Chapt.

-1: Introduction to Steel Structures

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Structural Steel
Steel as Structural Materials of Construction
Steel is one of the most important structural materials of construction. It can be used for
construction of roof trusses of residence and industrial buildings of large span, frame work of high
rise and industrial buildings, long span bridges, storage tanks, transmission towers, any structures
built over poor foundation condition, and etc. A significant difference between steel and concrete
structures is that the designer has more control over the shape of reinforced concrete elements. For
steel structure, the designer is normally compelled to use standard rolled sections.

Field of application: Steel structural members can be used in several types of structures, as follow:
A Framework or skeleton systems, having as their main element beams, girders, trusses and
columns, such as:
1. The frameworks of industrial building and structures with their internal members such as
crane, girders, platform, etc.
2. Railways, highways and urban large-span bridges.
3. Civic multistory buildings, pavilions for exhibition, domes, etc.
4. Special purpose buildings such as hangars, shipbuilding, etc.
5. Special structures like towers, mast, hydraulic engineering structures, cranes, etc.
B Shell systems.
1. Gasholders and tanks for the storage and distribution of gases.
2. Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of liquids.
3. Bunkers for the storage of loose materials.
Advantages of Steel as Structural Materials
1. It is homogeneous, isotropic and elastic materials. These make structural steel design closer to
the assumption.
2. Steel members have high tensile and compressive strength compared to its unit weight.
Therefore, a steel member of a smaller section which has little self weight is able to support
heavy imposed loads.
3. Steel members are light in weight, and they can be conveniently handled and transported.
4. Steel, being a ductile material, does not fail suddenly, but gives visible evidence of impending
failure by large deflections.
5. Speed of erection of members of frame work of structures.
6. Additions and alterations can be made easily to steel structures.
7. Possible re-use after a structure is disassembled (steel has highest scrap value).
Disadvantages of Steel as Structural Materials
1.Steel rust or corrodes in normal exposure condition. Therefore, it needs frequent periodic
painting may be every two years. Alloying steel with copper may improve the situation, but
alloyed-steel is expensive.
2. Steel is not fire resistance material. Structural steel member is better to be imbedded in concrete
or other insulating materials to protect from fire.

Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel

1. Strength; is determined by the resistance of the material to external loads and forces.
2. Elasticity; is the property of the material to restore its initial shape after removal of the
external loads.
3. Plasticity; is the reverse of elasticity, i.e. the property of a material not to return to its initial
dimensions after removal of the external loads or, in other words, the property of obtaining
permanent sets.

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 Chapt.-1: Introduction to Steel Structures

The mechanical properties of structural steel are best be represented by stress-strain curve. Stress-
strain curve of steel are obtained by tension test of steel specimen, by continuously recording the
applied incremental tension load and the corresponding dial measuring of extension of gage length
of specimen. A typical stress-stain curve for structural steel is shown below.
The standard requires that the manufacturer shall carry
out tension tests on specimens taken from each type of
section rolled from cast steel to ensure that the
material has specified properties. A typical test
specimen is shown below. See Fig. 1.

If a specimen of steel is subjected to tension by gradually increasing the load P, and the resulting
elongation L be measured, the results can be used to plot an experimental tension diagram of
elongation Vs load. For convenience we plot stress Vs unit elongation. See Fig. 2.
Now; stress f = P/A; that is load/area. Units N/mm2.
Strain = (L/L) 100, where: f Normal stress (N/mm2).
A Cross-sectional area of the specimen. (mm2).
Strain or unit elongation in percent.
L Gauge length or original length of the specimen.
L longitudinal elongation of the specimen

Fu Aproportional limit
D Byield point (for no obvious yield
F point, it is defined by 0.2% offset)
Fy Dultimate strength point
A
B C Ffracture point
Stress,
MPa OAelastic range
BCplastic range (continuous deformation
without any increase of loads)
CDstrain (work) hardening range (where
ES = 200GPa molecular arrangement takes place)
O
Strain, (mm/mm)

In all structural steel design, either yield-strength or ultimate tensile strength of steel is considered.
Steel producers provide different grades for their products. These grades are based on yield-strength
of steel defined by point B of stress-strain diagram. The yield-strength specified by steel produces
is the guaranteed minimum value, and it is based on statistics of large number of tests.
For example for A-36 steel, the guaranteed yield-strength is 250 MPa , but the most likely value is
on the order of 300 to 330 MPa .
The most commonly used grades of structural steel according to ASTM are:
A-36 steel (the most economical in terms of cost/unit mass) Fy 250 MPa and
Fu 400 MPa and, A-50 steel (ASTM A-441 and A-588)
Fy 345 MPa and Fu 485 MPa
Other higher strength of structural steels are available with ASTM A-572 specification covering
several grades as A-42, A-45, A-55, A-60, and A-65 corresponding to guaranteed minimum yield
strengths of 290, 310, 380, 415, and 450 MPa , respectively. But, yield strength of these steels is
thickness dependent.

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 Chapt.-1: Introduction to Steel Structures

Structural steel grades according to EBCS-3/95 are given in the table below.
Nominal Thickness t (mm)
steel t 40 mm 40 mm t 100 mm
grades F ( MPa) F ( MPa) F ( MPa) F ( MPa)
y u y u

Fe-360 235 360 215 340

Fe-430 275 430 255 410
Fe-510 355 510 335 490

Other important properties of steel that may be incorporated in design of steel structures
are as follows:
1. Modulus of Elasticity, Es: the typical range for all steel grades is 193 to 207 GPa . The value
for design is commonly taken as 200 GPa .
2. Shear Modulus, G: the shear modulus of any elastic material is computed as
E
G
2 1
Where --Poissons ratio taken as 0.3 for steel
Using = 0.3 gives G = 77 GPa .
3. Coefficient of Expansion, : may be taken as
12 x 10 6 / 0 c
4. Mass density or weight density of steel:
Mass density = 7850 kg/m3
Weight density = 76.975 kN/m3
5. High Temperature Effects on Steel: Special consideration is not required for steel under
normal temperature. When the temperature is exceeding 200 0c, modulus of elasticity, yield-
strength and ultimate tensile strength of steel are deceasing. For example yield-strength of steel at
500 0c is about 60 to 70 % of yield strength at normal temperature. The drop in strength is rather
marked at higher temperatures where the strength at 850 0c is about 15 %. Steel frames need to be
enclosed by insulating material to give fire protection to control the temperature of the metal for a
sufficient time for the occupants to seek safety. These fire insulators may include gypsum-based
products or light weight concrete that can be sprayed onto the member or fiber insulation boards
that are placed and banded to protect the steel.
6.Fatigue-Limit: Fatigue failure occurs when the structure is repeatedly loaded and unloaded even
if the stress developed at point in structure due to repeated loading is never exceeding the yield
point of steel. Large number repeated stress applications tend to cause a fracture of the material at
the location where small imperfection (may be microscopic) exists. A crack forms, and depending
on stress level, slowly progresses to failure of the part of member. Fatigue problem exist only
when tension involves. Fatigue strength of steel is the stress-level at which member of material of
steel is fractured up on application of given number of cycles of loading of the same stress-level.
The fatigue strength of steel is decreasing with the increase of the loading cycles. The stress level
that steel fails at constant value of stress after large number of cycles of loading (at about 2
millions cycles) is known as fatigue-limit. Therefore, for design of structure (like steel-bridge)
subjected to more than 2 millions of cycles of loading in its life time, fatigue-limit of steel has to
be considered in addition to yield-strength and ultimate tensile strength of steel. Since building
structure is assumed on average subjected to less than 100,000 cycles of loading in its life time,

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 Chapt.-1: Introduction to Steel Structures

fatigue is not important in design. A typical plot of fatigue-strength viz. number of loading cycles
of steel is shown below.

Fy
Fatigue
Strength,
MPa Fatigue-Limit

100,000 2 millions N (no. of loading)

cycles
Rolled steel sections and their main use
These sections are designed to achieve economy of material while maximizing strength, particularly
in bending. Bending strength can be maximized by concentrating the metal at the extremities of the
section, where it can sustain the tensile and compressive stress associated with bending. The most
commonly used sections are universal beams (Ubs) and universal columns (Ucs). See Fig.3 .

a) W shapes. Wide flange sections. Are rolled with parallel flanges and are specified by their
serial size and mass in kg per meter, e.g. W 310 x 202. It nominal depth is 310 mm and the
mass is 202 kg per meter. May be used principally as columns and also may be used as beams
too.
b) S shapes. Known as universal beams, It has Iy>>Iz, for this reason is recommended to be used
as beams.
c) HP shapes. High Powered shape. Available on the USA codes. It has practically same depth
compared with wide to diminish the difference between Iy and Iz. Is recommended for
columns exclusively.
d) Standard Channels (C shapes). The difference between Iy and Iz is very significant. Are used
as purlin in the roof of industrial buildings, as a light beam to resist bending and in built-up
sections connected by batten plates.
e) Angles. Fabricated as equal legs angles and unequal legs angles. Are described by their
nominal dimensions, first number is the large leg; second number is small dimension and third
number the thickness of the section. Are used mainly as members of trusses, for ties in steel
frames, etc.
f) T shapes. Available on the USA codes, is used as member in trusses and also in built-up beams
with different types of steel.
The followings are the most common types of steel rolled sections produced by steel mills and they
are available with different sizes. The design of steel sections is governed by cross-sectional area
and section-modulus. Therefore, tables of standard rolled sections must contain section properties
including cross-sectional area and section modulus that may be useful in selection of the required
section of members of structure.

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 Chapt.-1: Introduction to Steel Structures

Solid round Solid square Solid rectangular Plate Angle section

bar bar bar PL b x t (equal or unequal leg)
L b1 x b2 x t

Channel section Wide-flanged section Small-flanged section Tee section Square tube
C d x wt. W d x wt. (American standard beam) WT d x wt. ST d x t
S d x wt.

Plate-girders made up
of connection of
flanges and web plates

Single wire or cables Built-up sections

Rectangular tube Circular tube composed of several made-up of connection
RT d x b x t CT d x t small wires of basic rolled sections
Design Philosophies.
During the history of the design of structures activities, have been used three design philosophies
namely:
1. Permissible stress design method.
2. Load factor design method.
3. Limit state design method.
In permissible stress design method, the stress in the structure at working loads are not allowed to
exceed a certain portion of the yield stress of the construction material, therefore, the working stress
level is within the elastic range of the behavior of steel. The working stress is obtained by dividing
the characteristic value by a unique factor of safety.
In load factor method all safety is attached to the acting load, then the acting load is obtained by
multiplying the working loads by a load factor greater than the unity. The material supposes to work
at the yield point, that is, at the characteristic value.
The limit state design method was formulated in the former Soviet Union in the 1930s and
developed in Europe in the 1960s; this approach can perhaps be seen as a compromise between the
permissible and load factor methods. It is in fact a more comprehensive approach, which take into
account both methods in appropriate ways. The majorities of modern structural codes of practice
are now based on the limit state design method.

Limit state design method.

A structure or part of the structure is considered unfit for use when it exceeds a particular state,
called Limit State beyond which it infringes one of the criteria governing its performance for use.
The Limit State can be placed in two categories:
1. The Ultimate Limit States are those associated with collapse, or with other forms of
structural failure, which may endanger the safety of the people. States prior to structural
collapse which, for simplicity, are considered in place of the collapse itself, and are treated
as ultimate limit states. Normally the ultimate limit state is concerning with the strength of
the structure.
2. The Serviceability Limit States corresponds to states beyond which specified service
requirements are no longer met, e.g. deformation or deflections which affect the appearance

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 Chapt.-1: Introduction to Steel Structures

or effective use of the structure(including the malfunction of machines or services) or cause

damage to finishes of non structural members; vibration which cause discomfort to people.

Characteristic and design values

Characteristic loads are normally obtained from code practices. See EBCS-1. Chapter 2.
Design loads = characteristic loads x partial safety factor for the load ( f).
Design strength = characteristic strength / partial safety factor for strength ( m).
In general, the ultimate limit state design method is stated as follow:

Design action Design strength.

For partial safety factor for strength m see 4.1. (2). EBCS-1.
For partial load factor and combination of actions see 2.8.2.2. EBCS-1.

Classification of cross-sections
When plastic global analysis is used, the members shall be capable of forming plastic hinges with
sufficient rotation capacity to enable the required redistribution of moments to develop. When
elastic global analysis is used, any class of cross-section may be used for the members, provided the
design of members takes into account the possible limits of resistance of cross-section due to local
buckling.
Four classes of cross-section are defined, as follow:
1. Class 1 or plastic cross-sections are those in which all elements subjected to compression
comply with the values given in Table 4.1 of EBCS-3. Design of Steel Structures for plastic
elements. A plastic hinge can be developed with sufficient rotation capacity to allow
redistribution of moments within the structure. Only Class 1 section may be used for plastic
design.
2. Class 2 or compact cross-sections are those in which all elements subject to compression
comply with the values given in Table 4.1 for compact elements. The full plastic moment
capacity can be developed but local buckling may prevent development of a plastic hinge
with sufficient rotation capacity to permit plastic design. Class 2 sections can be used
without restriction except for plastic design.
3. Class 3 or semi-compact sections are those in which the elements subject to compression
comply with the values given in Table 4.1 for semi-compact elements. The stress at the
extreme fibbers can reach the design strength but local buckling may prevent the
development of the full plastic moment. Class 3 sections are subjected to limitations on
their capacity.
4. Class 4 or thin-walled sections are those that contain thin-walled elements subjected to
compression due to moment or axial force. Local buckling may prevent the stress in a thin-
walled section from reaching the design strength. Design of Class 4 sections requires
special attention.