mitten wir im Leben sind.
Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1942.

. Drei Fugen ber BACH fr Orgel. Mainz: B, Schott's Shne, 1949.

. Vier Fugen fr Orgel. Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1949.

. Zwei Fugen fr O rgel. Mainz: B. Schott's Shne, 1949.

. Partita fr Orgel, Ach wie f lchtig. ach wie nichtig. Kassel

und Basel: Barenreiter, 1953.

. Partita fUr Orgel, Mit Fried und Freud Ich Fahr D a hin. Kassel
und Basel: Barenreiter, 1953.
 131

Pepping, Ernst. BOhmisches Oreelbuch. 2 vols. Kassel und Basel: Baren

reiter, 1954.

_________. Partita ftlr Orgel, Wer w e i s s . wie nahe mir mein ende. Kassel
und Basel: Barenreiter, 1953.

. Hvmnen fr Oreel. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1954.

. Senate fr O r eel. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1958.

- ZwHlf Choralvorspiele fr Oreel manualiter. Kassel und Basel:

Barenreiter, 1963.

Reda, Siegfried. Oreelkonzert 1 in drei stzen. Kassel und Basel : Bar

enreiter, 1947.

_________ . Oreelkonzert II manualiter. Kassel und Basel: Barerreiter,

1947.

. Oreelkonzert III. Kassel und Basel : Barenreiter, 1948.

. Choral-Konzert I, 0 wie selie seid ihr d och. ihr Frommen. Kas

sel und Basel : Barenreiter, 1946.

. Choral-Konzert II, Gottes Sohn ist kommen. Kassel und Basel:

Barenreiter, 1946.

. Choral-Konzert III, Christ unser Herr zum Jordan k a m . Kassel

und Basel: Barenreiter, 1948.

. Triptychon zum Kirchenlied, 0 W e l t , ich muss dich lassen. Kas-

gel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1951.

. Mit E r n s t . 0 Menschenkinder. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter,

1952.

. Choral-Konzert, 0 Traueriekeit. o Herzeleid. Kassel und Basel:

Barenreiter, 1953.

. Choralvorspiele. Kassel und Basel: Barenreiter, 1954.

Choral-Spiel-Buch-fr tas ten-instrumente. Kassel und Basel :

Barenreiter, 1957.

. Cantus-firmus-stcke zu <jen Wochenliedern der Fastenzeit. Kas

sel und Basel : Barenreiter, i960.

. Meditationen zu dem Passionslied, Ein Lmmlein geht und trflgt

die Schuld. Kassel und Basel : Barenreiter, 1964.

Schmidt, Franz. Vier kleine Praeludien und Fugen. 4 vols. Wien: ttster-
reichischer Bundesverlag, 1951.
 132

Schroeder, Hermann. Kleine Praeludien und Intermezzi. Mainz: B. Schott's

SWhne, 1932.

Sechs OreelchorHle ber altdeutsche eeistliche Volkslieder.

Mainz: B. Schott's SWhne, 1934.

. Praeludium und Fuge, Christ lag in Todesbanden. Mainz: B.

Schott's SWhne, 1937.

Siegl, Otto, ed. Orgelmusik steirischer komponisten. Wien: Osterreich-

ischer Bundesverlag, 1952.

Walcha, Helmut. Choralvorspiele. 3 vols. New York: C. F. Peters Cor p

oration, 1954-1967.