Manual On Sewerage and Sewage Treatment: Part B: Operation and Maintenance

MANUAL ON
SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT
PART B : OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
FINAL DRAFT
DECEMBER 2012
CENTRAL PUBLIC HEALTH AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ORGANIZATION
MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT

NEW DELHI
IN COLLABORATION WITH
JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY

Part B: Operation and Maintenance
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Abbreviations
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 1-1

1.1 Need for O&M............................................................................................................ 1-2
1.2 Basic Considerations of O&M ................................................................................... 1-3
1.2.1 Laws and Regulations related to O&M of Sewerage System................................ 1-3
1.2.2 Effluent Standards related to Treatment Plants ..................................................... 1-3
1.2.3 Environmental Considerations .............................................................................. 1-3
1.2.4 Budget ................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.2.5 Preventive Maintenance ........................................................................................ 1-3
1.2.6 Workmanship and Quality of Equipment .............................................................. 1-4
1.3 Outlines of O&M........................................................................................................ 1-4
1.3.1 Overview and Contents of O&M .......................................................................... 1-4
1.3.2 Management of Facilities ...................................................................................... 1-4
1.3.3 Schedule of O&M.................................................................................................. 1-4
1.3.4 Response to Accidents........................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.5 Management of Buildings and Sites...................................................................... 1-5
1.4 Organization of O&M................................................................................................. 1-5
1.4.1 Description of O&M Work.................................................................................... 1-5
1.4.2 Deployment of Manpower..................................................................................... 1-6
1.4.3 Out sourcing of O&M ........................................................................................... 1-6
1.4.4 Training ................................................................................................................. 1-6
1.4.5 Monitoting through Information Control Technology........................................... 1-6
1.4.6 Database for Effective O&M................................................................................. 1-6
1.4.7 Paragraph on Problems in Existing O&M............................................................. 1-6
1.5 Community Awareness and Participation ................................................................... 1-7
1.5.1 Public Relations and Public Opinion related to Sewerage Works ......................... 1-7
1.5.2 Complaint and Redressal....................................................................................... 1-7
1.5.3 Dos and Donts for Community ........................................................................... 1-7
1.6 Potential Risk with respect to Sewerage System........................................................ 1-7
1.6.1 Provision of Disaster Prevention Systems............................................................. 1-7
1.7 Sewerage Ledger ........................................................................................................ 1-8
Final Draft i
1.7.1 Preparation of Sewerage Ledger ........................................................................... 1-8

1.7.2 Management and Use of Sewerage Ledger ........................................................... 1-8
1.8 Budget Estimation for O&M ...................................................................................... 1-8
1.9 Summary..................................................................................................................... 1-8
1.10 Relationship between Part-A (Engineering), Part-B (Operation and
Maintenance), and Part-C (Management) of Manual ................................................. 1-8
CHAPTER 2 SEWER SYSTEMS.................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.1.1 Objectives of Maintenance .................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Type of Maintenance ............................................................................................. 2-1
2.1.3 Necessity of Maintenance...................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Inspection and Examination for Sewer....................................................................... 2-2
2.2.1 Importance of Inspections and Examinations........................................................ 2-2
2.2.2 Guidelines for Inspections and Examinations ....................................................... 2-2
2.2.3 Preliminary Inspection........................................................................................... 2-3
2.2.4 Type of Inspections and Examinations.................................................................. 2-4
2.2.4.1 Direct Inspection and Examination............................................................. 2-4
2.2.4.2 Indirect Inspection and Examination .......................................................... 2-4
2.2.5 Sewer Inspection and Examination ....................................................................... 2-7
2.2.5.1 Visual Examination ..................................................................................... 2-7
2.2.5.2 Inspecting Infiltration of Water ................................................................. 2-13
2.2.5.3 Inspecting Corrosion and Deterioration .................................................... 2-18
2.2.5.4 Other Examinations................................................................................... 2-19
2.2.5.5 Precautions ................................................................................................ 2-20
2.2.6 Judgement of Inspection and Examination Results............................................. 2-21
2.2.6.1 Emergency Response Criteria ................................................................... 2-21
2.2.6.2 Judgement based on the Results of Inspection and Examination.............. 2-21
2.2.6.3 Testing Criteria.......................................................................................... 2-23
2.2.7 Maintenance of Records and Follow up Action .................................................. 2-24
2.3 Sewer Cleaning......................................................................................................... 2-28
2.3.1 Cleaning Equipment and Procedures................................................................... 2-28
2.3.1.1 Manila Rope and Cloth Ball...................................................................... 2-28
2.3.1.2 Sectional Sewer Rods................................................................................ 2-28
2.3.1.3 Sewer Cleaning Bucket Machine .............................................................. 2-28
2.3.1.4 Dredger (Clam-shell) ................................................................................ 2-29
2.3.1.5 Rodding Machine with Flexible Sewer Rods............................................ 2-29
2.3.1.6 Scraper ...................................................................................................... 2-30
2.3.1.7 Hydraulically Propelled Devices............................................................... 2-31
Final Draft ii
2.3.1.8 Velocity Cleaners (Jetting Machines)........................................................ 2-33

2.3.1.9 Suction Units (Gully Emptier) .................................................................. 2-33
2.3.2 Notification to STP.............................................................................................. 2-33
2.3.3 Disposal of Silt and Sludge ................................................................................. 2-33
2.3.4 Cleaning Records and their Utilization ............................................................... 2-33
2.4 Sewer Rehabilitation................................................................................................. 2-34
2.4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 2-34
2.4.2 Rehabilitation Method ......................................................................................... 2-35
2.4.2.1 Pipe Bursting or In-line Expansion ........................................................... 2-36
2.4.2.2 Slip Lining................................................................................................. 2-36
2.4.2.3 Cured-in-place Pipe................................................................................... 2-37
2.4.2.4 Modified Cross-section Lining ................................................................. 2-38
2.4.3 Maintenance of Machinery and Apparatus for Rehabilitation............................. 2-38
2.5 Protection of Sewer Systems .................................................................................... 2-38
2.6 Protection against Infiltration and Exfiltration ......................................................... 2-39
2.6.1 Measures against Infiltration of Rainwater ......................................................... 2-39
2.6.2 Measures against Exfiltration of Untreated Sewage............................................ 2-40
2.6.2.1 External Sewer Rehabilitation Methods.................................................... 2-40
2.6.2.2 Internal Sewer Rehabilitation Methods..................................................... 2-41
2.7 Manholes and Appurtenances ................................................................................... 2-41
2.7.1 Inspections and Examinations ............................................................................. 2-41
2.7.1.1 Manhole .................................................................................................... 2-41
2.7.1.2 Conditions Inside Manhole ....................................................................... 2-42
2.7.2 Judgement of Examination Results ..................................................................... 2-43
2.7.3 Cleaning............................................................................................................... 2-44
2.7.4 Rehabilitation ...................................................................................................... 2-44
2.8 Cross Drainage Works .............................................................................................. 2-44
2.8.1 Inspection and Examination ................................................................................ 2-44
2.8.2 Criteria for Judging Examination Results ........................................................... 2-45
2.8.3 Cleaning............................................................................................................... 2-45
2.9 Pressure Sewer.......................................................................................................... 2-46
2.9.1 Pressurized Sewers .............................................................................................. 2-46
2.9.2 Vacuum Sewer System ........................................................................................ 2-46
2.9.3 O&M System....................................................................................................... 2-46
2.10 House Service Connection........................................................................................ 2-47
2.10.1 Inspection and Examination ................................................................................ 2-47
2.10.2 Criteria for Judging Examination Results ........................................................... 2-49
2.10.3 Cleaning............................................................................................................... 2-49
Final Draft iii

2.10.4 Rehabilitation ...................................................................................................... 2-49

2.11 Safety Practices......................................................................................................... 2-49
2.11.1 Accidents related to Sewer Facilities................................................................... 2-50
2.11.1.1 Need for Traffic Control............................................................................ 2-50
2.11.1.2 Safety Measure to be taken before any manhole entry ............................. 2-50
2.11.2 Measures against Accidents................................................................................. 2-52
2.11.3 Information to Prevent Accidents and Records ................................................... 2-52
2.12 Troubleshooting........................................................................................................ 2-52
2.13 Summary................................................................................................................... 2-52
CHAPTER 3 PUMPING STATION................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.2 Types and Structure of Pumping Stations................................................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Dry Pit ................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.2 Suction Sump or Wet Well..................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.3 Lift Stations ........................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.4 Operation and Maintenance................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.4.1 Operation of the Pumps............................................................................... 3-2
3.2.4.2 Undesirable Operations............................................................................... 3-3
3.2.4.3 Piping and Appurtenance Maintenance....................................................... 3-5
3.3 Gates, Valves and Actuators ....................................................................................... 3-5
3.3.1 Sluice Gate ............................................................................................................ 3-5
3.3.2 Valve...................................................................................................................... 3-7
3.3.2.1 Gate Valve ................................................................................................... 3-7
3.3.2.2 Non-Return Valve (Check Valve)................................................................ 3-8
3.3.2.3 Non-Return Valve (Ball Type) .................................................................... 3-9
3.3.2.4 Butterfly Valve .......................................................................................... 3-10
3.3.3 Actuators ............................................................................................................. 3-10
3.4 Screen ....................................................................................................................... 3-12
3.4.1 Types of Screens.................................................................................................. 3-12
3.4.1.1 Coarse Screens .......................................................................................... 3-12
3.4.1.2 Medium Bar Screens ................................................................................. 3-12
3.4.1.3 Fine Screens .............................................................................................. 3-12
3.4.2 Screenings Removal Method............................................................................... 3-12
3.4.2.1 Manual Bar Screen.................................................................................... 3-12
3.4.2.2 Mechanical Screen (Intermittent and Continuous).................................... 3-14
3.4.3 Accessories (Conveyors) ..................................................................................... 3-17
3.4.4 Disposal of Screenings ........................................................................................ 3-17
3.5 Grit Removal ............................................................................................................ 3-17
Final Draft iv
3.5.1 Preventive Maintenance ...................................................................................... 3-17

3.5.2 Regular Day to Day Maintenance ....................................................................... 3-17
3.5.3 Disposal of Grit ................................................................................................... 3-18
3.6 Pump Equipment ...................................................................................................... 3-18
3.6.1 Preventive Maintenance ...................................................................................... 3-18
3.6.2 Regular Day-to-Day Maintenance....................................................................... 3-19
3.6.3 Operation and Maintenance................................................................................. 3-19
3.6.4 Accessories.......................................................................................................... 3-20
3.6.4.1 Oil and Grease........................................................................................... 3-20
3.6.4.2 Bearing ...................................................................................................... 3-20
3.6.4.3 Packing Gland ........................................................................................... 3-20
3.6.4.4 Mechanical Seal ........................................................................................ 3-21
3.7 Flow Measuring Devices .......................................................................................... 3-22
3.7.1 Weir Flow-Meter ................................................................................................. 3-23
3.7.2 Electromagnetic Flow-Meter............................................................................... 3-24
3.7.3 Ultrasonic Flow-Meter ........................................................................................ 3-24
3.7.4 Fluorescent Tracers.............................................................................................. 3-25
3.8 Preventive Maintenance ........................................................................................... 3-25
3.10 Record Keeping ........................................................................................................ 3-28
3.11 Duties of Site Engineer in Charge and Higher Ups .................................................. 3-31
3.12 If the STP is under O&M by the Contractor............................................................. 3-31
3.13 Summary................................................................................................................... 3-31
CHAPTER 4 SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITIES ..................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 4-1
4.2 Pump Equipment ........................................................................................................ 4-1
4.3 Fine Screen and Grit Chamber ................................................................................... 4-1
4.4 Oil and Grease Removal............................................................................................. 4-1
4.4.1 Manual Process...................................................................................................... 4-1
4.4.2 Floatation Process.................................................................................................. 4-1
4.5 Equalization................................................................................................................ 4-3
4.5.1 Operation ............................................................................................................... 4-4
4.5.2 Maintenance .......................................................................................................... 4-4
4.6 Primary Treatment ...................................................................................................... 4-5
4.6.1 Primary Sedimentation Tank Management ........................................................... 4-5
4.6.1.1 Preventive Maintenance .............................................................................. 4-5
4.6.1.2 Day to Day Maintenance............................................................................. 4-5
4.6.1.3 Troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 4-5
Final Draft v
4.7 Activated Sludge Process (ASP) ................................................................................ 4-5

4.7.1 Description of Activated Sludge Process (ASP).................................................... 4-5
4.7.1.1 Biological Treatment Processes .................................................................. 4-5
4.7.1.2 Design and Operational Parameters ............................................................ 4-6
4.7.1.3 Choice between SRT and F/M as Operation Control Parameter................. 4-6
4.7.1.4 Effect of c on Settling Characteristics and Drainability of Sludge............ 4-6
4.7.1.5 Effect of c on Excess of Sludge Production .............................................. 4-7
4.7.1.6 Excess Sludge Wasting................................................................................ 4-7
4.7.1.7 Return Sludge Flow..................................................................................... 4-7
4.7.2 Conventional Activated Sludge Process ................................................................ 4-8
4.7.2.1 Start Up ....................................................................................................... 4-8
4.7.2.2 Routine Operation and Maintenance........................................................... 4-9
4.7.2.3 Aeration Equipment ...................................................................................4-11
4.7.3 Extended Aeration Process .................................................................................. 4-16
4.7.3.1 Operation of Aeration Equipment ............................................................. 4-17
4.7.3.2 Operation and Maintenance ...................................................................... 4-17
4.7.3.3 Normal Operation ..................................................................................... 4-18
4.7.3.4 Abnormal Operation.................................................................................. 4-18
4.7.3.5 Countermeasures ....................................................................................... 4-18
4.7.3.6 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 4-20
4.7.4 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)........................................................................ 4-20
4.7.4.1 Process Control ......................................................................................... 4-21
4.7.4.2 Records...................................................................................................... 4-23
4.7.4.3 Housekeeping............................................................................................ 4-23
4.7.5 Oxidation Ditch ................................................................................................... 4-24
4.7.5.1 Operation................................................................................................... 4-25
4.7.5.2 Equipment Maintenance............................................................................ 4-27
4.7.6 Chemical Clarification......................................................................................... 4-27
4.7.6.1 Metals Removal ........................................................................................ 4-28
4.7.6.2 Phosphorus Removal................................................................................. 4-28
4.7.6.3 Suspended Solids ...................................................................................... 4-28
4.7.6.4 Additional Considerations......................................................................... 4-29
4.7.6.5 Jar Testing ................................................................................................. 4-29
4.8 Aerated Lagoon ........................................................................................................ 4-31
4.8.1 Process Control.................................................................................................... 4-31
4.8.2 Records................................................................................................................ 4-32
4.8.3 Housekeeping ...................................................................................................... 4-32
4.9 Attached Growth Systems ........................................................................................ 4-33
Final Draft vi
4.9.1 Operation ............................................................................................................. 4-34

4.9.2 Maintenance ........................................................................................................ 4-34
4.10 Moving Bed Bio Reactor (MBBR)........................................................................... 4-36
4.10.1 Configuration....................................................................................................... 4-36
4.11 Membrane Bio Reactor (MBR) ................................................................................ 4-37
4.11.1 Operation ............................................................................................................. 4-38
4.11.2 Maintenance ........................................................................................................ 4-38
4.12 Up Flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB) ............................................. 4-38
4.12.1 Plant Commissioning and Operation................................................................... 4-39
4.12.2 Daily Operation and Maintenance of UASB....................................................... 4-39
4.12.3 Routine Maintenance........................................................................................... 4-43
4.12.3.1 Quarterly Maintenance.............................................................................. 4-43
4.12.3.2 Annual Maintenance ................................................................................. 4-43
4.12.3.3 Five-Yearly Maintenance .......................................................................... 4-43
4.12.4 Decision Schemes for Sludge Removal............................................................... 4-44
4.12.5 Shut-Down and Standstill.................................................................................... 4-44
4.12.6 Operational Cautions ........................................................................................... 4-44
4.12.7 Final Polishing Unit (FPU).................................................................................. 4-44
4.12.8 Duckweed Pond................................................................................................... 4-45
4.13 Waste Stabilization Pond (WSP) .............................................................................. 4-45
4.13.1 Start-up Procedures ............................................................................................. 4-45
4.13.2 Routine Maintenance........................................................................................... 4-45
4.13.3 De-Sludging......................................................................................................... 4-46
4.13.3.1 When to De-Sludge ................................................................................... 4-46
4.13.3.2 The white towel test .................................................................................. 4-47
4.13.3.3 De-Sludge Procedure ................................................................................ 4-47
4.13.3.4 Special cautions for anaerobic pond / maturation pond ............................ 4-49
4.13.4 Process Control.................................................................................................... 4-49
4.13.5 Record Keeping................................................................................................... 4-49
4.13.5.1 Records necessary for Anaerobic Pond..................................................... 4-49
4.13.5.2 Records necessary for Facultative Pond ................................................... 4-49
4.13.5.3 Records necessary for Maturation Pond.................................................... 4-49
4.14 Farm Forestry ........................................................................................................... 4-49
4.15 Fish Pond .................................................................................................................. 4-49
4.16 Secondary Sedimentation Tank ................................................................................ 4-49
4.16.1 Operation ............................................................................................................. 4-50
4.16.2 Maintenance ........................................................................................................ 4-50
Final Draft vii

4.17 Advanced Treatment................................................................................................. 4-50

4.17.1 Sand Filtration ..................................................................................................... 4-51
4.17.2 Multimedia Filtration........................................................................................... 4-51
4.17.3 Membrane Filtration (MF, UF, NF, RO).............................................................. 4-51
4.17.5 Integrated Nutrient Removal ............................................................................... 4-54
4.17.5.1 Nutrient Removal ...................................................................................... 4-54
4.17.5.2 Nitrogen Removal ..................................................................................... 4-55
4.17.5.3 Phosphorus Removal................................................................................. 4-56
4.18 Disinfection Facility ................................................................................................. 4-57
4.18.1 Operational Variables .......................................................................................... 4-58
4.18.2 Operational Hazards ............................................................................................ 4-59
4.18.3 Maintenance ........................................................................................................ 4-59
4.19 Operation & Maintenance of DEWATS and Johkasou............................................. 4-60
4.22 Record Keeping ........................................................................................................ 4-62
4.23 Summary................................................................................................................... 4-62
CHAPTER 5 SLUDGE TREATMENT FACILITIES...................................................................... 5-1
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 5-1
5.2 Sludge Thickening...................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2.1 Gravity Thickening................................................................................................ 5-1
5.2.1.1 Process Control ........................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.1.2 Maintenance ................................................................................................ 5-3
5.2.2 Centrifugal Thickening.......................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.2.1 Configuration .............................................................................................. 5-3
5.2.2.2 Operation and Maintenance ........................................................................ 5-3
5.2.3 Air Floatation Thickening ..................................................................................... 5-4
5.2.3.1 Configuration .............................................................................................. 5-4
5.2.3.2 Operation..................................................................................................... 5-5
5.2.3.3 Maintenance ................................................................................................ 5-6
5.2.4 Belt Type Thickening ............................................................................................ 5-6
5.2.4.1 Configuration .............................................................................................. 5-7
5.2.4.2 Operation and Maintenance ........................................................................ 5-8
5.3 Anaerobic Digestion ................................................................................................... 5-9
5.3.1 Digestion Types ..................................................................................................... 5-9
5.3.1.1 Low Rate Digestion..................................................................................... 5-9
5.3.1.2 High Rate Digestion.................................................................................. 5-10
Final Draft viii

5.3.2 Configuration....................................................................................................... 5-10

5.3.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion Tank......................................................................... 5-10
5.3.2.2 Agitator ......................................................................................................5-11
5.3.2.3 Digester Gas Equipment ............................................................................5-11
5.3.2.4 Gas Scrubbers ........................................................................................... 5-14
5.3.2.5 Gas Power Generator ................................................................................ 5-15
5.3.3.1 Feeding Schedule ...................................................................................... 5-15
5.3.3.2 Withdrawal Schedule ................................................................................ 5-16
5.3.3.3 Scum Control ............................................................................................ 5-16
5.3.3.4 Precipitate Formation and Control ............................................................ 5-16
5.3.3.5 Digester Upsets and Control Strategies..................................................... 5-16
5.3.3.6 Temperature............................................................................................... 5-17
5.3.3.7 Toxicity Control ........................................................................................ 5-17
5.3.3.8 pH Control................................................................................................. 5-17
5.3.3.9 Digester Foaming...................................................................................... 5-17
5.4 Sludge Dewatering ................................................................................................... 5-18
5.4.1 Chemical Dosing Equipment............................................................................... 5-18
5.4.1.1 Coagulant .................................................................................................. 5-18
5.4.1.2 Equipment ................................................................................................. 5-20
5.4.1.3 Operation................................................................................................... 5-21
5.4.1.4 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 5-21
5.4.2 Sludge Feed Pump............................................................................................... 5-21
5.4.2.1 Operation................................................................................................... 5-21
5.4.2.2 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 5-22
5.4.3 Mechanical Dewatering....................................................................................... 5-22
5.4.3.1 Centrifugal Dewatering............................................................................. 5-22
5.4.3.2 Belt Filter Press Dewatering Equipment................................................... 5-24
5.4.3.3 Filter Press................................................................................................. 5-26
5.4.3.4 Screw Press ............................................................................................... 5-28
5.4.3.5 Rotary Press .............................................................................................. 5-30
5.4.3.6 Vacuum Filter............................................................................................ 5-31
5.5 Sludge Drying Bed ................................................................................................... 5-32
5.5.1 Applicability........................................................................................................ 5-32
5.5.2 Unit Sizing........................................................................................................... 5-32
5.5.3 Area of Beds........................................................................................................ 5-32
5.5.4 Percolation Type Bed Components ..................................................................... 5-33
Final Draft ix

5.8 Record Keeping ........................................................................................................ 5-34
5.9 Summary................................................................................................................... 5-34
CHAPTER 6 Electrical and Instrumentation Faciities ..................................................................... 6-1
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 6-1
6.2 Power Supply System................................................................................................. 6-3
6.2.1 Power Receiving and Transforming Equipment.................................................... 6-3
6.2.1.1 High Tension (HT) Panel ............................................................................ 6-3
6.2.1.2 Transformer................................................................................................. 6-5
6.2.1.3 Low Tension (LT) Panel.............................................................................. 6-5
6.2.1.4 Bus-bar ........................................................................................................ 6-6
6.2.2 Power Control........................................................................................................ 6-6
6.2.2.1 Power Factor Correction ............................................................................. 6-6
6.2.2.2 Capacitor Panel ........................................................................................... 6-8
6.2.2.3 Power Factor Correction at Motor Panel..................................................... 6-9
6.2.3 Supply and Interruption (Operation of Electrical Equipment) .............................. 6-9
6.2.4 Gas Engines......................................................................................................... 6-10
6.2.5 Dual Fuel Engine................................................................................................. 6-10
6.3 Standby Power Supply System (Generator) ..............................................................6-11
6.3.1 AC Generator ...................................................................................................... 6-11
6.3.2 Diesel Engine ...................................................................................................... 6-12
6.3.3 UPS...................................................................................................................... 6-12
6.4 Prime Movers ........................................................................................................... 6-13
6.4.1 Induction Motor................................................................................................... 6-13
6.4.2 Starters................................................................................................................. 6-14
6.4.3 Characteristics of Induction Motor...................................................................... 6-15
6.4.4 Performance Assessment of Motors .................................................................... 6-16
6.4.4.1 Efficiency of Motors ................................................................................. 6-16
6.4.4.2 Motor Load ............................................................................................... 6-17
6.4.4.3 Energy Efficiency Opportunities............................................................... 6-17
6.4.5 Condition Monitoring Techniques....................................................................... 6-17
6.4.5.1 Vibration Monitoring ................................................................................ 6-17
6.4.5.2 Vibration Analysis..................................................................................... 6-18
6.4.5.3 Thermographic Analysis ........................................................................... 6-19
6.4.6 Speed Control Equipment.................................................................................... 6-20
6.4.6.1 Variable Frequency Drive (VFD).............................................................. 6-21
6.4.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of VFD.................................................... 6-21
Final Draft x
6.4.7 Motor Protection Equipment ............................................................................... 6-22

6.5 Instrumentation Facilities ......................................................................................... 6-22
6.5.1 Flow Measuring Equipment ................................................................................ 6-22
6.5.2 Level Measuring Equipment ............................................................................... 6-22
6.5.2.1 Float .......................................................................................................... 6-22
6.5.2.2 Ultrasonic .................................................................................................. 6-23
6.5.2.3 Head-Pressure ........................................................................................... 6-24
6.5.3 pH and ORP Measuring Equipment .................................................................... 6-26
6.5.3.1 pH.............................................................................................................. 6-26
6.5.3.2 ORP (Oxidation-Reduction Potential) ..................................................... 6-27
6.5.3.3 DO (Dissolved Oxygen)............................................................................ 6-27
6.5.3.4 Temperature............................................................................................... 6-28
6.5.3.5 MLSS (Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid)................................................... 6-29
6.6 SCADA System ........................................................................................................ 6-29
6.6.1 Monitoring and Control Equipment .................................................................... 6-30
6.6.1.1 Signal ........................................................................................................ 6-30
6.6.1.2 HMI (Human Machine Interface) ............................................................. 6-31
6.6.1.3 PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)..................................................... 6-32
6.6.2 Automatic Control ............................................................................................... 6-32
6.7 Cables ....................................................................................................................... 6-32
6.8 Energy Audit............................................................................................................. 6-33
6.8.1 Frequency of Energy Audit.................................................................................. 6-34
6.8.2 Scope of Energy Audit......................................................................................... 6-34
6.9 Management of Records........................................................................................... 6-35
6.9.1 Record of Operation and Maintenance................................................................ 6-35
6.9.2 Record of Operation and Maintenance and its Utilization .................................. 6-35
6.10.1 Types of Planned Maintenance............................................................................ 6-36
6.10.2 Inspection Tools................................................................................................... 6-37
6.10.2.1 Multimeter................................................................................................. 6-37
6.10.2.2 Clamp-on Meter ........................................................................................ 6-38
6.10.2.3 Megger / Megohmmeter............................................................................ 6-38
6.10.2.4 Ground Resistance Testers (Earth Meggers) ............................................. 6-39
6.10.3 General Precautions for Electrical Maintenance ................................................. 6-39
6.10.4 Rehabilitation ...................................................................................................... 6-39
6.10.5 Planned Reconstruction ....................................................................................... 6-40
6.12 Summary................................................................................................................... 6-40
Final Draft xi
CHAPTER 7 Monitoring of Water Quality ...................................................................................... 7-1

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 7-1
7.2 Need for Sampling and Analysis ................................................................................ 7-1
7.3 Sampling..................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 7-1
7.3.2 Grab Sample .......................................................................................................... 7-1
7.3.3 Composite Sample................................................................................................. 7-1
7.3.4 Sampling Method and Precautions in Sampling.................................................... 7-2
7.3.5 Sample Volumes, Quantity and Storage of Samples.............................................. 7-3
7.3.6 Selection of Sampling Location ............................................................................ 7-3
7.4 Relevance of Parameters ............................................................................................ 7-4
7.5 Analysis Parameters and Frequency (Liquid and Sludge).......................................... 7-4
7.5.1 Items and Frequency for ASP................................................................................ 7-4
7.5.2 Items and Frequency for WSP............................................................................... 7-6
7.6 Microbiology Sampling and Testing of Treated Sewage............................................ 7-7
7.6.1 Need for Microbiological Testing.......................................................................... 7-7
7.6.2 Testing Method...................................................................................................... 7-8
7.6.2.1 Multiple Tube Fermentation Method .......................................................... 7-8
7.6.2.2 Membrane Filter Test ................................................................................ 7-10
7.6.2.3 Colilert Test................................................................................................7-11
7.6.2.4 Recommended Testing for Treated Sewage .............................................. 7-12
7.7 Quick and Approximate Measurement Methods ...................................................... 7-13
7.7.1 Test Paper Method............................................................................................... 7-13
7.7.2 Detector Tube Method (Transparency Tube, BOD Tube (UK)).......................... 7-13
7.7.3 Cylinder Test ....................................................................................................... 7-13
7.8 Data Analysis (Accuracy and Precision) .................................................................. 7-13
7.8.1 Processing Water Quality Test Data .................................................................... 7-14
7.8.2 Accuracy of Measured Values ............................................................................. 7-14
7.9 Frequency Management ........................................................................................... 7-15
7.10 Planning of laboratory facilities ............................................................................... 7-15
7.11 Upkeep of Plant Laboratory ..................................................................................... 7-15
7.12 Disposal of Laboratory Wastes ................................................................................. 7-15
7.12.1 Solid Waste.......................................................................................................... 7-15
7.12.2 Liquid Wastes ...................................................................................................... 7-15
7.12.3 Radioactive Wastes.............................................................................................. 7-16
7.13 Personnel .................................................................................................................. 7-16
7.14 Summary................................................................................................................... 7-16
CHAPTER 8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION ................................................................... 8-1
Final Draft xii

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 8-1

8.2 Odour.......................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2.1 Odour from the Sewerage System ......................................................................... 8-1
8.2.2 Odour Control Methods and Technologies............................................................ 8-1
8.2.2.1 Odour Control Procedure ............................................................................ 8-1
8.2.2.2 Sampling Methods ...................................................................................... 8-1
8.2.2.3 Quantitative Testing-Analytical Methods ................................................... 8-2
8.2.3 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)...................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3.1 Effects on Health......................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3.2 Locations of Sources ................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3.3 Measurement............................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3.4 Preventive Measures ................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3.5 Control ........................................................................................................ 8-4
8.2.4 Ammonia (NH3) .................................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.4.1 Effects on Health......................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.4.2 Locations of Sources ................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.4.3 Measurement............................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.4.4 Preventive Measures ................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.4.5 Control ........................................................................................................ 8-7
8.2.5 General Method of Prevention of Odour............................................................... 8-7
8.2.6 Chemical Addition................................................................................................. 8-8
8.2.7 Monitoring........................................................................................................... 8-10
8.3 Epidemiological Pollution .........................................................................................8-11
8.3.1 Effects on Health ................................................................................................. 8-11
8.3.2 Locations of Sources ........................................................................................... 8-11
8.3.3 Measurement ....................................................................................................... 8-11
8.3.4 Preventive Measures............................................................................................ 8-12
8.3.5 Control................................................................................................................. 8-12
8.4 Soil Contamination................................................................................................... 8-12
8.5 Water Pollution ......................................................................................................... 8-12
8.6 Sewage Treatment Plant Beautification and Landscaping........................................ 8-13
8.7 Regulation of Greenhouse Gas ................................................................................. 8-13
8.7.1 Greenhouse Gas................................................................................................... 8-13
8.7.2 Control................................................................................................................. 8-14
8.7.3 Effective Use of Biogas....................................................................................... 8-14
8.8 Carbon Credit Record............................................................................................... 8-14
8.9 Summary................................................................................................................... 8-15
CHAPTER 9 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURES .................. 9-1
Final Draft xiii

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 9-1

9.1.1 Diseases ................................................................................................................. 9-1
9.1.2 Accidents ............................................................................................................... 9-2
9.1.2.1 Confined Space Hazards ............................................................................. 9-3
9.1.2.2 Risk of Chlorine .......................................................................................... 9-5
9.1.2.3 Fall .............................................................................................................. 9-5
9.1.2.4 Slip .............................................................................................................. 9-5
9.1.2.5 Electrical Shock .......................................................................................... 9-6
9.1.2.6 Fire .............................................................................................................. 9-6
9.1.2.7 Risks in a Wastewater Quality Test Laboratory .......................................... 9-6
9.1.3 Instances of Accidents ........................................................................................... 9-7
9.2 Safety Aspects and Measures...................................................................................... 9-8
9.2.1 Preventive Measures.............................................................................................. 9-8
9.2.1.1 Hazard-specific Preventive Measures ......................................................... 9-8
9.2.1.2 Personal Protection and Protective Devices.............................................. 9-12
9.2.1.3 Workplace-specific Preventive Measures ................................................. 9-16
9.2.2 Corrective Measures............................................................................................ 9-23
9.2.2.1 Emergency Contact ................................................................................... 9-23
9.2.2.2 Emergency Measures ................................................................................ 9-23
9.2.2.3 Searching out Hazards............................................................................... 9-26
9.3 Health Aspects and Measures ................................................................................... 9-26
9.3.1 Preventive Measures............................................................................................ 9-26
9.3.1.1 Personal Hygiene against Pathogen .......................................................... 9-26
9.3.1.2 Maintaining Cleanliness............................................................................ 9-26
9.3.1.3 Health Check............................................................................................. 9-26
9.3.2 Corrective Measures............................................................................................ 9-27
9.4 Safety Personnel (Organisation) ............................................................................... 9-27
9.4.1 Institutional Arrangement.................................................................................... 9-27
9.4.2 Human Resources................................................................................................ 9-28
9.5 Awareness and Training............................................................................................ 9-29
9.5.1 Manager............................................................................................................... 9-29
9.5.2 Technical Staff..................................................................................................... 9-29
9.5.2.1 Mechanical ................................................................................................ 9-29
9.5.2.2 Electrical ................................................................................................... 9-30
9.5.3 Skilled Staff ......................................................................................................... 9-30
9.5.3.1 Mechanical ................................................................................................ 9-30
9.5.3.2 Electrical Staff........................................................................................... 9-30
9.5.4 Unskilled Staff..................................................................................................... 9-31
Final Draft xiv

9.5.5 Training Assessment............................................................................................ 9-31

9.6 Emergencies.............................................................................................................. 9-31
9.6.1 What is an Emergency? ....................................................................................... 9-31
9.6.2 How to Think during Emergencies?.................................................................... 9-31
9.6.2.1 Situation 1 ................................................................................................. 9-32
9.6.2.2 Situation 2 ................................................................................................. 9-32
9.6.2.3 Situation 3 ................................................................................................. 9-32
9.6.2.4 Situation 4 ................................................................................................. 9-32
9.6.2.5 Situation 5 ................................................................................................. 9-33
9.7 The Need to resist ..................................................................................................... 9-33
9.8 Summary................................................................................................................... 9-33
CHAPTER 10 ON-SITE SYSTEMS................................................................................................ 10-1
10.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 10-1
10.2 On-site Facility Maintenance Systems ..................................................................... 10-1
10.3 Maintaining On-site Facilities .................................................................................. 10-2
10.3.1 Inspecting and Maintaining the Treatment Unit .................................................. 10-2
10.3.2 Cleaning............................................................................................................... 10-2
10.3.3 Water Quality Control ......................................................................................... 10-2
10.3.4 Hygienic Measures including Infection Prevention ............................................ 10-3
10.3.5 Measures against a Disaster or Accident ............................................................. 10-3
10.4 Latrine/ Toilet ........................................................................................................... 10-3
10.4.1 Pour Flush Water Seal Latrine............................................................................. 10-3
10.4.2 Public Toilet......................................................................................................... 10-4
10.4.3 Mobile Toilet ....................................................................................................... 10-5
10.5 On-site Methods ....................................................................................................... 10-5
10.5.1 Conventional Septic Tank / Improved Septic Tank ............................................. 10-5
10.5.1.1 Purifying Wastewater and Accumulating Sludge ...................................... 10-5
10.5.1.2 Mechanical Cleaning of Septic Tan........................................................... 10-6
10.5.1.3 Septage Management ................................................................................ 10-6
10.5.2 Advanced Type Treatment Units ......................................................................... 10-6
10.5.2.1 Pre-treatment Process................................................................................ 10-6
10.5.2.2 Main Treatment Process............................................................................ 10-8
10.5.2.3 Advanced Treatment Process .................................................................. 10-10
10.5.2.4 Controlling the Disinfection Unit.............................................................10-11
10.6 Septage Treatment Unit ...........................................................................................10-11
10.6.1 Collecting and Delivering Sludge ..................................................................... 10-11
10.6.2 Basics of Sludge Treatment ............................................................................... 10-12
10.6.3 Operation Control of Sludge Treatment ............................................................ 10-12
Final Draft xv
10.6.3.1 General .................................................................................................... 10-12

10.6.3.2 Controlling the Pre-treatment Unit.......................................................... 10-13
10.7 Summary................................................................................................................. 10-14
Final Draft xvi

APPENDICES
Appendix 1.1 Monitoring Through Information Control Technology ................................................. 1

Appendix 1.2 Database for Effective O&M......................................................................................... 3
Appendix 1.3 Conclusions and Recommendations.............................................................................. 5
Appendix 2.1 Troubleshooting in Sewers ............................................................................................ 9
Appendix 2.2 T.V. Inspection Report ..................................................................................................11
Appendix 3.1 Detailed Troubleshooting for Horizontal Centrifugal Pump Sets................................ 12
Appendix 3.2 Possible Causes and Corrective Actions to Check for Pumps ..................................... 16
Appendix 3.3 Troubleshooting in Sewage Pump Stations ................................................................. 20
Appendix 4.1 Troubleshooting in STPs ............................................................................................. 22
Appendix 4.2 Operational Parameter ................................................................................................. 50
Appendix 4.3 Calculation................................................................................................................... 55
Appendix 5.1 Troubleshooting in Sludge Treatment Facilities.......................................................... 60
Appendix 6.1 Typical Ledger and Records ........................................................................................ 65
Appendix 6.2 Preventive Maintenance .............................................................................................. 69
Appendix 6.3 Troubleshooting for Electrical Facilities ..................................................................... 71
Appendix 7.1 Minimum Laboratory Equipments Needed for Tests .................................................. 80
Appendix 7.2 Suggested Laboratory Service Infrastructure for Monitoring Water Quality .............. 81
Appendix 9.1 Health and Safety Policy ............................................................................................. 82
Appendix 9.2 Characteristics of Common Gases Causing Hazards................................................... 88
Appendix 9.3 Confined Space Entry Procedure................................................................................. 91
Appendix 9.4 Confined Space Pre-entry Checklist............................................................................ 93
Appendix 9.5 First Aid....................................................................................................................... 95
Appendix 9.6 Sewage Treatment Plant Accident Report ................................................................... 98
Appendix 10.1 MECHANICAL CLEANING OF SEPTIC TANKS................................................... 99
Final Draft xvii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Preliminary inspection during Defect Liability Period (DLP) ............................... 2-3
Table 2.2 Preliminary inspection for Manholes & Sewers..................................................... 2-3
Table 2.3 Preliminary inspection period for other facilities ................................................... 2-4
Table 2.4 Classification of inspection .................................................................................... 2-4
Table 2.5 Sewer system inspection technologies considered applicable to Indian conditions2-5
Table 2.6 Gas analysis.......................................................................................................... 2-20
Table 2.7 Testing criteria for overall sewer span.................................................................. 2-21
Table 2.8 Testing criteria for each pipe of sewer.................................................................. 2-22
Table 2.9 Testing criteria for sewer ...................................................................................... 2-24
Table 2.10 Inspection sheet .................................................................................................. 2-24
Table 2.11 Daily report......................................................................................................... 2-26
Table 2.12 Monthly report.................................................................................................... 2-27
Table 2.13 Definition of terms ............................................................................................. 2-35
Table 2.14 Inspection and examination items for manhole.................................................. 2-42
Table 2.15 Inspection record ................................................................................................ 2-43
Table 2.16 Typical inspection items for inverted siphon...................................................... 2-44
Table 2.17 Cleaning method................................................................................................. 2-45
Table 2.18 Pressurised sewer and vacuum sewer................................................................. 2-46
Table 3.1 Tasks to be addressed in day-to-day regular maintenance.................................... 3-19
Table 3.2 Annual inspection report for pumping station...................................................... 3-29
Table 3.3 Recommended maintenance for pumping equipment .......................................... 3-30
Table 4.1 Relations between Sludge Volume Index and settling characteristics of sludge .... 4-8
Table 4.2 Dosing in Jar Test ................................................................................................. 4-30
Table 4.3 Planned maintenance for fixed film synthetic media filters ................................. 4-34
Table 4.4 Typical membrane system pre-filtration requirements ......................................... 4-53
Table 4.5 Chemical cleaning agents ..................................................................................... 4-54
Table 4.6 Routine operational checklist and troubleshooting guide for chlorination system4-59
Table 4.7 An example of a preventive maintenance program for activated-sludge facilities
checklist................................................................................................................. 4-60
Table 5.1 Gas-flow indication and metering ........................................................................ 5-12
Table 5.2 Gas system safety and control devices ................................................................. 5-12
Table 5.3 Typical Operation Sheet of Sludge Drying Beds.................................................. 5-33
Table 6.1 Type of losses and shares for induction motors.................................................... 6-16
Table 6.2 Criteria for class of machine................................................................................. 6-18
Table 6.3 Vibration severity chart for machine vibration limits........................................... 6-18
Final Draft xviii

Table 6.4 Vibration frequencies and likely causes ............................................................... 6-19

Table 6.5 Criteria for differential temperature of electrical equipment................................ 6-20
Table 6.6 Types of cables for different voltages................................................................... 6-32
Table 6.7 Recommended maintenance on electrical equipment........................................... 6-36
Table 7.1 Hourly flow pattern during composite sampling.................................................... 7-2
Table 7.2 Recommended plant control tests on a daily basis in a typical STP ...................... 7-4
Table 7.3 Recommended plant control tests on a weekly basis in a typical STP................... 7-5
Table 7.4 Recommended plant control tests on a monthly to biannual basis in a typical STP7-6
Table 7.5 Recommended plant control tests on a monthly basis in a typical WSP................ 7-6
Table 7.6 Diseases attributable to sewage pollution of drinking water .................................. 7-7
Table 9.1 Types of diseases and their causes.......................................................................... 9-1
Table 9.2 Possible hazards by locations ................................................................................. 9-2
Table 9.3 Relationship between reduction in oxygen concentration and symptoms of anoxia
................................................................................................................................. 9-3
Table 9.4 Relationship between concentration of hydrogen sulphide and its toxic effects .... 9-4
Table 9.5 Effects on the human body when subjected to electric shock ................................ 9-6
Table 9.6 Relationship between shock current and duration.................................................. 9-6
Table 9.7 Toxicity of chemical used in water quality laboratory ........................................... 9-7
Table 9.8 Acceptable entry condition..................................................................................... 9-8
Table 9.9 Record of training assessment .............................................................................. 9-31
Table 10.1 Key pathogens contained in excreta and sludge................................................. 10-3
Final Draft xix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Combined tasks and challenges with the O&M.................................................... 1-5
Figure 2.1 Mirror Test and Mirror with rode.......................................................................... 2-5
Figure 2.2 Typical CCTV equipment in action ...................................................................... 2-6
Figure 2.3 Tree roots and sewers............................................................................................ 2-6
Figure 2.4 Photographs showing structural damage and longitudinal cracked condition of the
sewer ....................................................................................................................... 2-7
Figure 2.5 Manhole visual inspection procedure ................................................................... 2-8
Figure 2.6 Pole-mounted inspectioncamera ........................................................................... 2-9
Figure 2.7 Illustration of pole-mounted TV camera inspection ............................................. 2-9
Figure 2.8 Step van CCTV system....................................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2.9 Illustration of CCTV camera inspection ............................................................. 2-10
Figure 2.10 Work procedure for TV camera inspection ........................................................2-11
Figure 2.11 CCTV data No1 .................................................................................................2-11
Figure 2.12 CCTV data No2 ................................................................................................ 2-12
Figure 2.13 Forms of inspection record ............................................................................... 2-13
Figure 2.14 Materials for smoke test.................................................................................... 2-14
Figure 2.15 Illustrative sketches of smoke test .................................................................... 2-14
Figure 2.16 Work procedure of smoke test .......................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2.17 Illustration of echo sound test ........................................................................... 2-15
Figure 2.18 Work procedure of echo sound test................................................................... 2-16
Figure 2.19 Drawing of dye test........................................................................................... 2-17
Figure 2.20 Pumping test ..................................................................................................... 2-17
Figure 2.21 Work procedure of pumping test....................................................................... 2-18
Figure 2.22 Neutralization test ............................................................................................. 2-19
Figure 2.23 Fatal accident related to gas in Japan sewer works........................................... 2-20
Figure 2.24 Illustration of Testing criteria for sewer............................................................ 2-23
Figure 2.25 Power bucket machine setup............................................................................. 2-29
Figure 2.26 Power rodding operation................................................................................... 2-30
Figure 2.27 Rodding heads................................................................................................... 2-30
Figure 2.28 Typical setup for hydraulic cleaning using sewer ball ...................................... 2-31
Figure 2.29 Balling equipment............................................................................................. 2-32
Figure 2.30 Scooter operation .............................................................................................. 2-32
Figure 2.31 Sewer cleaning records ..................................................................................... 2-34
Figure 2.32 Pipe bursting process ........................................................................................ 2-36
Figure 2.33 Spiral wound slip lining process ....................................................................... 2-37
Final Draft xx
Figure 2.34 Cures-in-place pipe installation procedure ....................................................... 2-37

Figure 2.35 Protection method for existing sewer ............................................................... 2-39
Figure 2.36 Sewerage leaking locations............................................................................... 2-40
Figure 2.37 Wear of cover.................................................................................................... 2-41
Figure 2.38 Offset of manhole block.................................................................................... 2-41
Figure 2.39 Not coinciding with height of road surface....................................................... 2-42
Figure 2.40 Inverted siphon cleaning work.......................................................................... 2-46
Figure 2.41 Portable TV system for small-diameter pipe .................................................... 2-48
Figure 2.42 Applications of portable TV system in difficult to access locations................. 2-48
Figure 2.43 Work procedure for examination of lateral sewer by TV camera ..................... 2-49
Figure 2.44 O&M cycle ....................................................................................................... 2-53
Figure 3.1 Typical dry-well and wet-well installations .......................................................... 3-1
Figure 3.2 Typical cavitation damage of an impeller ............................................................. 3-4
Figure 3.3 Sluice gate............................................................................................................. 3-6
Figure 3.4 Gate valve ............................................................................................................. 3-8
Figure 3.5 Check valve........................................................................................................... 3-9
Figure 3.6 Typical ball type check valve.............................................................................. 3-10
Figure 3.7 Electric motor driven gear actuator......................................................................3-11
Figure 3.8 Pneumatic valve.................................................................................................. 3-12
Figure 3.9 Manual bar screen............................................................................................... 3-13
Figure 3.10 An example of risky platform........................................................................... 3-13
Figure 3.11 Mechanically-cleaned bar screen ...................................................................... 3-15
Figure 3.12 UNIDO type arc screen..................................................................................... 3-16
Figure 3.13 Typical grit chamber ......................................................................................... 3-18
Figure 3.14 Packing gland.................................................................................................... 3-21
Figure 3.15 Mechanical seal................................................................................................. 3-22
Figure 3.16 Typical weir; generated elevation ..................................................................... 3-23
Figure 3.17 Magnetic flow meter ......................................................................................... 3-24
Figure 3.18 Reflecting ultrasonic flow meter....................................................................... 3-25
Figure 4.1 Typical gravity type oil and grease removal unit.................................................. 4-2
Figure 4.2 DAF unit ............................................................................................................... 4-2
Figure 4.3 Schematic of DAF unit ......................................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4.4 Parallel plate separator.......................................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4.5 Typical plan layout of activated sludge plant........................................................ 4-5
Figure 4.6 Sludge settling analysis......................................................................................... 4-7
Figure 4.7 Recirculated sludge flow ratio .............................................................................. 4-8
Figure 4.8 Conventional activated sludge process ................................................................. 4-8
Figure 4.9 Schematic of centrifugal blowers........................................................................ 4-13
Final Draft xxi

Figure 4.10 Typical air distribution system in aeration tank................................................ 4-14

Figure 4.11 Types of extended aeration plants ..................................................................... 4-17
Figure 4.12 Operating cycles of intermittent SBR process .................................................. 4-21
Figure 4.13 Use of a BOD tube for instantaneous assessment of the BOD at site............... 4-23
Figure 4.14 Oxidation ditch ................................................................................................. 4-25
Figure 4.15 Typical jar testing apparatus ............................................................................. 4-30
Figure 4.16 Supernatant turbidity vs. Alum dose................................................................. 4-31
Figure 4.17 Overhanging tree branches and the small area of the lined bund may be seen. 4-32
Figure 4.18 Fixed film synthetic media filters ..................................................................... 4-33
Figure 4.19 Moving bed bioreactor...................................................................................... 4-36
Figure 4.20 Configuration of membrane bioreactor system................................................. 4-37
Figure 4.21 Schematic diagram of an up flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor................. 4-39
Figure 4.22 Cleaning of effluent gutters .............................................................................. 4-40
Figure 4.23 Cleaning of feed inlet pipes .............................................................................. 4-41
Figure 4.24 The White Towel test ........................................................................................ 4-47
Figure 4.25 Filtration spectrum............................................................................................ 4-52
Figure 4.26 Configuration of recycled nitrification/denitrification process......................... 4-55
Figure 4.27 Breakpoint chlorination curve........................................................................... 4-58
Figure 5.1 Example of a gravity thickener. ............................................................................ 5-2
Figure 5.2 Gravity belt thickener process .............................................................................. 5-7
Figure 5.3 Sludge digestion system...................................................................................... 5-10
Figure 5.4 Silicon dioxide deposits on boiler tubes ............................................................. 5-15
Figure 5.5 Belt filter press.................................................................................................... 5-24
Figure 5.6 Screw press ......................................................................................................... 5-29
Figure 5.7 Schematic of a rotary press system..................................................................... 5-31
Figure 6.1 Electrical single line diagram................................................................................ 6-2
Figure 6.2 Protective relay ..................................................................................................... 6-4
Figure 6.3 Transformer........................................................................................................... 6-5
Figure 6.4 Vector diagram of power factor ............................................................................ 6-7
Figure 6.5 Vector diagram of power factor control ................................................................ 6-8
Figure 6.6 Example of flow of power generated from digester gas ..................................... 6-10
Figure 6.7 UPS circuit.......................................................................................................... 6-13
Figure 6.8 Starters ................................................................................................................ 6-15
Figure 6.9 Motor part load efficiency .................................................................................. 6-17
Figure 6.10 Thermographic measurement............................................................................ 6-20
Figure 6.11 VFD................................................................................................................... 6-21
Figure 6.12 Counterweighted float-level indicator .............................................................. 6-23
Figure 6.13 Float switches ................................................................................................... 6-23
Final Draft xxii

Figure 6.14 Acoustic level-sensor installation ..................................................................... 6-24

Figure 6.15 Schematic of bubbler-level system ................................................................... 6-25
Figure 6.16 Typical pH sensor ............................................................................................. 6-27
Figure 6.17 Hand held DO meter with probe for field use................................................... 6-28
Figure 6.18 Nephlometer...................................................................................................... 6-29
Figure 6.19 Typical SCADA communication overview....................................................... 6-30
Figure 6.20 Industrial panel-mounted type HMI.................................................................. 6-31
Figure 6.21 PC based system in which the computer acts as HMI ...................................... 6-32
Figure 6.22 Automatic control system ................................................................................. 6-32
Figure 6.23 Digital multimeter (Left) and Analog multimeter (Right) ................................ 6-37
Figure 6.24 Clamp-on meter ................................................................................................ 6-38
Figure 6.25 Hand-cranked megohmmeter............................................................................ 6-38
Figure 6.26 Ground resistance tester.................................................................................... 6-39
Figure 7.1 Typical sampling apparatuses used in sampling of sewage in STPs..................... 7-3
Figure 7.2 The Progress of the multiple tube testing for coliforms........................................ 7-9
Figure 7.3 The fermentation as seen from the gas in the inverted vials inside the tubes ....... 7-9
Figure 7.4 The progress of the filter technique for coliforms .............................................. 7-10
Figure 7.5 Illustrative appearance of cultured plates showing the growth of colonies .........7-11
Figure 7.6 Colony counters: automatic integrating pen type and grid plate for manual use.7-11
Figure 7.7 The progress of the Colilert technique for coliforms .......................................... 7-12
Figure 8.1 Gas sampling pump (left side) and detector tubes (right side) ............................. 8-2
Figure 8.2 Soil (Bio) deodorisation configuration ................................................................. 8-5
Figure 8.3 Mechanism of ASP-deodorization ........................................................................ 8-5
Figure 8.4 Activated-carbon deodorization............................................................................ 8-6
Figure 8.5 Aeration tank (left) and Attached growth system (right) .....................................8-11
Figure 8.6 An example of plant beautification adopted in Bangalore.................................. 8-13
Figure 9.1 Confined space entry procedure............................................................................ 9-9
Figure 9.2 Portable toxic gas detector .................................................................................... 9-9
Figure 9.3 Gas mask............................................................................................................. 9-14
Figure 9.4 Self breathing apparatus...................................................................................... 9-15
Figure 9.5 Portable blower (ducting blower) ....................................................................... 9-15
Figure 9.6 Safety signs ......................................................................................................... 9-16
Figure 9.7 Fluorescent jacket ............................................................................................... 9-17
Figure 9.8 Photo showing typical confined space entry....................................................... 9-17
Figure 9.9 Example of emergency contacts ......................................................................... 9-23
Figure 9.10 Stretcher ............................................................................................................ 9-25
Figure 9.11 First aid box ...................................................................................................... 9-25
Figure 9.12 Safety management organisation ...................................................................... 9-28
Final Draft xxiii

Figure 10.1 On-site sewage treatment system...................................................................... 10-1

Figure 10.2 Metering unit..................................................................................................... 10-7
Figure 10.3 Membrane separators........................................................................................ 10-9
Figure 10.4 Flow chart of sludge treatment ....................................................................... 10-13
Figure 10.5 Flow chart of a pre-treatment unit .................................................................. 10-13
Final Draft xxiv

ABBREVIATION
A2O Anaerobic, Anoxic and Oxic process

AC Alternating Current
ACB Air Break Circuit Breaker
ADF Average Daily Flow
APHA The American Public Health Association
ASD Adjustable Speed Device
ASP Activated Sludge Process
b.e.p Best Efficiency Point
BFP Belt Filter Press
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
BNR Biological Nutrient Removal
BNR Biological Nitrogen Removal
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CBM Condition Based Maintenance
CCTV Closed Circuit Television Equipment
CCU Central Control Unit
CDM project Clean Development Mechanism project
CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering
Organisation
CI Cast Iron
CIPP Cured-in-Place-Pipe
CMWSSB the Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CPR Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
CT Current Transformer
DAF Dissolved Air Floatation
DC Direct Current
DG Diesel Generator
DI Ductile Iron
DO Dissolved Oxygen
EBPR Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal
EDI Energy Dispatching Inlet
EEBA Emergency Escape Breathing Apparatus
EMB Eosin Methylene Blue
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
Final Draft xxv
ESP Exchangeable Sodium Percentage

F/M ratio Food to Microorganisms ratio
FC Faecal Coliform
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FPU Final Polishing Unit
FRP Fibre Glass Reinforced Plastic Pipes
GL Ground Level
GRP Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
HMI Human Machine Interface
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
HT High Tension
I/O Input / Output
ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research
ID Internal Diameter
IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
IMLR Internal Mixed Liquor Recycle
IS Indian Standards
JASCOMA Japan Sewer Collection System Maintenance Association
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
LEL Lower Explosion Limit
LT Low Tension
MBBR Moving Bed Bio Reactor
MBR Membrane Bio Reactor
MCC panel Motor Control Centre panel
MCCB Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
MCF Membrane Cartridge Filtration
MF Micro filtration
MLd Million Litres per Day
MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
MLVSS Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids
MOUD Ministry of Urban Development
MPN Most Probable Number
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
MSRT Minimum Solids Retention Time
NF Nano Filtration
NPSHA Net Positive Suction Head Available
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NPSHR Net Positive Suction Head Required

NRV Non-Return Valve
NUSP National Urban Sanitation Policy
NTF Nitrifying Trickling Filter
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OCR Over Current Relay
ORP Oxidation Reduction Potential
OSHA Operational Safety and Health Association
OSS On-site Sanitation System
OVR Over Voltage Relay
PB fume Palmer-Bowlus flume
PC Personal Computer
PC Power Contractor
PCB Pollution Control Board
PCC Precast cement concrete
PCCP Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe
PCOM Per Capita O&M Cost
PD Positive Displacement
PHA Poly-hydroxyalkanoates
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
PM Planned Maintenance
POA Polyphosphate Accumulating Organism
PR Protective Relay
PS Pumping Station
PT Potential Transformer
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
PWD Public Works Department
R&D Research and Development
RAS Return Activated Sludge
RBC Rotating Biological Contactor
RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete
RO Reverse Osmosis
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
RTD Resistance Temperature Detector
SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio
SASW Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves
SBR Sequencing Batch Reactor
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SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SCBA Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus
SDB Sludge Drying Bed
SDNR Specific Denitrification Rate
SF Safety Factor
SF6 Sulphur Hexafluoride
SLB Service Level Benchmarks
SLR Solids Loading Rate
SOR Surface Overflow Rate
SPDP Screen Protected Drip-Proof
SRT Solids Retention Time
SS Suspended Solids
STP Sewage Treatment Plant
SVI Sludge Volume Index
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TEFC Total-Enclosed Fan-Cooled
TMP Transmembrane Pressure
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TV Television
UASB Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor
UF Ultra Filtration
ULB Urban Local Body
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
UPVC Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride
US EPA, USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
UVR Under Voltage Relay
VCB Vacuum Circuit Breaker
VFA Volatile Fatty Acids
VFD Variable Frequency Drive
VFM Value For Money
VSS Volatile Suspended Solids
VT Voltage Transformer
VVVF Variable Voltage Variable Frequency
WAS Waste Activated Sludge
WEF Water Environment Federation
WHO Word Health Organization
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WOR Weir Overflow Rate

WRFs Water Reclamation Facilities
XLPE Crosslinked Polyethylene Insulated Cable
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Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
In engineering parlance, operation refers to daily operation of the components of a sewerage
system such as collection system, pumping stations, pumping mains, STPs, machinery and
equipment, etc., in an effective manner by various technical personnel, and is a routine function.
5 The term maintenance is defined as the art of keeping the structures, plants, machinery and
equipment and other facilities in optimum working order. Maintenance includes preventive
maintenance or corrective maintenance, mechanical adjustments, repairs, corrective action and
planned maintenance. However, replacements, correction of defects etc., are considered as
actions excluded from preventive maintenance. For replacements with regard to sewerage and
10 sewage treatment, the broad categories of infrastructure which need to be addressed are as
follows:
Collection System including house service connections and manholes
Pumping Stations
Pumping Mains
15 STPs
Utilization of biological sludge and containment of chemical sludge

There are standard O&M manuals for these in developed countries. However, O&M manual is
not yet prepared in detail in India. The following conditions prevail:
Most of the towns are only partially sewered
20 Most of generated greywater continues to flow in road side drains
Per capita water usage is practically only 25 to 30 % as used in advanced countries
Water as used is mainly from local groundwater also with high TDS, sulphates etc
The sulphates are an agent of corrosion of concrete in sewers
Wash basins, kitchen sinks etc do not have blenders below the sink
25 Detergent powders have significant grit content
Volumes of water usage are only about 30 to 40 %
Cattle are also housed inside the cities and their dung washed into sewers
The cattle shed washing occurs during noon times after the peak flow has passed
These cattle shed washed dung settles in sewers and builds up to choke
30 The budgets of most ULBs are inadequate for purchasing sewer cleaning machines
Though sewer divers are banned, still manual labour is used to rod and clean the
sewers
Pumping stations are not connected by website to know of flooding in the station
area
35 Removing sewer blocks takes longer times due to manual work
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Instrumentation based remote operation of STPs is a far away situation
Except a few metro cities, all records continue to be in hard copies only
There are no newsletters aimed at operators sharing their experiences
The above position is further complicated by as many as 25 local languages
40 Disposal of solid wastes in manholes

These issues as in Indian conditions are directly in contrast to the situations in advanced
countries make it necessary to evolve an O&M manual specific to the Indian conditions.
1.1 Need for O&M

Even though we all recognize the reasons as pointed out above, the absence of an O&M manual
45 based on which these defects can be step by step rectified is keenly felt. There is the O&M
manual for Water Supply Systems by CPHEEO, but there is no such manual for Sewerage
Systems. Moreover, unless there is an O&M manual, ULBs cannot justify budget allocations to
meet their obligations under such a manual. The net result is this lack of attention to the
important aspect of Operation & Maintenance (O&M) of sewerage systems leads to
50 deterioration of the useful life of the systems necessitating premature replacement of many
system components and also affecting overall sanitation. As such, even after creating such
assets by investing millions of rupees, they are unable to provide the services effectively to the
community for which they have been constructed, as they remain defunct or underutilized most
of the time.
55 Some of the key issues contributing to the poor Operation & Maintenance have been identified
as follows:
i. Lack of finance, inadequate data on Operation & Maintenance
ii. Multiplicity of agencies, overlapping responsibilities
iii. Inadequate training of personnel
60 iv. Lesser attraction of maintenance jobs in career planning
v. Lack of performance evaluation and regular monitoring
vi. Inadequate emphasis on preventive maintenance
vii. Lack of operation manuals
viii. Lack of appreciation of the importance of facilities by the community
65 ix. Lack of real time field information etc.
Therefore, there is a need for clear-cut sector policies and legal framework and a clear
demarcation of responsibilities and mandates within the water supply sub-sector. From the
Indian experience, it has been observed that by and large, about 20 to 40% of the total annual
Operation & Maintenance cost goes towards the personnel (Operation & Maintenance Staff), 30
70 to 50% of the cost is incurred on power charges and the balance is utilized for consumables,
repairs and replacement of parts and machinery and miscellaneous charges. In most of the cities
in India, the tariffs are so low that they do not even cover the annual Operation & Maintenance
cost.
Hence, it is a felt need to bring out this O&M Manual in sewerage systems
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75 The O&M Manual is required to encompass various issues pertaining to an effective O&M such
as technical, managerial, administrative, personnel, financial & social aspects etc.
The O&M Manual is a long felt need of the sector. At present, there is no Technical Manual on
this subject to benefit the field personnel and to help the O&M authorities to prepare their own
specific manuals suitable for their organizations. Therefore, CPHEEO made plans to publish the
80 O&M Manual for Indian Sewerage System with JICA support.
1.2 Basic Considerations of O&M

1.2.1 Laws and Regulations related to O&M of Sewerage System
In fact there are no laws directly related to O&M of sewerage systems. The laws which are
generally applicable are invariably the municipal bye-laws which are of general nature.
85 1.2.2 Effluent Standards related to Treatment Plants

The effluent standards related to STPs are very confined to BOD of less than 20 mg/L and SS of
less than 30 mg/L. These are more of historical nature.
1.2.3 Environmental Considerations

These are generally problems with Industrial Effluent which get into sewers and which are
90 difficult to control. A conflict exists between the prevention and control of water pollution Act
and the Municipal act or Jal Nigam Act of Water and Sewerage Board act. The sewer system is
to be maintained by the municipality, Jal Board or Water Supply and Sewerage Boards. But the
power to sanction an industrial effluent to be discharged in the sewers is not with these agencies.
It is with the Pollution Control Boards (PCBs). The trouble is when industries are detected to be
95 discharging their effluents without the necessary treatment; the said local agencies do not have
legislative powers to put the industry on notice. They have to write to the PCB. The PCB is in
no hurry to immediately look into this specifically because for a whole metro city the PCB may
have only a handful of engineers and they have lots of situations like these to handle. Hence the
backlog is high. Even if a legal process is initiated, the getting orders of the court to effect
100 disconnection of sewer connection are difficult. It looks that one simple way of getting over
these is to allow the industry to connect only their toilets, baths, canteen etc. But the real
problem is the industries may be surreptitiously using that connection to discharge their
effluents also. The monitoring of these is again vested with the PCBs. Thus, a very serious
situation exists here. Hence joint subcommittee of ULB and PCB have to be created with
105 powers to recommende interim disconnection.
1.2.4 Budget
Appropriate budgetary provisions for operation and maintenance of sewerage system needs to
be provided so that O&M is carried out without any constraints such as human
resources,finance,it is dealt with in part C.
110 1.2.5 Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is a set procedure whereby each component of the system goes through
a systematic check and these components are brought into dependable use. An example can be
checking the volume and consistency of oil in the gearbox after a specified number of hours of
operation and correcting the situation either by topping up or replacing fully as needed. The
115 preventive maintenance issues, checking parameters and timings are all given by every
equipment vendor as a manual. Carrying out these tasks is to be done by the respective
equipment vendor under a separate contract called preventive maintenance contract and should
be delinked from the O&M contract. Most often this is not fully recognized and what could
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have been saved by preventive maintenance finally ends up breakdown repairs. This situation
120 needs its importance.
1.2.6 Workmanship and Quality of Equipment

Workmanship defines the art or skill of a workman or workwoman. This is an art or skill with
which something is made or executed. Materials and equipment shall be new and of a quality
equal to or superior to that specified or approved. Work shall be done and completed in a
125 thorough and workmanlike manner and in strict conformance with the plans and specifications.
In general, the work performed shall be in full conformity and harmony with the intent to secure
the best standard of construction and equipment of the work as a whole or in part.
No material shall be used in the work until it has been found satisfactory by the Engineer. All
material and equipment are subject to test to determine their conformity with these
130 specifications. Certified factory and mill tests normally will be acceptable for standard
manufactured items. Whenever standard specifications are referred to, they shall be the latest
revised edition of the Standard Specifications referred to and shall be considered to be a part of
these specifications in so far as they apply. All work and materials shall be subject to inspection
by the Engineer.
135 The Engineer may assign such assistants as he may deem necessary to inspect the materials to
be furnished and the work to be done under this contract, and to see that the same strictly
conform therewith. The Engineer shall be notified of the time and place of preparation,
manufacture or construction of material for work or any part of the work which he may wish to
inspect, and of the time and place of making the factory tests required under the contract. Such
140 notification shall be given a sufficient length of time in advance of the beginning of the work on
such material or part or of the beginning of such test to allow arrangements to be made for
inspecting and testing or witnessing, as the case may be, if such inspection and testing or
witnessing are deemed practicable by the Engineer.
All necessary machinery guards, railings and other protective devices shall be provided as
145 specified by the Industrial Safety authority which would be the Inspectorate of Factories. Before
final acceptance of the work, the contractor shall cause an inspection to be made by a
representative of the inspectorate of factories and shall certify that all safety requirements have
been complied with.
1.3 Outlines of O&M

150 1.3.1 Overview and Contents of O&M
Thus an overview of O&M is taking note of the above issues and suggests appropriate remedies
to the present situation which includes finances and manpower and remote control.
1.3.2 Management of Facilities

Proper housekeeping, aesthetics and gardening are the requirement here. With the lifestyle in
155 cities changing to fast-forward, nobody is able to find time for these. In addition, getting labour
to do these is also difficult due to extra costs and security issues.
1.3.3 Schedule of O&M

A proper schedule shall have to specify what things are to be attended to at what intervals and to
whom it is to be reported to in case of faults. Clearly, this is not the case and it is all emergency
160 repairs all the way.
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1.3.4 Response to Accidents

Most times, the local staff may not even know how to do first aid. All the time whenever an
accident occurs, it is the fire brigade who will be called upon to the site. Thereafter, it is a
standard procedure of getting the victim to the hospital and thereafter the local agencies come
165 into the picture only when defending the compensation money payable to the victim.
1.3.5 Management of Buildings and Sites

There is the century old practice in Public Works Department (PWD) that civil works life cycle
is 30 years and equipments 15 years. Going by this, civil works in sewerage will need
strengthening and renewal as the case may be. Similarly equipments will need replacement in
170 15 years. However, in actual practice, this is not the case. Only when a civil work shows up a
crack or a leaky roof, the position is reviewed as an ad hoc repair. Similar is the case of
machineries.
1.4 Organization of O&M

1.4.1 Description of O&M Work
175 A simple understanding of O&M work is the relationship between human resources, equipment
availability, financing the O&M and career opportunities for the staff. These are within the local
body. The perception by the public and their payment of dues to the local body is the other side
of the coin as in Figure 1.1.
Increasing Performance
requirements
Personnel Capability Culture
Limited Less Public

Standards Procedures Practices
Budget Acceptance
Assets Systems Data
Higher Legal
Higher Legal
Requirement
Requirement
180 Source: Asset Management for Infrastructures in Fast Developing Countries by Ype C Wijnia
Figure 1.1 Combined tasks and challenges with the O&M

This illustrates O&M of sewerage as responding to the four sided compression of (a) limited
budget, (b) performance requirements, (c) less public acceptance and (d) higher legal
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requirements like staff, salaries, etc. If all these act at the same time, the system has to collapse
185 and if one of them increases the pressure, the ability of the other three to be resilient is needed to
remain stable. If this resilience is not there, the shape of the rectangle will be altered and the
system may be responding without any control. Thus the work of O&M involves the
engineering, financing and administrative interface with the public.
1.4.2 Deployment of Manpower

190 There are limited promotional avenues for people in the O&M sector. Non-engineers in the
O&M sector entering the service will retire without any promotion only if he has no academic
qualification. This does not give them any drive to do a sincere job all the time. He will merely
be doing a routine type of work. Promotions by way of number of years of experience must be
coupled with examination of his experience and given weightage. The staff may be rotated
195 between sewerage and water supply sectors by providing suitable training, so that he does not
get into sickness from working in sewerage system throughout his career.
1.4.3 Out sourcing of O&M

Recent trend is to subcontract the O&M work. In this case the contractor hires staff from local
market and deploys them on the O&M work. He will only place the staff and earn the money
200 and after paying to the staff earns his profit but he may not have interest in O&M. If the
contractor is also the same firm who has built this sewerage system, his interests will be very
sincere. In the case of exclusive O&M outsourcing not involving the potential O&M agency in
the construction activity of the system involved, the proper qualifications, experience, personnel,
etc. are to be ensured.
205 1.4.4 Training

Development of operational skill is not taught in the schools or polytechnics or colleges. It has
to be learnt. This again must be verified once a year to understand whether he has understood
correctly and if not in order he has to be put through training. Thus, the training is a continual
system.
210 1.4.5 Monitoting through Information Control Technology

Extracting sewage treatment conditions from water quality information of effluent is very
important for operating a sewage treatment plant effectively. An example of a Japanese sewage
treatment plant implementing monitoring using control technology is introduced here. For more
details, refer to Appendix 1.1
215 1.4.6 Database for Effective O&M

It is also important to create a database of information obtained through monitoring, and to use
this database of past data for operation henceforth. For details of such a database, refer to
Appendix 1.2.
1.4.7 Paragraph on Problems in Existing O&M

220 The problems faced by O&M sector in sewerage are a combination of engineering, finance, staff
and management. The engineering problems are absence of adequate innovations of economical
design and construction of infrastructure that will reduce the costs and will still render the
project functional to the stated goals in the required geographical coverage with lesser
expenditure. Examples are possible usage of decentralized systems, twin drain systems and
225 incremental sewerage etc. The finance problems are inadequate revenue as compared to
expenditure and norms for budget allocation which is more of historical nature than based on
time and motion evaluations as also the symbiosis of the population who are willing to pay only
Final Draft 1-6

if they feel services are better on the one side and the ULBs who cannot bring up improvements
unless the population contributes increased revenue upfront. The staff problems are the lack of
230 promotional avenues for decades on end and also absence of at least the time based scale of pay
resulting in inordinate stagnations in posts and staleness especially the field staff like operators,
technicians, drivers and other such posts where practically they enter and retire in the same post.
The management problems are frequent transfers from one headquarters to another resulting in
disturbances to family establishment, education of wards and care of elderly at home and lack of
235 incentives for exceptional performers. These are very easy to attribute but are very difficult to
change given the service conditions, rules, regulations etc. Yet another situation which prevails
in a democratic governance is to appraise the political governance on the nuances of engineering
projects while seeking funds and establishment by putting forth the engineering components and
needs to explain them convincingly by the chief executive of the water and sewerage authority
240 depending on how equipped they are to comprehend the enveloping issues. There seems to be a
need to position the officers of these organizations who would possess a basic qualification in
related engineering whatever be their other attainments in management so that they can
effectively conceive and communicate both ways between the political governance who are to
deploy the necessary resources and the staff of these organizations who are to implement and
245 carry out the O&M-an aspect in which a country policy seems to be not in place. In addition
please also refer to Appendix 1.3 which is an extract from the Evaluation of O & M of STPs in
India - CUPS/68/2007.
1.5 Community Awareness and Participation

1.5.1 Public Relations and Public Opinion related to Sewerage Works
250 Meeting the public and directly answering their questions on sewerage problems is the solid
foundation of goodwill. Mostly officials in charge of sewerage system feel hesitant to meet the
public because they do not have the funds to rectify the defects pointed out by the public.
Reference to Figure 1.1 is important. Only when the public are met directly, the system
drawbacks will come to light. Only then, a basis for calculating the budget allocations can be
255 known. Only then engineers in the field can carry out the remedies needed.
1.5.2 Complaint and Redressal

Most local bodies have launched the internet based complaint recording by the public. It will be
good to also publish on the web the complaints received and actions taken up to solve them.
Otherwise the public will not know.
260 1.5.3 Dos and Donts for Community

The public are also responsible to maintain the system. They must not put solid wastes, solid
vegetable cutbits, meat, plastics, etc. This is even now very well advertised by many local
agencies but then the public continue to do these sometimes. Educating them continuously has
to be a part of O&M.
265 1.6 Potential Risk with respect to Sewerage System

1.6.1 Provision of Disaster Prevention Systems
Disaster by definition is something which occurs suddenly. For example if a corroded RCC
sewer is not properly attended to in time, it will collapse all of a sudden in the crown and all the
sewage upstream will get blocked. At the same time, if an earthquake occurs and the sewer
270 collapses by lateral movement, then also, it is the same problem. The former situation can be
avoided by monitoring the sewer condition once a year by camera survey. The later cannot be
avoided. The lesson is the need for programmed monitoring of sewerage system components.
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1.7 Sewerage Ledger

The NUSP and SLB have been explained in Section 1.5 of the Part-A Manual. In order to keep
275 track of their attainment, the upkeep of ledgers is necessary as explained below.
1.7.1 Preparation of Sewerage Ledger

A sewerage ledger can be either a simple ledger or a complicated ledger. The staff must receive
situation reports of such activities which he can control. There is a tendency to insist on
receiving all sorts of data where it is meant for that person or not. This has to change. For
280 example an administrator must be more concerned about complaint redressal than how much
sewage is pumped out. Similarly, the field engineer must know the sewage surface elevations in
sewers and whether sewage is overflowing the roads and document the case and put up for
funds to solve the situation.
1.7.2 Management and Use of Sewerage Ledger

285 This is to be done by an independent team not connected with the O&M team. Only then, the
real problem will be known and remedies can be taken up. The sewer ledger for compliant
redressal must be put on the website to increase the consumer satisfaction in the ledger system.
1.8 Budget Estimation for O&M

Budget estimation has been explained in Part C Chapter 5.
290 Revenue generation to ensure self-sustainability is an issue of political and administrative will
be to levy and collect practicable costs and there is nothing to strategize in it.
1.9 Summary
This Manual has been prepared with the aim of offering guidelines to workers/operators of
sewerage systems on site for operation and work performed by them, and to field engineers for
295 passing on instructions and judgements to the workers and operators. In practice, a sewerage
collection system or an STP each requires its own proprietary O&M manual suitable for the
work done, the local conditions and the scale of its own facility. It is anticipated that these
facilities will refer to the contents of the present manual and prepare make effective use of its
own proprietary manual.
300 1.10 Relationship between Part-A (Engineering), Part-B (Operation and

Maintenance), and Part-C (Management) of Manual
The Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment (second edition) published in 1993 which has
been revised and updated mainly gave thrust to engineering aspects of the sewerage and sewage
treatment systems. Though, it covered topics of management and operation and maintenance of
305 sewerage systems but these aspects were not dealt with in detail so as to create awareness
amongst the practicing and field engineers regarding the importance of these two topics which
are so important for the sustainability of the systems in the long run.
The present Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment has been divided into three sections, as
under, which are inter-related to each other as described below:
310 i) Part A on Engineering
ii) Part B on Operation and Maintenance
iii) Part C on Management
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Part A on Engineering addresses the core technologies and updated approaches towards the
incremental sanitation from onsite to decentralized or conventional collection, conveyance,
315 treatment and reuse of the misplaced resource of sewage and is simplified to the level of the
practicing engineer for his day to day guidance in the field in understanding the situation and
coming out with his choice of approaches to remedy the situation. In addition it also includes
recent advances in sewage treatment, sludge and septage management to abate pollution of
environment. By no means, this is a text book nor it should be. It is a simple to understand
320 guideline for the field engineer.
Part B on Operation and Maintenance addresses the issues of standardizing the human
resources and financial resources that are needed to sustain a system created at huge costs
without it slipping into an edifice for want of codified requirements of these so that it becomes
possible to address these in the estimate stage itself and seek a comprehensive approval of fund
325 allocations and human resources besides ushering in the era of public private partnership to
make the projects self-sustaining. It is a simple to understand guidance for the resource seeker
and resource allocating authorities.
Part C on Management is a refreshing approach to modern methods of project delivery and
project validation and gives a continual model for the administration to foresee the deficits in
330 allocations and usher in newer mechanisms. It is a tool for justifying the chosen project delivery
mechanism and optimizing the investments on need based allocations instead of allocations in
budget that remain unutilized and get surrendered in end of fiscal year with no use to anyone. It
is straight forward and modern approach.
It is very important to mention here in the beginning of this Part B of the Manual that Trade
335 names and technology nomenclatures, etc., are cited only for familiarity of explanations and not
a standalone endorsement of these.
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Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 2: SEWER SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 2 SEWER SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction
A sewerage system consists of the following:
340 House Service Connections
They connect the house to sewers in the road.
Sewers
These are pipe or conduits meant for carrying sewage and are laid along the roads and flow
by gravity.
345 Lift Stations
When sewers are at a large depth, lift stations are used which help to move liquids from low
elevations to the required elevation.
Pump Stations
They transfer the sewage from one location to another
350 Sewage Treatment Plants
They treat the sewage to meet the effluent quality.
Safe disposal system of final effluent
Sewers are the most important part of a sewerage system. They are laid below the ground and
are difficult to repair. Hence great care is needed in their O&M.
355 In this section, the following is presented:
Objectives of maintenance
Type of maintenance
Necessity of maintenance
2.1.1 Objectives of Maintenance
360 Quality maintenance of sewerage system consists of the optimum use of labour, equipment, and
materials to keep the system in good condition, so that it can accomplish efficiently its intended
purpose of collection and transportation of sewage to the treatment plant.
2.1.2 Type of Maintenance
There are three types of maintenance of a sewerage system preventive, routine and emergency.
365 Preventive or routine maintenance should be carried out to prevent any breakdown of the system
and to avoid emergency operations to deal with clogged sewer lines or over flowing manholes
or backing up of sewage into a house or structural failure of the system. Preventive maintenance
is more economical and provides for reliability in operations of the sewer facilities. Emergency
repairs, which would be very rare if proper maintenance is carried out well also, have to be
370 provided for. Proper inspection and preventive maintenance are necessary.
2.1.3 Necessity of Maintenance
Sewer maintenance functions are most often neglected and given attention only as emergency
arises. Adequate budgets are seldom provided for supervision, manpower and equipment, unlike
the case for maintenance of other utilities like electric cables, telephone cables, gas and water
375 rains. Such attitude towards sewer maintenance is found even in large cities. Considering the
health hazards that the public at large has to face, it is appropriate to provide sufficient funds to
Final Draft 2-1

take care of men, material, equipment and machinery required for efficient maintenance.
All efforts should be made to see that there is no failure in the internal drainage system of
premises; a serious health hazard results when sewage backs up through the plumbing fixtures
380 or into the basements. The householder is confronted with the unpleasant task of cleaning the
premises after the sewer line has been cleaned. Extensive property damage may also occur,
particularly where expensive appliances are located in the basements.
Maintenance helps to protect the capital investment and ensures an effective and economical
expenditure in operating and maintaining the sewerage facilities. It also helps to build up and
385 maintain cordial relations with the public, whose understanding and support are essential for the
success of the facility.
2.2 Inspection and Examination for Sewer
2.2.1 Importance of Inspections and Examinations
Sewer collection systems are intended to be a reliable method of conveying sewage from
390 individual dischargers to sewerage treatment plants. Inspection and examination are the
techniques used to gather information to develop operation and maintenance programs to ensure
that new and existing collection systems serve their intended purposes on a continuing basis.
Inspection and testing are necessary to do the following:
Identify existing or potential problem areas in the collection system,
395 Evaluate the seriousness of detected problems,
Locate the position of problems, and
Provide clear, concise, and meaningful reports to supervisors regarding problems.
Two major purposes of inspection and examination are to prevent leaks from developing in the
sewers and to identify existing leaks so they can be corrected.
400 A designers mistake and the failure in construction are directly responsible for many of the
sewer failures. Due to age, deterioration of the material of the sewer by attack of hydrogen
sulphide or other chemicals, settlement of foundations and leaking joints may result in the
structural failure of the sewer. It takes a very long time from the onset of the first initial defect to
the collapse of the sewer. A crack or a leaking joint will allow subsoil water and soil to enter the
405 sewer causing cavities around it leading to slow settlement of foundation and the eventual
collapse of the sewer. Very often soil with water is carried away below the bedding along the
length of the sewer. The type of break often gives a clue to the cause. A shear failure due to
faulty foundation or movement of earth, is a clean vertical break in the pipe or barrel. Excessive
loading, either internally or externally, causes horizontal breaks. Breaks caused by internal
410 pressure gives cracks in the sewer while external overload causes the top of the pipe to crush-
Regular inspection of the sewer can pinpoint the sewer that needs to be attended to before there
is a complete failure or collapse.
For preventing the above serious instances of damages to the sewer system, the maintenance
engineer should establish adequate inspection and examination program.
415 2.2.2 Guidelines for Inspections and Examinations
Documents and data that can give information on the status of sewer facilities are necessary for
operation and maintenance of the facilities. However, enormous time and costs are necessary for
examining and inspecting the overall information on sewer facilities that extend over a wide
area. It is recommended that a preliminary inspection be implemented to acquire with
420 comparative ease documents and data that can be used to decide the facilities to be
examined/inspected and their priority, and then decide the facilities to be finally examined and
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inspected for effective acquisition of data.

The procedure is to first acquire the basic information through preliminary inspection for the
examination and inspection of the facilities in this section.
425 Preliminary inspection Inspection and examination
Judge from inspection result
Decide the necessary measures (repairs, modifications)

430 The detailed method for conducting a preliminary inspection is described in the following
section.
2.2.3 Preliminary Inspection
During the preliminary inspection of the sewerage system, subsidence, collapse, and overflows
on the roads on which sewers are laid, should be confirmed. Deformation or damage to facilities,
435 and deposits of sand and silt are to be confirmed during observation from the manhole. If
damage or possibility of damage to the facility or if any of the abnormalities listed below are
confirmed during the preliminary inspection, the facility manager should examine and inspect
the relevant locations for the following:
Corrosion, wear, damage or crack in the facility
440 Water infiltration
Corrosion of steps, wear of covers, deformation of manhole, buried manhole
Abnormal odours
Clogging and overflowing
The suggested period of preliminary inspection to be carried out is shown in Table 2.1, Table
445 2.2 and Table 2.3. In addition clause 3.10 of Part A manual also deals with tracer study.
Table 2.1 Preliminary inspection during Defect Liability Period (DLP)
Category Any other
Manhole Sewer Inverted siphon sewerage
Inspection stages infrastructure
Initial/first inspection During the first 3 months of start of DLP (to expose any hidden
construction defects)
Final inspection During the last 3 months of DLP
Additional inspections, At a frequency of every 2 years after first inspection during DLP
if DLP is > 4 years
Table 2.2 Preliminary inspection for Manholes & Sewers
Category
Manhole Sewer
Roads & Traffic Conditions
Roads subjected to heavy & mixed traffic Once a year Once in 2 years
Roads 2m - 5m wide (6-15 feet) subject to mixed traffic Once in 2 years Once in 2 years
Roads and lanes less than 2m wide Once in 3 years Once in 3 years
Demarcated & kerbed /raised footpaths (likely along main
Once in 2 years Once in 3 years
roads)
Final Draft 2-3

Table 2.3 Preliminary inspection period for other facilities

Category
Inverted siphon Force main and their appurtenance
Inspection period Once a year Once a year

Note: Remedial measures should be implemented immediately upon finding defects/distress/dysfunction in the
450 components of the sewerage system.
2.2.4 Type of Inspections and Examinations

In order to assess the condition of the sewers inspections and examinations are necessary.
There are two basic types of inspection and examination:
Direct
455 Indirect
2.2.4.1 Direct Inspection and Examination
This means a person walking through a sewer and physically inspecting the condition visually.
This shall never be done once a sewer has been put into service. Even for new sewers, the inside
diameter shall be more than 2 m. All safety precautions needed for working in confined spaces
460 shall be taken. Hitting at the sidewall with a hammer or other devise shall be totally prohibited.
The only purpose it will serve will be to get a visual idea of whether the pipe joints are made
fully. Once a sewer is put into service, this is to be banned for ever.
2.2.4.2 Indirect Inspection and Examination
These can be classified by a variety of methods as in Table 2.4.
465 Table 2.4 Classification of inspection
Sewer type Defect detected
Pipe diameter mm
Internal condition
Pipe material
Pipe support
Force main
Pipe wall
Leakage
Gravity
Lateral
Technology
Digital cameras Any 150-1500

Camera
Zoom cameras Any >150

Push-camera Any 300
In-line leak detectors Any 100
Acoustic
Acoustic monitoring
PCCP 450
systems
Sonar/ ultrasonic Any 50
Electrical leak location Non-ferrous 75
electromagnetic
Electrical/
Remote field eddy

Ferrous, PCCP 50
current
Magnetic flux leakage Ferrous 50-1400

Laser
Laser profiling Any 100-4000
Gamma-gamma Concrete Not yet defined

e
t
Final Draft 2-4

Sewer type Defect detected
Pipe diameter mm
Internal condition
Pipe material
Pipe support
Force main
Pipe wall
Leakage
Gravity
Lateral
Technology
logging
Ground penetrating
Any Not yet defined
radar
Infrared thermograph Any Not yet defined
Micro-deflection Brick Not yet defined
Brick
Impact echo/SASW >1800
/Concrete
Source: EPA/600/R-09/049 | May 2009
Even though there are so many technologies available as above, the technology to be chosen
will depend on the affordability by the user departments. A simpler and applicable technology
compilation is as shown in Table 2.5.
470 Table 2.5 Sewer system inspection technologies considered applicable to Indian conditions
Applicability
No. Technology
Sewer Size Sewer Material Sewer Condition
1 Light and Mirror Up to 300 mm Any Empty
2 Closed Circuit Camera Any size Any Empty

3 Sonar Systems Any size Any Fully flowing
The light and mirror is the oldest of known technologies. Two successive manholes are opened
and vented sufficiently for about an hour. Thereafter a long hand-held mirror secured at 45
degrees to the handle is lowered into the bottom of the manhole and a torch light is focussed on
the mirror from the above so that the light beam is deflected by 90 degrees to travel horizontally
475 through the sewer pipe and the light is seen in the opposite manhole. This is easier at dusk. This
can tell whether the bore of the pipe is choked or clear.
Source: http://www.sankyotrading.co.jp
Figure 2.1 Mirror Test and Mirror with rode

480 The closed circuit camera is propelled through the sewer by a remote controlled wired power
supply from a van and travels through the sewer and relays the picture of the inside to a TV in
the van. The sonar system is similar. A robot is sent through the sewer and it emits high
frequency sound waves which impinge on the pipe surfaces and returns to the emitter as a
Final Draft 2-5

reflection. By knowing the material of construction of the sewer pipe walls, this can be
485 programmed to verify the structural condition of the wall of the sewers.
Indirect inspection is carried out by sending a camera through the sewer for taking photographs
or a closed circuit television equipment (CCTV) to send pictures which can be seen on a TV
Screen or recorded as video. The CCTV inspection can be used for sewer lines as small as 100
mm. Above 900 mm diameter there are limitations due to lighting problems and camera line
490 angles.
Continual advances are being made in the range of TV cameras and also in quality. The type of
camera selected should be robust for use in sewers and be able to give good quality pictures.
Traction of the cameras is by pulling winches, by pushing or self traction. The former two are
not used much at present. However, self traction is suitable for use in sewers above 225 mm
495 diameter. Other constraints in the use of self traction are the weight of the trolley and electricity
requirements. Heavy silting of sewers precludes the use of self traction. The cameras are
attached to trolleys or mounted on pair of skids or single flat tray. Inspection of the sewer by
CCTV is limited to the top portion only. The objects under scrutiny are parallel to the camera
and viewing is at 40 to 50 degrees. With radial scanning head, inspection normal to the sewer
500 wall is possible.
A typical arrangement is as shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Typical CCTV equipment in action

A classical problem encountered in stoneware sewers laid through light forest or heavy garden
505 areas is the roots of trees piercing through the joints and growing there. These become like a
plug and choke the sewer. This is shown in Figure 2.3. (Tree roots growing into joints of stone
ware sewers when these are laid near light forests and heavy gardens. At right is the photo of the
bunch of roots taken by a CCTV camera.)
510 Figure 2.3 Tree roots and sewers
Final Draft 2-6

Figure 2.4 Photographs showing structural damage and longitudinal cracked condition of the
sewer
Similarly, the structural condition of old sewers like brick arch sewers and concrete pipes can be
515 ascertained by sonar surveys which can provide the frontal image of the wall on a 360-degree
vertical spiral around the horizontal axis. These images can be analyzed carefully. The system
can also provide information on the deflection and sidewall breakages of the sewer as in Figure
2.4. (The sidewall condition shown as photographs, the structural damage to the crown of the
sewer and longitudinal cracked condition of the sewer from the survey)
520 2.2.5 Sewer Inspection and Examination
If an abnormality is detected during preliminary inspection or through notification from outside,
the maintenance engineer should judge the urgency and the content of the abnormality, and then
make a proper inspection and study.
2.2.5.1 Visual Examination
525 Visual examination is an inspection through images or by sight to detect an abnormality.
Visual examination includes direct visual inspection, and indirect visual inspection using
pole-mounted inspection camera, and closed-circuit TV equipment (CCTV).
2.2.5.1.1 Manhole Visual Inspection
The visual inspection of manhole is performed by visually checking the manhole cover and its
530 environment, and observing the internal parts of the manhole. To inspect the internal parts of the
manhole, the inspector should enter the manhole and check the items listed below. However,
refer to the sub-section 2.7.1.2 for details of the inspection items.
Status of internal surface of manhole
Status of sewer on the upstream and downstream sides viewed from the manhole
535 Status of groundwater infiltration
To inspect the internal parts of the sewer from the manhole, either a mirror or a strong light
should be used for observation, or a TV camera meant for inspecting conduits should be used.
Features of manhole visual inspection
Inspection accuracy is high because the inspector actually observes and
540 measures the abnormality personally.
Economical compared to inspection using a TV camera.
The inspected results become very useful O&M data.
Procedure for manhole visual inspection is shown in Figure 2.5.
Final Draft 2-7

Preparation
Inspection: Surrounding / cover of manhole
Inspection: Inside of manhole
Clearance
Work completion
545 Figure 2.5 Manhole visual inspection procedure
Before entering any manhole, adequate safety measures should be taken in accordance with
subsection 2.11.1.2.
2.2.5.1.2 Inspection Using a Pole-mounted TV Camera
As shown in Figure 2.6, a pole-mounted TV camera consists of an extendable operating rod at
550 the front of which a camera and light are fitted. This arrangement is inserted in the manhole
from the ground, and the inspector on the ground observes a monitor and inspects the internal
parts of the pipe through the camera. This check may also be used for pre-inspections. The
method of inspection is shown in Figure 2.7.
The features of direct visual inspection are compared with those of inspection by TV camera
555 and shown below.
Advantages
The inspection is easy and observations can be made in a short period.
Moreover, the data of inspection can be recorded as images.
Since the inspector works above ground, there is no chance of oxygen
560 deficiency or accidents by fall, and the work is safe.
Disadvantages
The scope of inspection is limited to the area around the mouth of the pipe.
Offset in the horizontal direction or fine cracks cannot be detected.
The condition of the side surfaces in the sewer pipe cannot be grasped (sides
565 cannot be viewed).
Final Draft 2-8

Source:JASCOMA, 2007
Figure 2.6 Pole-mounted inspectioncamera
570 Figure 2.7 Illustration of pole-mounted TV camera inspection

2.2.5.1.3 Inspection using Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV)
Pipes that can be inspected by CCTV have inside diameters ranging from 150 mm to 900 mm,
but large diameter pipes may also be inspected by CCTV.
a. Types of TV Camera
575 TV camera may be the travelling type or the towed type. Either the direct method (taking
panoramic shots of the overall scene) or the side view method of taking local shots of only
abnormal locations may be used. House connection TV is described in a separate section
(2.10.1).
Figure 2.8 shows a sketch of the TV camera and the vehicle on which it is loaded. Figure
580 2.9 shows an illustration of the TV inspection work.
Final Draft 2-9

Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.8 Step van CCTV system
585 Figure 2.9 Illustration of CCTV camera inspection

Features of TV camera inspection
By merely opening a manhole at one location, inspection using the travelling
TV camera is enabled.
Continuous inspection up to a maximum distance of 100 to 200 m (cable length)
590 is possible.
Connections of the lateral sewer and main sewer and defective locations should
be photographed by the side view method.
TV camera inspection work procedure is shown in Figure 2.10.
Final Draft 2-10

Preparatory process
Cleaning process
Sewer inspection with Find out, evaluate, and record faults

TV camera
Report preparation
Work completion
595 Figure 2.10 Work procedure for TV camera inspection
b. CCTV Camera Inspection Record
Abnormalities detected in the pipeline during the CCTV camera inspection should be
recorded on video tape or as photographs, according to the judgement criteria. Figure 2.10
and Figure 2.11 show examples of the record.
600 The inspected results should be recorded in the inspection record. Examples of forms of the
inspection record are shown in Figure 2.13.
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.11 CCTV data No1
Final Draft 2-11

605
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.12 CCTV data No2
Final Draft 2-12

610
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.13 Forms of inspection record

2.2.5.2 Inspecting Infiltration of Water
If infiltration of water is more corresponding to the planned water flow in the sewerage plant,
615 the pipelines and treatment facilities will be adversely affected. This also leads to an increase in
the treatment costs of the wastewater treatment plant.
The cause of infiltration of water is either the pipeline is inadequate or the drainage system is
inadequate. For this reason, inspection of cross connections, flow rate inspection and
waterproofing inspections need to be combined and the route of infiltration water should be
620 checked. Flow rate inspections help since useful data for improvements and modifications to the
piping facilities can be collected.
2.2.5.2.1 Inspecting Cross Connections
Inspection has to be performed to check that storm water equipment is not connected to the
wastewater system in a separate sewer system. The scope of work is from the main pipe of the
625 sewerage works to the house drainage facility.
There are three typical methods for inspecting cross connections.
a. Smoke Test
The smoke test makes use of a smoke bomb in a separate sewerage system pipeline. A cross
connection can be judged by checking for smoke rising from the house inlet or rain gutter.
630 This test identifies locations where storm water inlet or rain gutter drainage equipment is
directly connected to wastewater pipe house inlet, and locations where storm water that has
permeated the ground from the ground surface or gutter has indirectly permeated the
wastewater pipe or house inlet. Figure 2.14 shows the materials to be used. Figure 2.15
Final Draft 2-13

shows illustrative sketches.
Manhole Smoke Blower

635
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.14 Materials for smoke test
Source: EPA, 2003
640 Figure 2.15 Illustrative sketches of smoke test

Features of the smoke test
The status of connection of drain pipes in each space can be checked in a short
time.
Inadequacies in the house drainage facility can be quickly detected.
645 Smoke test procedure shown in Figure 2.16.
Final Draft 2-14

Preparatory process
Have a meeting
Inspect the site
Prepare for starting
Main work
Working preparation Notification / greeting

Take some security measurements to household
Measure gases by gas detectors
Prepare to start blowing smoke
Start blowing
smoke
Smoke test
Detect smoke rising points
Locate miss-connected pipes
Take photos
Record the sewer line of problem
Stop blowing
smoke
Work completion
Ventilate by a blower
Notify completion to residences
Clean up the site.
Go to next section
Figure 2.16 Work procedure of smoke test

b. Echo Sound Test
This is a method for confirming that piping facilities are correctly connected, and is also an
650 effective method for knowing the plumbing systems and the routes of wastewater mains
and lateral sewers. Ultrasonic waves are used (transmitter and receiver).
Figure 2.17 shows the test method.
Figure 2.17 Illustration of echo sound test

655 Features of the echo sound test
Simple method to confirm that a pipe has been connected or not.
Final Draft 2-15

Effective especially in the connections of lateral sewers.

Cannot judge clogging or trap.
Echo sound test procedure is shown in Figure 2.18.
660
Preparatory process
Meeting with a maintenance engineer
Site inspection
Making a construction schedule
Collecting materials / documents
If necessary Notification / greeting to

Security measurement surrounding residents
Introduce guards
Measure gasses by gas detectors
Echo sound test

Investigate connecting conditions
Locate miss-connected points
Take photos
Record the points of problem in a field note
Making a report
Compile data collected in the test
Summarize records in charts
Make a photo album
Renew charts and records in ledger, etc.
Figure 2.18 Work procedure of echo sound test

c. Dye Test
Harmless fluorescent dye diluted water is made to flow from the upstream side to the
665 treatment plant within the range of wastewater main, lateral sewer and drainage
equipment. The water flow route, leakage route and reaching time are examined. Outflow
route should be checked quickly if notification of foul odour due to outflow of
wastewater particularly from masonry or pump tank is received. The method can also be
used for checking the flow status in the pipe and for measuring the flow velocity. The test
670 method is shown in Figure 2.19. In addition clause 3.10 of Part A manual also deals with
dye tracer study.
Final Draft 2-16

Figure 2.19 Drawing of dye test

2.2.5.2.2 Flow Rate Inspection
675 About important areas for inspecting flow rate
Inspection should be carried out at locations where possibility of infiltration is high, e.g.
where groundwater level is high, at a part of a river crossing, or at a part adjacent to rivers.
a. Flow Rate Measurement
Simple flow velocity meters (Palmer Bowlus flume, electromagnetic flow meter, water
680 level gauge, ultrasonic flow meter) should be installed tentatively at the mouth of the
manhole for flow measurements in the piping facilities and fixed period measurements
carried out.
For details of flow meters, refer to Sec. 3.10 of Chapter 3 of Manual Part-A.
b. Pumping Test
685 This is a method for measuring the flow rate of water that has infiltrated the pipeline. The
flow rate of infiltrated water into the space or the system can be known within a short time.
However, the flow rate of infiltrated water varies with the variation in groundwater,
therefore, precipitation and weather at the time of measurement should be confirmed.
To drain out household wastewater from the test during inspection of each space, a cut-off
690 plug should be installed. This should preferably be implemented during the night time
when the volume of household wastewater generated is small. Figure 2.20 shows the
pumping test.
Figure 2.20 Pumping test
Final Draft 2-17

695 Features of measurements during pumping test

The flow rate of infiltrated groundwater for each space or system can be
measured within a short time.
The measured values differ widely depending on the variation in the
groundwater level.
700 During measurements of several spaces or each system, it is difficult to remove
household wastewater late at night.
Work procedure for measurement of pumped water is shown in Figure 2.21.
Preparation
Cut off with plugs
Install measuring equipment
Inspection: Pumping test
Clearance
Work completion
Figure 2.21 Work procedure of pumping test

705 2.2.5.3 Inspecting Corrosion and Deterioration
The status of deterioration or corrosion within pipe should be judged by TV camera. The
materials in the piping facility are of various kinds: concrete pipe, ceramic pipe, hard polyvinyl
chloride, brick, HDPE pipe, ductile pipe, and GRP (Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics) pipe; so the
corrosion and deterioration conditions vary.
710 Methods for inspecting corrosion and deterioration conditions of a sewer include the following:
Inspection by TV camera of the wall surface condition
Crack inspection
Neutralization test
The causes of deterioration structural concrete parts of the piping facilities are mainly the
715 following:
Crack in concrete due to concentrated loads (live loads)
Deterioration of structure due to changes with aging
Deterioration of concrete structures (concrete corrosion) due to sulphuric acid
from the generation of hydrogen sulphide
720 2.2.5.3.1 Concrete Corrosion
In a facility where wastewater resides for a long period, such as a rising main or an inverted
siphon, the wastewater is likely to become anaerobic and dissolved sulphide will be generated,
which leads to concrete corrosion because of sulphuric acid. Locations where concrete corrosion
Final Draft 2-18

is likely to occur in sewerage piping facilities are as given below.

725 Locations where corrosion is likely to occur:
Piping facilities at the discharge destination of pressure pipe (including manhole
pump)
Upstream and downstream ends of locations where sump discharge occurs
Upstream and downstream ends of locations where discharges containing sulphide
730 occurs
Locations downstream of inverted siphon
For details of the corrosion mechanism, refer to the Part A Manual (Chap 3).
a. pH Measurement of Concrete Surfaces
For sulphuric acid corrosion of concrete, the pH on the surface of concrete is measured by
735 pH test paper or pH meter which is placed on concrete surface directly, and the generation
of sulphuric acid in the concrete structure can be confirmed. When sulphuric acid is
generated in a manhole, the pH of the concrete surface may indicate strong acidity of 1 to 2.
b. Neutralization test (neutralization depth test by phenolphthalein)
One of the indices for judging durability of reinforced concrete structures is the
740 neutralization depth. This is the method of judging alkalinity with pH of 10 and above as
un-neutralized part and uncoloured parts as neutralized parts, enabling quantitative
information to be obtained easily by simple measurement.
When neutralization reaches the vicinity of the reinforcement, the reinforcement is likely to
be corroded easily. When corrosion of reinforcement progresses, volume expansion of
745 corrosive products causes crack or delamination in concrete, leading to excessive loss in
the durability of the structure.
For details of the procedure, refer to BS-103:Guidelines on Non-destructive Testing of
Bridges.
750 Source:JASCOMA, 2007
Figure 2.22 Neutralization test

2.2.5.4 Other Examinations
Special examinations to study in detail the conditions of a facility are as given below. For more
details, please refer to relevant documents for each item. Various kinds of information relevant
755 to analysis for studying gas exploration are given.
Sewer invert elevation examinations: Understanding pipeline conditions and
collating with sewerage facility records.
Sediment examination: Check sediment material, such as sand and silt, which may
have entered damaged sewer or through loose joints from outside the sewer. This
Final Draft 2-19

760 sand and silt may accumulate around the sewer and form voids.
Dangerous gas detection examination: Confirming gases generated in the piping
facilities.
Water quality and gases encountered in a piping facility are closely related. Table 2.6 shows the
gas analysis items in a piping facility.
765 Table 2.6 Gas analysis
Analysis items Unit
Carbon monoxide CO (%)
Carbon dioxide CO2 (%)
Hydrogen sulphide H2S (ppm)
Ammonia NH3 (ppm)
Oxygen O2 (%)
Methane CH4 (ppm)
Nitrogen oxide NOX (ppm)
Source: JASCOMA, 2007
Related to O&M of sewerage system, serious accidents due to gases generated from sewerage
system are illustrated in Figure 2.23. (Accidents during O&M of Japanese sewerage system: For
ten years from 2002 to 2012.)The causes of the gas-related accidents were hydrogen sulphide,
770 carbon monoxide, and oxygen deficiency.
There is no data on accidental death in India and at least there should be such monitoring in
India.
Number of deaths on fatal accidents related

gas of sewer maintenance work in Japan
Hydrogen sulfide
Oxygen deficiency
6 5
4 3
2 2
2 1
0
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
775 Figure 2.23 Fatal accident related to gas in Japan sewer works
2.2.5.5 Precautions
Cleaning equipment and machinery for sewers are shown in following sections:
When entering manholes, safety measures during the work should to such as giving
consideration to traffic safety, oxygen deficiency, poisoning due to toxic gas such as hydrogen
780 sulphide, and so on
For securing workers safety, manual sewer/septic tank cleaning should be avoided because
persons are likely to come in contact directly with sludge and sewage.
Therefore, cleaning machinery and equipment which avoid manpower cleaning are needed.
Furthermore, necessary safety measures before entering manholes for cleaning should be taken.
785 Machinery and equipment for sewer pipes are explained in the next section, and explanations
Final Draft 2-20

on Cleaning of on-site systems are in Chapter 10.

The contamination of drinking water with sewage may occur when water supply pipe passes
through sewer manholes, generally in narrow streets, especially when water supply pipe joints
are enclosed in sewer manholes and when ever water supply pipe joints leak, contamination of
790 drinking water supply occurs. As such, water supply pipe lines should never be enclosed in a
sewer manhole. If any, such situation is observed, immediately water supply pipe be made
non-functional by stopping flow of drinking water and effected public be supplied clean
drinking water by other temporary means, such as water tankers or laying G.I. pipe over the
ground/road surface and portion of water supply lines lying in sewer manholes be shifted out of
795 manholes.
Special attention should be paid to decentralized sewer system particularly when small bore
sewer system or shallow sewer system is adopted.
2.2.6 Judgement of Inspection and Examination Results
It is necessary to judge whether urgent repairs or modifications are necessary, or normal
800 operation and maintenance are sufficient to ensure that the functions of piping facilities are
maintained when an abnormality is detected by studies and analyses. The facility manager
should make the judgment considering material of the pipe, age of the pipe, location where
buried, quality of wastewater, status of groundwater, regional environment, and so on.
The criteria given below may be used as judgment criteria.
805 Emergency response criteria
Judgment based on results of inspection or examination
Testing criteria
2.2.6.1 Emergency Response Criteria
Abnormalities related to piping facilities are generally detected from inspections or from outside
810 reports.
Prompt action should be taken when an accident has already occurred. Also, when the events
below are confirmed, action should be taken immediately.
Road surface: Irregularity exists that can cause level difference leading to
subsidence or obstruction to operation.
815 Manhole: Level difference exists that can lead to obstruction of operation.
Inverted siphon: Water level on the upstream side is excessively high.
2.2.6.2 Judgement based on the Results of Inspection and Examination
Testing of the overall span and by each pipe should be carried out based on the results of visual
inspection. Table 2.7 and Table 2.8 show examples of testing criteria.
820 The testing of the overall span is divided into the three categories (A, B, and C).
Table 2.7 Testing criteria for overall sewer span
Rating
Items
A B C
Reinforcing bars
1) Corroded pipe Aggregate exposed Rough surface
exposed
2) Vertically ID:< 700 mm ID ID -1/2 ID <1/2 of ID
deflected ID:7001650 mm 1/2 of ID 1/2ID-1/4 ID <1/4 of ID
pipe ID: 1650 mm 1/4 of ID 1/4ID-1/8 ID <1/8 of ID
Final Draft 2-21

Also, the testing of each pipe is divided into the three categories (a, b, and c).
Table 2.8 Testing criteria for each pipe of sewer
Rating
Items
a b c
Partially
Reinforced missing/holed pipe Axial crack of 2 mm Axial crack of less
concrete pipes, width or more than 2 mm width
etc Axial crack of 5 mm
3)Ruptured width or more
pipe Partially missed
/holed pipe Axial crack shorter
Stoneware than 1/2 of the pipe -
pipes Axial crack of 1/2 of
the pipe length and length
longer
Reinforced Circumferential crack Circumferential Circumferential
concrete pipes, of 5 mm width or crack of 2 mm width crack of less than 2
etc more or more mm width
4)Cracked
pipe Circumferential crack Circumferential
Stoneware of 2/3 of the pipe crack shorter than -
pipes circumference and 2/3 of the pipe
longer circumference
Reinforced 70 Reinforced <70
concrete mm concrete mm
5)Gap at coupling pipes Joint displacement pipes, etc pipes, etc
Stoneware 50 Stoneware <50
pipes mm pipes mm
6) Infiltration Splashing in Flowing in Soaking
825 Source: JASCOMA, 2007
Final Draft 2-22

Manhole No1 Manhole No2 Manhole No3
Pipe Judge = c Pipe Judge = c Pipe Judge =b

Pipe Judge =b Pile Judge = a Pile Judge = a
Pipe Judge = a
Spane Judge = A Spane Judge = A
Manhole No 1 Manhole No. 2 Manhole No.3
A +(a+b+5c) A + (2a+2b+3c)
Example of Emargency Level -I ( In Table 2.9 )
Manhole No5 Manhole No7

Pipe Judge =b
Pipe Judge = a Pipe Judge = a
Spane Judge = B Spane Judge = B
Manhole No 5 Manhole No. 6 Manhole No.7
B + (a+b+5c) B + (a+3b+3c)
Example of Emargency Level -II (In Table 2.9)
Manhole No 10 Manhole No 11 Manhole No 11

Pipe Judge =b
Spane Judge = C Spane Judge = B
Manhole No 10 Manhole No.11 Manhole No.12
C + (2b+5c) B + (3b+4c)
Example of Emargency Level -III (In Table 2.9)
Figure 2.24 Illustration of Testing criteria for sewer

2.2.6.3 Testing Criteria
Functional degradation, deterioration and abnormalities clarified by inspection and examination
830 should be assessed. A maintenance engineer should judge what countermeasure are applied for
inspected sewers in accordance with Table 2.9, e.g. by usual operation and maintenance or by
emergency repairs and modifications.
Based on the criteria shown in Table 2.7 and Table 2.8, emergency level I is a state where
immediate response is necessary.
835 Emergency level II indicates that simple response may be adopted and radical measures
implemented within the next five years.
Final Draft 2-23

Furthermore, emergency level III indicates response adopted by operation and maintenance, and
implementation of simple response partially.
Table 2.9 Testing criteria for sewer
Category Testing criteria Criteria for measures
Emergency Either As are more or as are more

Important Prompt measures are necessary
Level I in the testing results
As are less frequent and Bs are Necessary actions may be taken
Emergency Medium
more; or as are less and bs are by simple measures and extended
Level II importance
more in the testing results up to 5 years, if required
No A, Bs are few, Cs are many, or Actions may be taken by simple
Emergency Minor
a and b are few, cs are many in the measures and extended up to 5
Level III importance
testing results years, if required
840 As, Bs, and Cs are judgement results of Table 2.7, and as, bs, and cs are judgment results of
Table 2.8.
2.2.7 Maintenance of Records and Follow up Action
To reflect the inspection and testing results in appropriate operation and maintenance of piping
facilities, the testing results should be recorded and stored in the format shown here.
845 a. Inspection Sheet
When inspections and examinations are implemented, an inspection sheet should be
prepared and recorded as shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10 Inspection sheet
Inspection Sheet No.
Location
(Manhole No. etc)
Inspection Date Inspector
Manhole Abrasion, backlash, difference in level, invaded pavement,
cover damaged, location unknown
Inside of Corrosion, damage to the floor, infiltration, metal steps corroded,
manhole inferior pipe end, rubbish, odour
Inspection items
Pipe Corrosion, damage, coupling displacement, inadequate inclination,

infiltration, roots of trees, earth, sand, and mortar, road subsidence
House inlet Cover (no damage), difference in level, corrosion, damage,
damaged invert, earth and sand, location unknown, odour
Lateral Damage, displacement, earth and sand, road subsidence
Inspection Date Inspector

Inspection Result
Measurement Necessary
Unnecessary
Date of order
Date of schedule
Date of completion
Remarks
Final Draft 2-24

850 b. Log
Log should be used to record daily work results, which can be used in the operation and
maintenance of piping facilities. Format is shown in Table 2.11.
c. Monthly Reports
Daily record should be summarised in monthly reports. Format of monthly report is shown
855 in Table 2.12.
Final Draft 2-25

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER2: SEWER SYSTEMS
Table 2.11 Daily report

Daily Report Date Weather
Receipt
Receipt No. Location: address Work description Inspector Tool/Material Remarks
date
1
Response
to 2
complaint /
breakdown
3
diameter (mm) Name of cleaned area Daily total
District:
Crew A person
Trunk
Crew B person
cleaning
System No:
Removed sand volume m3
Cleaned distance m
Name of place Name of drainage System Name of place Name of drainage

Direct works Entrusted works System No. Tool/Material Daily total
repaired area No. repaired area
Manhole Work description
Work description
Final Draft 2-26

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER2: SEWER SYSTEMS
Table 2.12 Monthly report

Monthly Report Date Weather
4.Ground
Response to Category 1.Lateral 2.Inlet 3.Manhole 5.Odour 6.Others Total
subsidence
complaint /
breakdown Number
Diameter (mm) Total
Direct crew
Trunk
Entrusted crew
cleaning
Removed sand
Cleaned distance
Manhole type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Special Direct Entrusted Total
Cover replaced
Manhole
Ring repaired
repair
Barrel repaired
Noise
Final Draft 2-27

860 2.3 Sewer Cleaning

To operate and maintain a sewer collection system to function as intended, the maintenance
engineer should try to strive towards the following objectives:
Minimize the number of blockages per unit length of sewer, and
Minimize the number of odour complaints.
865 For this purpose, sewer cleaning using hydraulic or mechanical cleaning methods needs to be
done on a scheduled basis to remove accumulated debris in the pipe such as sand, silt, grease,
roots, and rocks. If debris is allowed to accumulate, it reduces the capacity of the pipe and
blockage can eventually occur resulting in overflows from the system onto streets, yards, and
into surface waters. Roots and corrosion also can cause physical damage to sewers.
870 2.3.1 Cleaning Equipment and Procedures
Sewer cleaning works require usual implements like pick axes, manhole guards, tripod stands,
danger flags, lanterns, batteries, safety lamps, lead acetate paper, silt drums, ropes, iron hooks,
hand carts, plunger rods, observation rods, shovels etc.
In addition, sewer cleaning work calls for the following special equipment and devices like a
875 portable pump set running on either diesel or petrol engine, rope and cloth balls, sectional sewer
rods, a sewer cleaning bucket machine, a dredger, a rodding machine with flexible sewer rods
and cleaning tool attachments such as augers, corkscrews, hedgehogs and sand cups, scraper,
and hydraulically propelled devices such as flush hags, sewer balls, wooden bail and sewer
scooters, sewer jetting machine, gully emptiers and pneumatic plugs.
880 2.3.1.1 Manila Rope and Cloth Ball
The most common way of cleaning small diameter sewers up to 300-mm diameter is by the use
of a manila rope and cloth ball. Flexible bamboo strips tied together are inserted in the sewer
line by a person on top. If necessary, another person inside the manhole helps in pushing the rod
through the sewer line. When the front end of the bamboo strip reaches the next manhole, a
885 thick manila rope, with cloth ball at one end, is tied to the rear end of the bamboo splits. The
bamboo splits are then pulled by another person in the downstream manhole and pushed through
the sewer line. As the rope is pulled, the ball sweeps the sewer line and the accumulated grit is
carried to the next manhole where it is removed out by means of buckets. This operation is
repeated between the next manholes until the stretch of sewer line is cleaned.
890 2.3.1.2 Sectional Sewer Rods
These rods are used for cleaning small sewers. The sewer rods may be of bamboo or teakwood
or light metal usually about one meter long at the end of which is a coupling which remains
intact in the sewer but can be easily disjointed in the manhole. Sections of the rods are pushed
down the sewer. The front or the advancing end of the sewer rod is generally fitted with a brush,
895 a rubber ring for cleaning or a cutting edge to cut and dislodge the obstructions. These rods are
also useful to locate the obstruction from either manhole in case a particular portion of the sewer
has to be exposed for attending to the problem.
2.3.1.3 Sewer Cleaning Bucket Machine
The bucket machine consists of two powered winches with cables in between. For cleaning a
900 section of sewer; the winches are centred over two adjacent manholes. To get the cable from one
winch to the other, it is necessary to thread the cable through the sewer line by means of sewer
rods or flexible split bamboo rods. The cable from the drum of each winch is fastened to the
barrel on each end of an expansion sewer bucket fitted with closing device, so that the bucket
can be pulled in either direction by the machine on the appropriate end. The bucket is pulled
905 into the loosened material in the sewer until the operator feels that it is loaded with debris. The
Final Draft 2-28
winch is then thrown out of gear and the opposing winch is put into action. When the reverse
pull is starts, the bucket automatically closes and the dirt is deposited in a truck or a trailer. This
operation is repeated until the sewer is cleared. Various bucket sizes are available for sewers of
150 mm to 900 mm in size. The machine is also used along with other scraping instruments for
910 loosening sludge banks of detritus or cutting roots and dislodging obstructions (Figure 2.25).
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.25 Power bucket machine setup

2.3.1.4 Dredger (Clam-shell)
915 It consists of a grab bucket on a wire rope which is lowered into the manhole in the open
condition with the help of a crane and pulley. On reaching the bottom of the manhole the
segments are closed, and the accumulated silt is picked up. The bucket is then raised above
ground level where the bucket opens and the silt is automatically dropped into a truck or a trailer.
The bucket can be closed by wire ropes or by a pneumatically operated cylinder. The
920 disadvantage in this system is that it cannot clean the corners of the catch pits of manholes.
Sometimes the deposits at tire corners may become so hard that the same may be required to be
chiselled out.
2.3.1.5 Rodding Machine with Flexible Sewer Rods
This consists of a machine which rotates a flexible rod to which is attached a cleaning tool such
925 as auger, corkscrew or hedgehog and sand cups (Figure 2.26). The flexible rod consists of a
series of steel rods with screw couplings. The flexible rod is guided through the manhole by a
bent pipe. The machine rotates the rod with the tool attached to one end, the other end being
fixed to the machine. The rotating rod is thrust into the bent pipe manually with clamps with
long handles for holding the rod near the couplings. As the rod is thrust inside, the machine also
930 is drawn towards the manhole. The rod is pulled in and out in quick succession when the tool is
engaging the obstruction, so as to dislodge or loosen it. When the obstruction is cleared, the rod
is pulled out by means of clamps keeping the rod rotating to facilitate quick and easy removal.
The various tools attached to the rods are shown in Figure 2.27.
Final Draft 2-29

935 Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.26 Power rodding operation
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.27 Rodding heads

940 2.3.1.6 Scraper
This method is used for sewers of diameter larger than 750 mm. The scraper is an assembly of
wooden planks of slightly smaller size than the sewer to be cleaned. If the scraper cannot be
lowered through the opening of manhole, it has to be assembled inside the manhole. The scraper
chains, attached to a control chain in the manhole into which it is lowered, are then connected to
945 a winch in the next downstream manhole by means of chains. The winch is then operated to
push the debris ahead of the scraper. The heading up of the flow behind the scraper and the
water dropping from the top of the scraper will also assist in pushing it in the forward direction.
This-ensures that the bottom and the sides of the sewer are cleaned thoroughly. The scraped
debris is removed manually.
Final Draft 2-30

950 Circular scrapers are used on small sewers below 350 mm diameter for cleaning the body of the
line. They are commonly known as discs and these discs are either collapsible and made of
metal or a wooden pair separated by about 200 mm by steel rods.
2.3.1.7 Hydraulically Propelled Devices
The hydraulically propelled devices take advantage of the force of impounded water to
955 effectively clear sewers. Efficiency depends on the hydraulic principle that an increase in
velocity in a moving stream is accompanied by a greatly increased ability to move entrained
material. The transporting capacity of water varies as the sixth power of its velocity.
a. Flush Bags
A very effective tool for cleaning portions of sewers where rods cannot be used is the sewer
960 flusher or flush bag. The flusher is a canvas bag or rubber bag equipped with a fire hose
coupler at one end and a reducer at the other end. The flusher is connected to the fire hose
and placed in the downstream end from the point where a choke is located. The bag is
allowed to fill up until it expands and seals the sewer. The upstream pressure built up due to
this damming effect breaks loose the obstructions.
965 b. Sewer Balls
These are simple elastic pneumatic type rubber balls which can be blown up to varying
degrees of inflation. They are manufactured in sizes from 150 mm to 750 mm diameter
when fully inflated. When used in cleaning a sewer, the bail is first inflated and then
wrapped in a canvas cloth, the edges of which are sewed together. A trial line, little longer
970 than the distance between the manholes, is attached securely to the covering. The size of
the ball and the covering shall be such as to fit fairly snugly into the sewer. Immediately
after the ball is thrust into the sewer, sewage commences to back up in the manhole and
continues to rise until such time as its pressure is great enough to force sewage under the
ball and move it downstream through the pipe. Acting as a compressible floating plug, it
975 affords enough obstruction, so that a continuous high velocity jet spurts under and to some
extern around the ball, thereby sluicing all the movable material ahead to the next manhole.
If the ball encounters an obstruction which is immovable, the ball merely indents to the
necessary degree and moves forward. The only fixed obstruction which will stop the
forward progress of the ball is a root mass or some similar obstruction tightly wedged into
980 the pipe. Bricks, stones, bottles, loose metal parts, broken pieces of pipes, sand, gravel and
settled sludge are easily moved ahead. If the ball stops momentarily, a pull on the trial line
is usually sufficient to set it in motion again. If the pipe is very dirty, the trial line can be
tied to a step in the upper manhole and the ball's progress can be retarded to the required
degree as the lower manhole is reached, thus giving time for complete removal of
985 accumulated silt and debris which has piled up ahead of the ball. Equipment arrangement is
shown in Figure 2.28 and Figure 2.29.
Figure 2.28 Typical setup for hydraulic cleaning using sewer ball
Final Draft 2-31

Figure 2.29 Balling equipment

A wooden ball, also called a sewer pile, can also be used for this purpose, particularly for
cleaning large outfall sewers. It is dropped into the sewer and owing to its buoyant action
rolls along the invert of the sewer. The obstructions caused by it to the flow produce a
995 vigorous scouring action along the invert and the sides which has the effect of removing
tree growths and the deposits from the sewers. This method is economical and hence can be
used at frequent intervals.
c. Sewer Scooters
This arrangement is an improved version of the scraper and consists of two jacks, a
1000 controlling rope and the scooter with a tight fitting shield. In contrast to the scraper, the
scooter completely stops any flow of sewage. The scooter, attached to the control rope, is
lowered into the manhole and then into the downstream sewer line. The downstream
manhole jack is lowered into place from the road and the upper manhole jack set across the
top of the manhole.
1005 When the scooter is introduced in the line, it stops the flow of sewage thus building up a
head behind the shield. The resulting pressure causes the scooter to move through the sewer
until it accumulates enough debris to stop its movement. The head is then allowed to build
up approximately one meter before the control rope is pulled, causing the shield to fold
back, thus allowing the accumulated sewage to gush into the sewer downstream, flushing
1010 the debris ahead to the next manhole from where it is removed. The control rope is
released, clearing the shield against the sewage and causing the scooter to advance again
until the debris stops its movement. This process is repeated until the scooter reaches the
downstream manhole where it may be removed or allowed to continue through the next
section.
1015 The operation of the sewer scooter is shown in Figure 2.30.
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.30 Scooter operation

Final Draft 2-32
2.3.1.8 Velocity Cleaners (Jetting Machines)

1020 The high velocity sewer cleaner makes use of high velocity water jets to remove and dislodge
obstructions, soluble grease, gut and other materials from sanitary, storm and combined
sewerage systems. It combines the functions of a rodding machine and gully emptier machine.
Basically it includes a high pressure hydraulic pump capable of delivering water at variable
pressure up to about 80 kg/cm2 through a flexible hose to a sewer cleaning nozzle. The nozzle
1025 has one forward facing hole and a number of rear ward facing holes. The high pressure water
coming out of the holes with a high velocity breaks up and dislodges the obstructions and
flushes the materials down the sewer. Moreover by varying the pressure suitably, the nozzle
itself acts as a jack hammer and breaks up stubborn obstructions. (A separate suction pump or
air flow device may also be used to suck the dislodged material).
1030 The entire equipment is usually mounted on a heavy truck chassis with either a separate prime
mover or a power take off for the suction device. The high pressure hose reel is also
hydraulically driven. The truck also carries fresh water tanks for the hydraulic jet and a tank for
the removed sludge and the various controls grouped together for easy operation during sewer
cleaning. The manufacturer's operating and servicing manuals should be carefully followed for
1035 best results in the use of the machine.
2.3.1.9 Suction Units (Gully Emptier)
Suction units create the vacuum required for siphoning of mud, slurry, grit and other materials
from sanitary, storm and combined sewerage systems. The vacuum elevated is such as to siphon
the materials from the deep manholes catch-pits etc., having depth ranging from 1 m to 8 m in
1040 normal cases with an option to suck an additional 4 m with the help of special accessories for
the purpose. The unit can be vehicle or trolley mounted.
Silt and heavy particles settled at the bottom can be agitated and loosened by pressurized air
with the help of the pump and then sucked in a tank. Once the silt tank is full, the effluent is
discharged in the nearby storm water drain or manhole and the operation is repeated until the silt
1045 is cleared off the manhole. The silt deposited in the tank is then emptied at the predetermined
dumping spot.
2.3.2 Notification to STP
Before clearing a large septic stoppage, be sure to notify the operator on duty at the downstream
STP. Septic stoppages develop when the sewer has been blocked for considerable time and/or
1050 the air temperature is hot. Under these conditions the wastewater and organic solids turn black
and smell like rotten eggs. If a large diameter sewer is blocked and a large volume of
wastewater backs up in the pipes, there might not be sufficient fresh water arriving at the
treatment plant to dilute the septic waste water. When a large volume of septic wastewater
reaches a treatment plant, the treatment processes may fail to do their intended job. By notifying
1055 the operator in advance of the location of the stoppage and approximate volume of septic
wastewater flowing towards the treatment plant, the operator can be alerted and can prepare to
minimize the impact on the treatment processes.
2.3.3 Disposal of Silt and Sludge
Sludge from sewers can be disposed of along with grit and sludge of the STP (if available).
1060 Otherwise, the sludge and silt can be co-disposed in an eco-friendly manner with municipal
solid waste.
2.3.4 Cleaning Records and their Utilization
Records of all cleaning operations should be entered and filed for future reference. These
records should include the data, street name or number, line size, distance, and manhole
1065 numbers or identification. Also the kind and amount of materials removed, wastewater flow, and
Final Draft 2-33

auxiliary water used should be noted. If particular problems were encountered, these too should
be noted, especially the exact location of obstructions. A record form sample is shown in Figure
2.31.
During the routine cleaning operations discussed in this chapter, many manholes should be
1070 opened and used for high-velocity cleaning or flushing of sewer. Manhole Inspection form
detailing its location, condition, and any problems observed should be completed. If this is done
each time a manhole is opened during cleaning operations, over time the database for these
structures will include up-to-date information on a high percentage of them and allow better
decisions to be made in regard to routine maintenance, repair, or rehabilitation.
1075 If pieces of broken sewer are removed, a TV inspection may be needed and repairs may need to
be made on the broken sections of pipe.
Recording traffic patterns at a site can be very helpful next time the equipment is set up at the
location. Car park (such as over manholes), traffic volume during rush hours, and whether
police traffic control should be called for help before going to the site, should be indicated.
1080 Computers are being used in many aspects of operation, maintenance, and recordkeeping of
collection system. Computer software packages are available for scheduling preventive
maintenance activities, issuing work orders for repairs, keeping track of where work is done,
who did the work, when, and the labour and materials required. With the correct software, any
information in the computers records can be recalled for future use. Computers are also used to
1085 keep spare parts inventories and to order spare parts when the supply runs low and before they
are needed for scheduled maintenance and repairs.
When marking out records, remember that you or someone else will be referring to them. The
more complete the record, the easier the next operation becomes since you have a history of this
sewer.
1090
Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.31 Sewer cleaning records

2.4 Sewer Rehabilitation
2.4.1 Introduction
1095 Deterioration of sewers proceeds over the surface as a whole, and repair takes considerable time,
therefore, it is necessary to implement renewal and repair according to a plan on the basis of the
Final Draft 2-34

results of inspection and examinations. This practice will prevent accidents.

In older cities, most sewers though developed have already exceeded the service life. In such
cities, adequate renewal and repair may resolve urgent problems and help extend the service life
1100 of the facilities, reducing O&M expenses.
The two terms renewal and repair are clearly segregated as follows. Renewal is not included in
O & M duties but in construction because the time of implementation is the starting point of the
new service life and changes must be made to fixed assets
a. Renewal
1105 The term means improvement and replacement of facilities not caused by expansion of
drainage area.
Improvement: Reconstruction or replacement of the facility that has not yet reached the
specified service life.
Replacement: Reconstruction or replacement of the facility that has reached the specified
1110 service life.
b. Repair
This refers to partial replacement or repair of damage to the facility. Repair provides
utility but not an increase in functions, so it does not contribute to extension of the service
life of the facility. Repair simply maintains the capacity and life and does not cause a
1115 change in fixed assets.
However, making a clear distinction between O&M and construction duties is often difficult for
implementation of renewal and repair according to the plan. In certain cases, it is therefore
desirable to plan these duties as one package. Improvement of functions of existing sewers
while incorporating elements related to planning and construction projects is generally called
1120 rehabilitation. The definition of terms related to rehabilitation is given in Table 2.13.
Table 2.13 Definition of terms
Terms Definition Classification
Rehabilitation, All concepts to improve functions of existing
Rehabilitation All measures
reconstruction sewer pipes.
Repair of structural damage of partial renewal of Structural
Repair Repair
sewer pipes measures
Functional improvement of a certain section Structural
Renovation Renovation
while utilizing the existing pipe structures measures
Renewal of new pipes, with basic functions and Structural
Renewal Renewal
capacities remaining equal to original pipes. measures
Replacement with new pipes to reinforce Hydraulic
Replacement Replacement
functions and capacities measures
Reinforcement Installation of new pipes to enhance the flow Hydraulic
Reinforcement
pipes capacity of the entire system. measures
Source: JICA, 2011
2.4.2 Rehabilitation Method

Under the traditional method of sewer relief, a replacement is made or additional parallel sewer
1125 line is constructed by digging along the entire length of the existing pipeline, while these
traditional methods of sewer rehabilitation require unearthing and replacing the deficient pipe
(the dig-and-replace method), trenchless methods of rehabilitation use the existing pipe as a host
for a new pipe or liner. Trenchless sewer rehabilitation techniques correct pipe deficiencies that
require less restoration and cause less disturbance and environmental degradation than the
1130 traditional dig-and-replace method. Trenchless sewer rehabilitation methods include:
Final Draft 2-35

Pipe bursting or in-line expansion

Slip lining
Cured-in-place pipe
Modified cross-section liner
1135 These alterative techniques must be fully understood before they are applied. These four sewer
rehabilitation methods are described in detail in the following sections.
2.4.2.1 Pipe Bursting or In-line Expansion
Pipe bursting or in-line expansion is a method by which the existing pipe is forced outward and
opened by a bursting tool. During in-line expansion, the existing pipe is used as a guide for
1140 inserting the expansion head (part of the bursting tool). The expansion head, typically pulled by
a cable rod and winch, increases the area available for the new pipe by pushing the existing pipe
radially outward until it cracks. The bursting device pulls the new pipeline behind itself. The
pipe bursting process is illustrated in Figure 2.32.
1145 Source: JICA, 2011
Figure 2.32 Pipe bursting process

2.4.2.2 Slip Lining
Slip lining is a well established method of trenchless rehabilitation. During the slip lining
process, a new liner of smaller diameter is placed inside the existing pipe. The annular space, or
1150 area between the existing pipe and the new pipe, is typically grouted to prevent leaks and to
provide structural integrity. If the annulus between the sections is not grouted, the liner is not
considered a structural liner. Continuous grouting of the annular space provides the seal.
Grouting only the end-of-pipe sections can cause failures and leaks. In most slip lining
applications, manholes cannot function as proper access points to perform the rehabilitation. In
1155 these situations, an insertion pit must be dug for each pipeline segment. Due to this requirement
in most applications, slip lining is not a completely trenchless technique. However, the
excavation required is considerably less than that for the traditional dig-and-replace method.
System and site conditions will dictate the amount of excavation spared. Methods of slip lining
include continuous, segmental and spiral wound methods. All three methods require laterals to
1160 be re-connected by excavation or by a remote cutter. In continuous slip lining, the new pipe,
jointed to form a continuous segment, is inserted into the host pipe at strategic locations. The
installation access point, such as a manhole or insertion pit, must be able to handle the bending
of the continuous pipe section. Installation by the segmental method involves assembling pipe
segment at the access point. Slip lining by the segment method can be accomplished without
1165 rerouting the existing flow. In many applications, the existing flow reduces frictional resistance
and thereby aids in the installation process. Spiral wound slip lining is performed within a
manhole or access point by using interlocking edges on the ends of the pipe segments to connect
the segments. The spiral wound pipe is then inserted into the existing pipe as illustrated in
Figure 2.33.
Final Draft 2-36

1170
Source: JICA, 2011
Figure 2.33 Spiral wound slip lining process

2.4.2.3 Cured-in-place Pipe
A typical cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) process by the water-inversion method is illustrated in
1175 Figure 2.34. During the CIPP renewal process, a flexible fabric liner coated with a thermosetting
resin is inserted in the existing pipeline and cured to form to a new liner. The liner is typically
inserted in the existing pipe through an existing manhole. The fabric tube holds the resin in
place until the tube is inserted in the pipe and ready to be cured. Commonly manufactured resins
include unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy, each having distinct chemical resistance to
1180 domestic sewage. The CIPP method can be applied to rehabilitate pipe lines with defects such as
cracks, offset joints, and structurally deficient segments. The thermosetting resin material bonds
with the existing pipe materials to form a tighter seal than most other trenchless techniques. The
two primary methods of installing CIPP are winch-in-place and invert-in-place. These methods
are used during installation to feed the tube through the pipe. The winch-in-place method uses a
1185 winch to pull the tube through the existing pipeline. After being pulled through the pipeline, the
tube is inflated to push the liner against the existing pipe walls. The more typically applied
inversion-in-place method uses gravity and either water or air pressure to force the tube through
the pipe and invert it, or turn the tube inside out. This process of inversion presses the
resin-coated tube against the walls of the existing pipe. During both the winch-in-place and
1190 invert-in-place methods, heat is then circulated through the tube to cure the resin to form a
strong bond between the tube and the existing pipe.
Source: EPA, 1996
Figure 2.34 Cures-in-place pipe installation procedure
Final Draft 2-37

1195 2.4.2.4 Modified Cross-section Lining

The modified cross-section lining methods include deformed and reformed methods,
swagelining TM, and roll down. These methods either modify the pipes cross sectional profile
or reduce its cross-sectional area so that the liner can be extruded through the existing pipe. The
liner is subsequently expanded to conform to the existing pipe's size. During deformed and
1200 reformed pipeline renewal, a new flexible pipe is deformed in shape and inserted into the host
pipe. While the method of deforming the flexible pipe varies, with many processes referred to as
fold and form methods, a typical approach is to fold the new liner into a U shape, reducing
the pipe's diameter by about 30 per cent. After the liner is pulled through the existing line, the
liner is heated and pressurized to conform to the original pipe shape. Another method of
1205 obtaining a close fit between the new lining and existing pipe is to temporally compress the new
liner before it is drawn through the existing pipeline. The swagelining TM and roll down
processes use chemical and mechanical means, respectively, to reduce the cross-sectional area
of the new liner. During swagelining TM and a typical draw-down process, the new liners are
heated and subsequently passed through a reducing die. A chemical reaction between the die and
1210 liner material temporarily reduces the liner's diameter by 7 to 15 percent and allows the liner to
be pulled through the existing pipe. As the new liner cools, it expands to its original diameter.
The roll down process uses a series of rollers to reduce the pipe liner's diameter. As in
deform-and-reform methods, heat and pressure are applied to expand the liner to its original
pipe diameter after it has been pulled through the existing pipe. Unlike CIPP, the modified
1215 cross-section methods do not make use of resins to secure the liner in-place. Lacking
resin-coated lining, these methods do not have the curing time requirement of CIPP. A tight fit is
obtained when the folded pipe expands to the host pipe's inside diameter under applied heat and
pressure. As with the CIPP method, dimples are formed at lateral, junctions and similar methods
of reconnecting the laterals can be employed. Materials typically used for modified
1220 cross-section linings include Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE).
2.4.3 Maintenance of Machinery and Apparatus for Rehabilitation
Emergency cleaning and a repair are required in case of an emergency response. Therefore, a
maintenance engineer should repair machinery and equipment to the original. In addition, he
1225 should have enough maintenance and repair materials required (for example pipes, lid, the
mounting tube).
Also, he should stock construction materials such as sand, rock crushing, and asphalt for the
cave-in repair of roads.
He should ensure that the materials, equipment and facilities, and necessary safety equipment
1230 are in standby state at all times.
2.5 Protection of Sewer Systems
A sewer may get damaged if other facilities such as water pipe or electric cable work are done
beside or at the cross-section of a sewer. Especially, fluctuations due to ground excavation (pile,
underground water drops, and pile method) may have a serious impact.
1235 To avoid damage against sewer, the maintenance engineer should do the following:
Collect related information about the constructions which are planned around the
sewer location,
Advise appropriate construction methods to minimize impact for sewer, and
If necessary, request to adopt the protective measures for sewer prior to the work
1240 commencement.
Typical protective measures are as follows:
Final Draft 2-38
Protection for existing sewer (an example is shown in Figure 2.35)

Temporary laying of sewage pipe
Changing sewer material in advance
1245
Figure 2.35 Protection method for existing sewer
2.6 Protection against Infiltration and Exfiltration
Infiltration and inflow, while overlooked in many collection systems for decades, have now
gained recognition as major defects that can cause failure of a collection system. In most cases,
1250 this failure results in hydraulic overloads (too much water) of the collection system or the
sewage treatment plant.
In the case of a collection system, hydraulic overloads result in surcharged manholes,
overflowing manholes and exposure of community to diseases and pollutants carried by the
wastewater in a collection system. This type of failure is also known as a sanitary sewer
1255 overflow.
In the case of an STP, infiltration and inflow can result in plant loads exceeding the plant
capacity. Bypassing raw sewer to the environment has been the only answer in the past, but this
practice is no longer allowed.
2.6.1 Measures against Infiltration of Rainwater
1260 Inflow detection and collection depend upon the type and source of inflow causing the problem.
Inflow is water that is not polluted and should not be in a wastewater collection system. Inflow
is water that enters a sewer as a result of a deliberate illegal connection or by deliberate drainage
of flooded areas into a wastewater collection system.
In many areas the main line portion of the collection system is relatively tight. A major source of
1265 infiltration in this situation can be the house service lines. They can be tested for leaks using
smoke tests and by development of small cameras and robotic equipment.
Collection or elimination of inflow/ infiltration depends on the type and location of the source
of problem. Typical solutions to inflow/infiltration problems include:
a. Manholes
1270 Raise rim elevation by use of grade rings if not located in streets (inflow).
Install watertight covers where needed (inflow).
Install inflow protection covers (inflow).
Seal covers (inflow).
Seal or repair barrels (infiltration).
1275 b. Sewer Pipes (Infiltration)
Final Draft 2-39
Seal segment of damaged pipes and joints.

Dig up and replace damaged pipes and joints.
Line sewer with a plastic liner and/or fibre liner material.
2.6.2 Measures against Exfiltration of Untreated Sewage
1280 Exfiltration is the leakage of wastewater out of the collection system through broken or damage
pipes and manholes. All wastewater collection systems, except some constructed in recent years,
have many leaks. These systems may exfiltrate wastewater through defective pipe joints and
cracks. The wastewater that does exfiltrate may contaminate shallow wells or open ditches
where children and pets play. To make an old collection system airtight would be extremely
1285 expensive and not very cost-effective. Major points of infiltration or exfiltration in a collection
system can be identified by the use of television or smoke testing and can then be corrected.
Source: EPA/600/R-01/034
Figure 2.36 Sewerage leaking locations

1290 The proper selection of corrective or rehabilitation methods and materials depends on a
complete understanding of the problems to be corrected, as well as the potential impacts
associated with the selection of each rehabilitation method. Pipe rehabilitation methods to
reduce exfiltration (and simultaneously infiltration) fall into one of the two following categories:
External Rehabilitation Methods
1295 Internal Rehabilitation Methods
Certain conditions of the host pipeline influence the selection of the rehabilitation method. It is
therefore necessary to assess these factors to prepare the pipe for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation is
proceeded by surface preparation by cleaning the pipes to remove scale, tuberculation, corrosion,
and other foreign matter.
1300 The concerned departments, corporation, urban local bodies, town planning authority, jal nigam,
etc have to participate in the total sanitation program. These departments should be part of a
co-ordination committee constituted at a local level and are required to meet half yearly to plan
appropriate co-ordination specific to total sanitation. These meetings however, can be more
frequent during specific items such as drought, floods, etc
1305 2.6.2.1 External Sewer Rehabilitation Methods
External rehabilitation methods are performed from above the ground surface by excavating
adjacent to the pipe, or the external region of the pipe is treated from within the pipe through the
wall. Some of the methods used include:
External Point Repairs
1310 Chemical Grouting (Acryl amide Base Gel and Acrylic Base Gel)
Final Draft 2-40
Cement Grouting (Cement , Micro fine Cement, and Compaction)

2.6.2.2 Internal Sewer Rehabilitation Methods
Internal sewer rehabilitation methods are the same as infiltration measures.
2.7 Manholes and Appurtenances
1315 Because they are part of the collection system, manholes require the same inspection and
attention as the rest of sewer network. When located in streets, these structures are subject to
vibrations and pounding of vehicle traffic. Manholes may settle at a different rate than
connected sewer, creating cracks in joints. The objectives of manhole inspection are therefore,
to determine the proper elevations or grades around the lid, to confirm that the lid is not buried,
1320 and to examine structural integrity (look for cracks) of the manhole and its functional capacity.
The condition of the pipelines coming into a manhole may be known merely by observing the
content and volume of flows from a specific direction.
2.7.1 Inspections and Examinations
Manhole inspection and examination are made by visually inspecting the condition of the cover
1325 and the internal parts.
Manhole inspection should be carried out together with the inspection and examination of
sewer. It is generally carried out together with the cleaning of the sewer.
Before entering any manhole, adequate safety measures should be taken in accordance with
subsection 2.11.1.2.
1330 Safety measures during the work should be formulated giving consideration to traffic safety,
oxygen deficiency, poisoning due to toxic gas such as hydrogen sulphide, and so on.
2.7.1.1 Manhole
Damage or wear in the manhole cover obstructs passage and is a risk. The facility manager
should inspect the manhole cover for damage, wear, play, non-coincidence of heights of cover
1335 and road surface, offset of manhole block, and so on.
Refer to Figure 2.37, Figure 2.38 and Figure 2.39.
Figure 2.37 Wear of cover
1340 Figure 2.38 Offset of manhole block
Final Draft 2-41

Figure 2.39 Not coinciding with height of road surface

2.7.1.2 Conditions Inside Manhole
Manhole is an essential facility for operation and maintenance of sewer pipes; it helps operation
1345 and maintenance to be performed safely and easily. For smooth flow of wastewater through the
sewer pipe, the following are to be properly inspected: scouring of sewer bottom, differential
settlement, manhole block, crack in side wall, sediments and condition of mouth of connected
sewer pipe.
Inspection should be performed on ground, while examination should be performed by the
1350 relevant person entering the manhole and working inside.
The inspection items and their descriptions are given in Table 2.14.
Table 2.14 Inspection and examination items for manhole
Item inspected Description of inspection
a. Check for crack, subsidence, and cave-in
b. Check for overflow stream
Ground surface
c. Check for any invaded pavement
d. Check surrounding condition
a. Visual check for backlash, abraded surface, and
corrosion (Check if any mark on external or internal
Exterior condition
surface of cover is erased.)
b. Check for any malfunction of float preventive
Manhole cover
function, locking device, fall preventive function, etc.
c. Others (damage on rising spacer, difference in grade
of cover and grade ring, damaged grade ring, caved in
manhole cover, offset, etc.)
a. Check for stagnant water or flow
b. Check for any accumulation of sand and soil, pieces
of wood, and mortar including remains of
Flow and sediment
construction works and illegal disposals.
c. Check for appearance of inverts such as scouring,
damage, etc.
a. Check steps for corrosion, rattling, and missing items
(No.).
Interior condition
b. Check blocks for damage, crack, corrosion, gap, and
deteriorated caulking.
Damage c. Check barrel and base for damage, crack, and
corrosion.
d. Check for any improper joint of main sewers and
laterals.
e. Check for any irregular subsidence.
Infiltration a. Check for infiltration
a. Check inflow for unacceptable or inferior quality.
Others
b. Check for toxic gases or odour.
Final Draft 2-42

1355 Table 2.15 shows an example of the form for recording inspections.
Table 2.15 Inspection record
Manhole maintenance Manhole No. - -
Constructed year FY (______)

Type no:
Manhole type
Specific ( ) Nodular graphite cast iron (flat,
Type of cover
tapered), Gray cast iron, Concrete
Manhole Fair / Poor
Total no.
Steps
Fair no.
Poor no.
Water depth
cm
downstream
No. Pipe diameter Type Depth to base Condition
Replace cover M/Y

Month / Year / / / / / / / / /
Cleaning M/Y
Month / Year / / / / / / / / /
M/Y
Inspection / / / / / / / / /
Month / Year
M/Y
Conditions
/ / / / / / / / /
(Condition)
a) Wear, b) Backlash, c) Difference in level, d) pavement hiding the manhole,
Cover
e) Damaged, f) Location unknown
g) Corrosion, h) Damage base, i) Infiltration, j) Corroded steps, k) Inferior pipe joint,
Interior
l) Rubbish, m) Odour
n) Corrosion, o) Damage, p) Coupling displacement, q) Inadequate inclination,
Sewer
r) Infiltration, s) Roots of trees, t) Silt, soil, and mortar, u) Road subsidence
2.7.2 Judgement of Examination Results

Judgement criteria for inspection and examination show ranked levels of abnormal locations,
1360 and can be used for judging the need for cleaning and repairs and for selecting repair methods,
etc.
Final Draft 2-43
Judgement criteria are used to categorize by symptom the abnormal locations detected during
inspection and examination, to assess the risk level and their effect level on others, to judge the
need for cleaning and repairs and to select repair methods, etc.
1365 2.7.3 Cleaning
Manhole cleaning should be performed by the most appropriate work method that suits the
actual conditions of the work location.
In manholes at starting point, junction manholes, and manholes at sharp curve of sewers, sand
and silt get deposited and environmental problems such as foul odours occur. For this reason,
1370 periodic cleaning is necessary. Moreover, when large debris flows in, it should be removed
immediately otherwise there is a possibility of an overflow accident, float-off and dispersion of
cover.
Manhole inspection should be generally carried out together with the cleaning of the sewer. The
work on the silt and sand in the bottom part should be pursuant to cleaning of the sewer pipe,
1375 while the dirt on the side wall should be cleaned by high-pressure jet washing vehicle.
2.7.4 Rehabilitation
Degradation of functions due to damage should be confirmed and necessary repairs and
rehabilitation of the manhole should be carried out.
Manhole repair methods may be classified into watertight construction method, lining method,
1380 partial repair method (open-cut method), and manhole cover replacement method. (Refer to Sec.
3.37 of the Design Manual)
Before repairs, the objectives of the repairs should be clarified, work conditions studied, and
items below should be paid attention to, and then repairs should be carried out.
If cover is worn out or damaged, it should be replaced immediately.
1385 If steps are corroded, and if they need to be replaced, they should be replaced with
corrosion resistant fittings.
If internal parts of manhole and sewer bottom are damaged or worn out, they should be replaced
immediately.
2.8 Cross Drainage Works
1390 For sewer collection system, cross drainage work in an inverted siphon is a typical work.
Therefore, in this section, maintenance work is described hereafter.
2.8.1 Inspection and Examination
Inspection of inverted siphon should be carried out by inspection methods similar to those of the
manhole. However, inspection of inverted siphon should be carried out considering the
1395 characteristics listed below.
The inverted siphon pipe is always in full flow, and the inverted siphon chamber in
the upstream part is constructed such that suspended substances and sand/silt are
likely to accumulate and deposit easily. There are risks of corrosion or gas generation
in the facility because of the decomposition of these substances.
1400 The inverted siphon chamber is provided with a flashboard, and it should be checked
to confirm that it is usable.
Table 2.16 Typical inspection items for inverted siphon
Item Inspected Points Inspected
Flow condition Check difference in levels at upper and lower chambers of
inverted siphon.
Final Draft 2-44
Check for absence of any suspended debris.

Structural condition Check for improper functioning of gate, stop log, etc.
2.8.2 Criteria for Judging Examination Results

1405 Judgement criteria for inspection and examination show ranked levels of abnormal locations,
and can be used for judging the need for cleaning and repairs and for selecting repair methods.
The judgement criteria for inverted siphon should be the same as the judgement criteria for
sewer pipe.
2.8.3 Cleaning
1410 The construction of the inverted siphon is such that wastewater always remains in it at all times,
so sand, silt and sludge is likely to deposit easily. This requires periodic cleaning so as to
prevent overflow and foul odour problems beforehand.
An effective cleaning method should be selected when cleaning the inverted siphon, and work
that gives adequate consideration to safety measures should be implemented. Cleaning should
1415 be performed at least once a year.
a. Replacing water in the inverted siphon
The submersible pump and generator used for replacing water in the inverted siphon should
be selected appropriately considering the influent flow rate and the head, and a replacement
plan with adequate margin should be formulated.
1420 b. Cleaning of inverted siphon manhole
The main cleaning methods of sand trap of inverted siphon manhole are vacuum truck
cleaning and manual cleaning. Table 2.17 gives the description.
Table 2.17 Cleaning method
Cleaning method Application
Cleaning of manholes for inverted siphons by
Cleaning by vacuum vehicle
means of vacuum vehicles.
If a cleaning by vacuum vehicle is difficult,
Manual cleaning inverted siphons are cleaned by crew getting down
into the siphon or by using a crane equipped truck.
1425 c. Cleaning of inverted siphon sewer

Inverted siphon sewer should be cleaned together with the cleaning of general sewers.
After sucking up the wastewater in the manhole by submersible pump, the manhole on the
upstream side should be cleaned, and then the manhole on the downstream side and the
insides of the sewer should be cleaned. The ease or difficulty of work depends on the pipe
1430 diameter, number of cables and closing equipment, but work should be performed
according to sewer cleaning by combining mechanical and manual means. Figure 2.40
shows the cleaning work.
If the head exceeds 20 m, especially powerful vacuum trucks may need to be used.
Final Draft 2-45

1435 Figure 2.40 Inverted siphon cleaning work

2.9 Pressure Sewer
2.9.1 Pressurized Sewers
Pressure sewers are meant for collecting sewage from multiple sources to deliver to an existing
collection sewer, and/or to the STP. These sewers are not dependent on gravity.
1440 The principle advantages are the ability to sewer areas with undulating terrain, rocky soil
conditions and high groundwater tables as pressurized sewers can be laid close to the ground
and anchored well without infiltration. Exfiltration can be quickly detected and corrected.
Moreover, this sewer allows smaller diameter pipes and road crossings by CI or DI pipes with
trenchless technology to be laid inside a casing pipe and installation without disrupting traffic,
1445 without opening trenches across paved roadways, or moving existing utilities, etc.
A disadvantage is the need to ensure unfailing power supply to the grinder pump
2.9.2 Vacuum Sewer System
The vacuum sewer collects sewage from multiple sources and conveys it to the STP. As the
name suggests, a vacuum is maintained in the collection system and when a house sewer is
1450 opened to atmospheric pressure, sewage and air are pulled into the sewer, whereby the air forms
a plug in the line, and air pressure pushes the sewage towards the vacuum station. This
differential pressure comes from a central vacuum station. These sewers can take advantage of
available slope in the terrain, but have a limited capacity to pull water uphill may be to
approximately 9 m. A disadvantage is the need to ensure unfailing power supply to the grinder
1455 pump.
2.9.3 O&M System
Neither pressurized sewer system nor vacuum sewer system is used in the public sewer systems
in India. Therefore, O&M is not explained here. Only system characteristics of pressurized
sewer and vacuum sewer are shown in Table 2.18.
1460 Table 2.18 Pressurised sewer and vacuum sewer
Vacuum sewer Pressurised sewer
Sewage pulled and conveyed by Sewage pressurized and conveyed by
Collection principle
vacuum force. a grinder pump.
A vacuum valve unit for one or some A grinder pump unit for one or some
Typical facility
households, vacuum sewer laterals, households, and pressurized sewer
configuration
and a lift station laterals.
Pipe diameter Typically 100 to 250 mm Typically 32 to 150 mm
Can be laid in a shallow depth without
Laying depth Can be laid in a shallow depth.
gradient.
Topographical Adequate for flat terrain which can Applicable for wide range of terrain
Final Draft 2-46

Vacuum sewer Pressurised sewer

requirements hold certain degree of vacuum force types.
so that sewage can be pulled, and for
densely populated area to some
extent.
Power source Required for lift station Required for each grinder pump unit.
O&M cost and energy cost for
O&M cost and energy cost for grinder
vacuum valve unit and lift station.
O&M cost pump unit. Generally, higher than that
Generally, higher than that of gravity
of gravity sewer.
sewer.
2.10 House Service Connection

House connections or service connections to the public or municipal sewer should preferably be
approved by the Maintenance Engineer. It is necessary to ensure that the fittings and pipes in the
1465 houses are according to the byelaws or rules or regulations in force. If such byelaws, rules or
regulations do not exist, then reference may be made to the relevant IS code of practice. House
connections may be of minimum size of 150 mm in diameter and should preferably be
connected to the Municipal or Public sewer through a manhole. When Y or T connections are
allowed, extreme care must be taken when breaking the sewer pipe line and inserting the Y or
1470 T saddle.
Similarly, the connection to the manhole must be properly done and closed. Care has to be taken
so that the brick bats or other materials of construction are not allowed to fall and lie in the
manhole. This extraneous material is largely responsible for persistent clogging of the sewer
lines.
1475 It should also be ensured that the house fittings are properly trapped not only to prevent the
ingress of sewer gases into the houses but also to ensure that large objects do not find their way
into the sewers. Similarly, it should be ensured that any liquid or material which is likely to be
injurious to the material of the sewer line or to prejudicially interfere with its contents or be a
hazard to the workmen engaged in the maintenance of the sewer lines, like very hot water, acids,
1480 chemicals, etc., are not allowed.
2.10.1 Inspection and Examination
Inspection of lateral sewer and house inlet (household) should be carried out if deemed
necessary from documents and data, and cross connections and mains should be studied.
Clogging of lateral sewer and sedimentation of house inlet are the items to be inspected.
1485 Examination of lateral sewer by TV camera should be carried out after high pressure washing of
the lateral sewer. The insides of the pipe should be examined by TV camera, and recorded on
video tape. TV camera for lateral sewer is used as a direct view camera, and the camera head is
pushed by a rod towards the main from the public inlet. Also, there is a method of examination
by which the camera head is pushed in by a hard cab tire cable. Figure 2.41 and Figure 2.42
1490 show working diagrams of examination of lateral sewer by TV camera.
Final Draft 2-47

Source: EPA, 2003
Figure 2.41 Portable TV system for small-diameter pipe
Figure 2.42 Applications of portable TV system in difficult to access locations
Final Draft 2-48

Features of examination of lateral sewer by TV camera
If power supply is ensured, the vehicle loaded with TV camera can work even
in locations where access for humans is not possible.
1500 By connecting the monitor to the vehicle loaded with TV camera, character data
can be displayed on the monitor screen.
The standard examination distance per location during examination of lateral

sewer by TV camera is 5 m maximum.
Procedure for examination of lateral sewer by TV camera is shown in Figure 2.43.
Preparatory process
Cleaning process
Internal sewer inspection Find out, evaluate, and record faults
Clearance Report preparation
Work completion
1505
Figure 2.43 Work procedure for examination of lateral sewer by TV camera
2.10.2 Criteria for Judging Examination Results

These criteria should adhere to the inspection criteria for sewer pipes.
2.10.3 Cleaning
1510 Cleaning should conform to the cleaning procedure for sewer pipes.
2.10.4 Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation should conform to the rehabilitation procedure for sewer pipes.
2.11 Safety Practices

You are in an occupation that has an overall accident frequency rate that is relatively higher than
1515 any other industry. Your employer has the responsibility of provide you with a safe place to
work. But you, as the operator have the overall responsibility for your treatment plant and must
ensure its a safe place to work. This can only be done by constantly thinking of safety and
working safely.
You have the responsibility of protecting yourself and other plant personnel or visitors by
1520 establishing safety procedures for your plant and then ensuring they are followed. Train yourself
to analyze jobs, work areas and procedures from a safety standpoint. Learn to recognize
potentiality hazardous actions or conditions. When you do recognize a hazard, take immediate
steps to eliminate it through corrective action. If correction is not possible, guard against the
hazard by proper use of warning signs and devices/by establishing and maintaining safety
1525 procedures, as an individual, you can be held liable for injuries or property damage which
results from an accident caused by your negligence.
Final Draft 2-49

Remember accidents dont happen - they are caused! Behind every accident there is a chain
of events which leads to an unsafe act unsafe condition/or a combination of both.
Accidents may be prevented by using common sense, applying a few basic safety rules and
1530 acquiring a good knowledge of the hazards unique to your job as a plant operator.
2.11.1 Accidents related to Sewer Facilities

2.11.1.1 Need for Traffic Control
The primary function of streets is to provide for the movement of traffic. A common secondary
use within the right-of-way of streets is for the placement of public and private utilities such as
1535 sanitary sewers. While the movement of traffic is very important, streets need to be constructed,
reconstructed, or maintained, and utility facilities need to be repaired, modified, or expanded
Consequently, traffic movements and street or utility repair work must be regulated to provide
optimum safety and convenience for all.
Working in a roadway represents a significant hazard to a collection system operator as well as
1540 pedestrians and drivers. Motor vehicle drivers can be observed reading books, files, and
newspapers, shaving, talking on cellular phones, and changing tapes, CDs, or radio stations (and
using headsets to listen to them) rather than concentrating on driving. At any given time of the
night or day, a certain percentage of drivers can be expected to be driving while under the
influence of drugs or alcohol. Given the amount of time collection system operators work in
1545 traffic while performing inspection, cleaning, rehabilitation, and repairs, the control of traffic is
necessary if we want to reduce the risk of injury or death while working in this hazardous area.
The purpose of traffic control is to provide safe and effective work areas and to warn, control,
protect, and expedite vehicular and pedestrian traffic. This can be accomplished by appropriate
and prudent use of traffic control devices.
1550 Most states, counties, and cities have adopted regulations to control traffic and reduce the risk
under different circumstances. This section illustrates examples of traffic control which may or
may not meet the specific requirements of the laws in your geographical area, but should serve
to make you aware of various aspects of traffic control.
At any time traffic is affected, appropriate authorities in your area must be notified before
1555 leaving for the job site. These could be state, country or local depending on whether it is a state,
country or local street. Frequently, a permit must be issued by the authority that has
jurisdiction before traffic can be diverted or disrupted. In some cases, traffic diversion or
disruption may have an impact on the emergency response system in your area, such as access
by fire or police, and so these agencies may be involved as well in most cases, you will need to
1560 plan ahead to secure permits and notify authorities. This may mean only a phone call or two or
it could mean several days' or weeks' advance planning if you need to make extensive traffic
control arrangements.
Upon arrival at the job site, look for a safe place to park vehicles. If they are to be parked in the
street to do the job, route traffic around the job site before parking vehicles in the street. If
1565 practical, park vehicles between oncoming traffic and the job site to serve as a warning
barricade and to discourage reckless drivers from ploughing into operators.
2.11.1.2 Safety Measure to be taken before any manhole entry
All workers assigned to enter sewer manholes should be provided with proper safety equipment.
Following safety equipment is recommended:
1570 Approved gas detector (Properly calibrated)
Final Draft 2-50

Fresh air blower
Safety harness, rope and tripod safety system
Approved hard hat

Following guidelines may be adopted to ensure safety in manhole:
1575 a. Oxygen content must be at least 19.5% in the confined space of the manhole
measured at all levels (bottom, middle and top). Safe oxygen level is considered if it
ranges between 19.5% and 21%. Nobody should enter the manhole if oxygen level is
below 19.5% and more than 21%.
b. Ventilate the sewer line by opening at least two or three manholes on both sides
1580 where work is to be carried out. This is mandatory where adequate blowers for
ventilating sewers are not available. The manholes should be opened at least one
hour before the start of operation. The opened manhole must be properly fenced or
barricaded to prevent any person specially children from accidentally falling into the
sewer. Dummy cover with BRC welded fabric or wire-net may be used.
1585 c. Fresh air blower ventilation system should be used as far as practicable. It is
desirable to operate blowers for at least 30 minutes before start and during the
cleaning operation.
d. Measure gas inflammability in manholes using detector.
e. Presence of toxic gases may be tested before entry of a person in manhole/ sewer line
1590 and also in between if the operations are for longer period.
f. All workers should use safety harness and life line before entering the sewer line. At
least one support person at the top must be provided for each person entering the
manhole. The person entering the manhole/ sewer line must be monitored using
signal/camera /CCTV etc., throughout the operation period.
1595 g. Structural safety of manhole rungs or steps must be tested before entering the
manhole. Portable aluminium ladder must be available during the work period where
necessary. The portable ladder must be properly seated or fixed during use.
h. Ensure that no material or tools are located near the edge which can fall into the
manhole and injure the work-men.
1600 i. Lower all tools to the workmen in a bucket fixed with rope and pulley.
j. Lighting equipment used during sewer cleaning must be explosion and fire-proof.
k. Caution signboards must be displayed around open manholes during working
period.
l. Smoking, lighting open flames or gadgets producing sparks must be prohibited
1605 inside the manhole as well as in the immediate vicinity of open manholes.
m. All workers entering the manhole must be provided with protective gear and proper
equipment. Use of portable gear and equipment must be monitored strictly.
n. Gas masks for respiratory protection must be available for use by the workers. The
workers must be trained to use the gas masks properly.
1610 o. Sewer inspection and examination guidelines referred to in Section 2.2.5 may be
Final Draft 2-51

followed as and when necessary.

(Honourable Supreme Court of India has directed the need for proper equipment, adequate
protection and safety gear to sewer workers who enter into the manhole for cleaning blocks.
Ref: Delhi Jal Board versus National Campaign for Dignity & Rights of Sewerage and Allied
1615 Workers and others.). Please refer to Appendix 9.3 of this manual.
When entering a large sewer system, you may be required to use special equipment. The type of
equipment might include atmospheric monitoring devices with alarms. In the event of a sudden
or unpredictable atmospheric change, an emergency escape breathing apparatus (EEBA) with at
least a 10-minute air supply should be worn for escape purposes.
1620 2.11.2 Measures against Accidents

Safety measures are dealt with in Chapter 9.
2.11.3 Information to Prevent Accidents and Records

Information to prevent accident and records are dealt with in Chapter 9.
2.12 Troubleshooting
1625 Refer to appendices for troubleshooting for sewerage collection system.
2.13 Summary
The purpose of maintenance of sewerage collection system should be to minimize stoppage of
functions. The following cycle should adhere to:
O&M engineers find out problems related to their sewer system based on information obtained
1630 from inspections or examinations on the facilities. To solve the problems, they need to make a
decision on rehabilitation actions considering prioritization of each facility.
When the facilities are rehabilitated, records of inspections as well as those of rehabilitation
should be kept.
The following cycle is regarded as essential to achieve the goal of sewer system O&M:
1635 Inspection, Condition assessment, Decision making on rehabilitation actions,
Rehabilitation, and Next inspection.
Final Draft 2-52

Inventory database
Impact assessment
Prioritization
Frequency of next Inspection

inspection
Rehabilitation Condition assessment
Decision-making on
rehabilitation actions
Figure 2.44 O&M cycle
Final Draft 2-53

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 3: PUMPING STATION
CHAPTER 3 PUMPING STATION

1640 3.1 Introduction
Pumping stations handle sewage either as in-line for pumping the sewage from a deeper sewer
to a shallow sewer or for conveying to the treatment plant or for outfall pumping. They are
required where low lying development areas cannot be drained by gravity to existing sewerage
infrastructure, and/or where development areas are too far away from available sewerage
1645 infrastructure to be linked by gravity means. Proper O&M of pumping systems applies to all the
components of such systems.
3.2 Types and Structure of Pumping Stations

The type of pumping stations can be (a) Horizontal pumps in dry pit, (b) Vertical pumps in dry
pit, (c) Vertical pumps in suction well and (d) Submersible pumps in suction sump. All these
1650 types include a sewage receiving sump which is called suction sump or wet well and various
types of pump arrangements as shown in Figure 3.1.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Source: CPHEEO, 1993
1655 Figure 3.1 Typical dry-well and wet-well installations
3.2.1 Dry Pit

The size of the dry pit should be adequate for the number of pumps planned and should be such
as to handle the sewage load at the desired pumping capacity. Allowance should also be made
for future requirements so that additional or larger pumps can be installed.
1660 In this configuration, two pits (dry-pit and wet-pit) are required: one to hold the fluid, and one to
house the pumps and appurtenances. This option is required for fluids that cannot be primed or
conveyed long distances in suction piping. It is typically used to pump large volumes of raw
sewage, where uninterrupted flow is critical and sewage solids could clog suction piping. It also
is used to pump solids in pipe galleries between digesters or other solids-handling equipment.
1665 While construction costs may be higher and a heating, ventilation, and cooling system is
necessary when installed below grade, this configuration is best for O&M activities because
Final Draft 3-1
operators can see and touch the equipment.
3.2.2 Suction Sump or Wet Well

Sewage sump is a compartment or tank in which sewage is collected. The suction pipe of a
1670 pump may be connected to the wet well or a submersible pump may be located in the wet well.
Sewage sump design depends on the type of pumping station configuration (submersible or
dry-well) and the type of pump controls (constant or variable speed). Wet-wells are typically
designed large enough to prevent rapid pump cycling but small enough to prevent a long
detention time and associated odour release.
1675 Sewage sumps should always hold some level of sewage to minimise odour release. Bar screens
or grinders are often installed in or upstream of the wet-well to minimise pump clogging
problems.
Instead of manually operated screens at the bottom which requires the staff to get down into the
screen sump, it is better to install mechanical bar screens which can automatically remove the
1680 screenings and lift the same above ground level safely. There can also be two such screens one
after the other for coarse screenings and fine screenings. This will require rectangular channels
to maintain longitudinal non-turbulent linear flow.
3.2.3 Lift Stations

In general, lift stations are invariably used in gravity sewer network where depth of cut poses a
1685 problem in high water prone areas. The procedure is to sink a wet well on the road shoulder or
an acquired plot after the shoulder and divert the deeper sewer there. The submersible pump set
will lift the sewage and discharge it to the next on line shallow sewer. This is a very useful
practice in such locations.
Equipment located in the wet well should be minimised, including suction and discharge valves,
1690 check valves, or other equipment that require routine, periodic maintenance. This equipment can
be located in small equipment manholes located adjacent to the wet well to facilitate
accessibility and maintenance for the operator.
3.2.4 Operation and Maintenance

Pumping machinery and pumping station are very important components of sewerage systems.
1695 Pumping machinery is subjected to wear, tear, erosion and corrosion due to its nature of
functioning, and therefore it is vulnerable to failures. Generally, failures or interruptions are
mostly attributed to pumping machinery rather than any other component. Therefore, correct
operation and timely maintenance and upkeep of pumping stations and pumping machinery are
of vital importance. Sudden failures can be avoided by timely inspection, follow up actions on
1700 observations of inspection and planned periodical maintenance. Downtime can be reduced by
maintaining inventory of fast moving spare parts.
Obviously due attention needs to be paid to all such aspects for efficient and reliable functioning
of pumping machinery.
3.2.4.1 Operation of the Pumps
1705 The following points should be observed while operating the pumps.
a. Dry running of the pumps should be avoided.
b. Centrifugal pumps should be primed before starting.
Final Draft 3-2

c. Pumps should be operated only within the recommended range of the

head-discharge characteristics of the pump.
1710 If pump is operated at a point away from duty point, the pump efficiency
normally reduces.
Operation near the shut-off point should be avoided, as it causes substantial

recirculation within the pump, resulting in overheating of water in the casing
and consequently, overheating of the pump.
1715 d. Voltage during operation of pump-motor set should be within 10% of rated voltage.
Similarly, current should be below the rated current shown on the name plate of the
motor.
e. When parallel pumps are to be operated, the pumps should be started and stopped
with a time lag between two pumps to restrict change of flow velocity to minimum
1720 and to restrict the dip in voltage in the incoming feeder. The time lag should be
adequate to allow the head on the pump to stabilise, as indicated by a pressure gauge.
f. When the pumps are to be operated in series, they should be started and stopped
sequentially, but with minimum time lag. Any pump next in sequence should be
started immediately after the delivery valve of the previous pump is even partly
1725 opened. Due care should be taken to keep open the air vent of the pump next in
sequence, before starting that pump.
g. The stuffing box should allow a drip of leakage to ensure that no air passes into the
pump and that the packing gets adequate water for cooling and lubrication. When the
stuffing box is sealed with grease, adequate refill of the grease should be maintained.
1730 h. The running of the duty pumps and the standby pumps should be scheduled so that
no pump remains idle for a long period and all pumps are in ready-to-run condition.
Similarly, unequal running should be ensured so that all pumps do not wear equally
and become due for overhaul simultaneously.
i. If any undue vibration or noise is noticed, the pump should be stopped immediately
1735 and the cause for vibration or noise should be checked and rectified.
j. Generally, the number of starts per hour shall not exceed four. Frequent starting and
stopping should be avoided as each start causes overloading of motor, starter,
contactor and contact. Although overloading lasts only for a few seconds, it reduces
the life of the equipment.
1740 k. Troubles in a sewage pumping station can be mostly traced to the design stage itself.
This is all the more true when too much grit is likely to come into the sewage
pumping stations from sewages at monsoon time, which is difficult to handle. Hence
sewer collection system should not be allowed to collect any storm water from the
roads.
1745 3.2.4.2 Undesirable Operations
The following undesirable operations should be avoided.
a. Operation at higher head
A pump should never be operated at a head higher than the maximum recommended head
otherwise such operation may result in excessive recirculation in the pump, and
1750 overheating of the water and the pump. Another problem that arises if a pump is operated at
Final Draft 3-3

a head higher than the recommended maximum head is that the radial reaction on the pump
shaft increases causing excessive unbalanced forces on the shaft which may cause failure
of the pump shaft. As a useful guide, appropriate marking should be made on the pressure
gauge. Efficiency at a higher head is normally low so such an operation is also inefficient.
1755 b. Operation at lower head
If a pump is operated at a lower head than the recommended minimum head, the radial
reaction on the pump shaft increases causing excessive unbalanced forces on the shaft
which may cause failure of the pump shaft. As a useful guide appropriate marking should
be made on both pressure gauge and ammeter. Efficiency at a lower head is normally low,
1760 so such an operation is also inefficient.
c. Operation on higher suction lift
If a pump is operated on suction lift higher than the permissible value, pressures at the eye
of impeller and the suction side fall below vapour pressure. This results in flashing of water
into vapour. These vapour bubbles collapse during passage, resulting in cavitation in the
1765 pump, causing pitting on the suction side of impeller and casing, and excessive vibrations.
In addition to mechanical damage due to pitting, pump discharge also reduces drastically.
Typical damage to impeller and sometimes to the casing is shown in Figure 3.2.
Source: http://greathub.hubpages.com/hub/piping-and-pipes#
1770 Figure 3.2 Typical cavitation damage of an impeller

d. Operation of the pump with low submergence
Minimum submergence above the bell-mouth or foot valve is necessary so as to prevent
entry of air into the suction of the pump, which gives rise to the vortex phenomenon,
causing excessive vibration, overloading of bearings, reduction in discharge and in the
1775 efficiency. As a useful guide, the lowest permissible water level should be marked on the
water level indicator. Usually the pump manufacturer indicates the minimum height of
submergence.
e. Operation with occurrence of vortices
If vibration continues even after taking all precautions, vortex may be the cause. Vortex
Final Draft 3-4

1780 should be stopped by using anti vortex fittings as described in Part A of the manual:
Pumping-station maintenance.
A well-planned maintenance program for pumping systems can reduce or prevent unnecessary
equipment wear and downtime. (The following maintenance information applies to both sewage
and solids pumping systems.)
1785 The following is a maintenance checklist for a basic pumping-station:
Check the wet-well level continuously (whenever necessary).
Record each pumps run time hours (as indicated on the elapsed-time meters) at
least once in a day and confirm that the pumps running hours are equal.
Ensure that the control-panel switches are in their proper positions.
1790 Ensure that the valves are in their proper positions.
Check for unusual pump noises.
At least once a week, manually pump down the wet well to check for and remove
debris that may clog the pumps.
Inspect the float balls and cables and remove all debris to ensure that they operate
1795 properly. Untangle twisted cables that may affect automatic operations.
If a pump is removed from service, adjust the lead pump selector switch to the
number that corresponds to the pumps remaining in operation. (This allows the lead
pump levels to govern the operating pumps starts and stops.).
3.2.4.3 Piping and Appurtenance Maintenance
1800 Properly maintaining pumping-station pipelines and other appurtenances can minimize pump
loads. Excessive head losses on either the suction or discharge side of a pump can increase
energy use and the wear rate and consequently, the O&M costs. Excessive head losses also may
lead to process or treatment problems because solids move slower, so the proper solids balance
is not maintained. Operators can monitor head losses by routinely checking the pressure gauges
1805 on both sides of the pumps.
When operators notice excessive head losses (indicated by a pressure drop on the suction side of
the pump or an increase in pressure on the discharge side), they should determine whether the
losses are a result of partial clogging, a restriction somewhere in the line, or materials built up
on the pipe wall. To find clogs, operators should start by checking the pressure at various points
1810 in the suction and discharge piping, and look for spots with abrupt head loss (such as valves or
other constrictions). If something is caught in a valve or other appurtenance, the operator should
stop the pump and physically open out the valve head, remove the blockage. In smaller pumps,
it is easier to remove the entire valve, disassemble and remove blockage, reassemble and refit.
During such time, other pumps shall be run. Scum build-up problems typically are addressed via
1815 source control (for instance, by installing grease traps in the collection system at locations
suspected or known to generate grease, such as restaurants, etc.).
3.3 Gates, Valves and Actuators

3.3.1 Sluice Gate
A sluice gate (Figure 3.3) is traditionally a wooden or metal plate which slides in grooves in the
1820 sides of the channel. Sluice gates are commonly used to control water levels in sewerage
Final Draft 3-5

treatment plants.
Attention should be paid to the following points for proper operation:
a. Test for proper operation
Operate inactive sluice gates by smearing grease on stem threads.
1825
Source: EPA, 2008
Figure 3.3 Sluice gate

b. Clean and paint
Clean sluice gate with wire brush and paint with proper corrosion-resistant paint.
1830 c. Adjust for proper clearance
For gates seated against pressure, check and adjust top, bottom, and side wedges until each
wedge applies nearly uniform pressure against gate in the closed position. This shall be
done by the manufacturer and not the operator.
d. Check for the following:
1835 Ensure unobstructed operation of gate and headstock.
Ensure that the spindle is not touching the stem guide.
Remove foreign matter like paint, concrete, etc. in the fully open position of
gate.
e. Dos for sluice gates
1840 Operate the gate at least once in every three months.
Check the nuts of all construction and foundation bolts once in a year. Tighten
the bolts, if loose.
Examine the entire painted surface for any signs of damage to the protective
paint.
Final Draft 3-6
1845 f. Donts for sluice gates
Do not remove lock plates until the gate has been properly installed.
Do not keep the gate out of operation for more than three months.
Do not forget to set the stop nut in the correct position.
Do not disturb the adjustment of wedge block bolts/studs.
1850 Do not over torque the crank handle/hand wheel.
3.3.2 Valve
On the delivery side of centrifugal pumps, a non-return valve is necessary to prevent
back-pressure from the delivery head on the pump, when the pump is shut off. To avoid
water-hammer, which is likely to be caused by the closure of the valve, the valve may be
1855 provided with an anti-slam device, which may be either a lever and dead-weight type, a
spring-loading type or the dash pot type.
Pumps may be run in parallel operation with different permutation of the standbys. Isolation
valves would be needed to isolate those pumps which are to be idle. Generally, the isolating
valves are gate valves, which should preferably be of the rising stem type, since this type offers
1860 the advantage of visual indication of the valve-position. For exterior underground locations, gate
valves are generally used.
3.3.2.1 Gate Valve
A gate valve is a valve that opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of
the fluid (Figure 3.4).The distinct feature of a gate valve is that the sealing surfaces between the
1865 gate and seats are planar. The gate faces can form a wedge shape or they can be parallel. Typical
gate valves should never be used for regulating flow, unless they are specifically designed for
that purpose.
Final Draft 3-7

Source: EPA, 2008
1870 Figure 3.4 Gate valve

Gate valves require the following maintenance:
a. Replace packing
Modern gate valves can be repacked without removing them from service. Before
repacking, open the valve wide. This prevents excessive leakage when the packing or the
1875 entire stuffing box is removed. It draws the stem collar tightly against the bonnet bushing
on a rising stem valve.
b. Operate valve
Operate inactive gate valves to prevent sticking.
c. Lubricate gearing
1880 Lubricate gate valves as recommended by manufacturer. Lubricate thoroughly any gearing
in large gate valves. Wash open gears with solvent and lubricate with grease.
d. Lubricate rising stem threads
Clean threads on rising stem gate valves and lubricate with grease.
e. Lubricate buried valves
1885 If a buried valve works hard, lubricate it by pouring oil down through a pipe that is bent at
the end to permit oiling the packing follower below the valve nut.
3.3.2.2 Non-Return Valve (Check Valve)
Normally, a check valve is installed in the discharge of each pump to provide a positive shutoff
Final Draft 3-8

from force main pressure when the pump is shut off and to prevent the force main from draining
1890 back into the wet well.
The most common type of check valve is the swing check valve which is shown in Figure 3.5.
This valve consists of a valve body with a clapper arm attached to a hinge that opens when the
pump starts operating and closes to seat when the pump is shut off.
1895 Figure 3.5 Check valve

Check valves must close before the water column in the pipe reverses flow; otherwise, severe
water hammer can occur when the clapper arm slams against the valve body seat. If this occurs,
an adjustment of the outside weight or spring is usually required. A traditional clapper type of
check valve has a lever on the extended shaft which allows adjustment of the weight on the arm
1900 or spring to vary the closing time. Wear occurs within the valve primarily on the clapper
hinge-and-shaft assemblies and should be checked annually for looseness.
Preventive maintenance (To be done only by the manufacturer)
a. Inspect Disc Facing
Open valves to observe condition of facing on swing check valves equipped with neoprene
1905 seats on disc.
If metal seat ring is scarred, dress it with a fine file and lap with fine emery paper wrapped
around a flat tool.
b. Check Pin Wear
Check pin wear on balanced disc check valve since disc must be accurately positioned in
1910 the seat to prevent leakage.
3.3.2.3 Non-Return Valve (Ball Type)
Non-return valve (Figure 3.6) is depending on a light weight and suitable coated ball moving
inside the flowing pipe to occupy an elevated angular position while the fluid is in pumping and
dropping back to close the reverse flow through the pipe. Because it is a sphere sitting over a
1915 circular opening, it is expected to seat properly and seal the reverse flow. The material of the
ball, the coating and its sturdiness against dents caused by the slide are important matters. The
ball is replaced by opening the top flange after switching off the pump. This can be installed in
Final Draft 3-9

any position, vertical or horizontal.
1920 Figure 3.6 Typical ball type check valve

When flow occurs, the ball is lifted into the angular piping and is held there because its weight
is lighter than the sewage and the velocity of flow. When the flow stops, it slides back and seals.
3.3.2.4 Butterfly Valve
Butterfly valves are another type of valve that have been successfully used as suction and
1925 discharge isolation valves in pumping stations. They are frequently used in sewage plants where
waste streams with a high solids content are encountered, such as in sludge pumping systems.
A butterfly valve consists of the valve body and a rotating disc plug that operates through 90
degrees.
This is usually a disc rotated by 90 degrees by external handle. In the open position, the disc is
1930 in line with the flow. In the closed position, the disc is at 90 degrees to the flow and it stops the
flow. Usually, the axis is vertical although horizontal axis arrangement may also be used in
smaller sizes. The closing and opening can be manual or mechanized. The butterfly valves
occupy less space and are generally preferred for pipe sizes larger than 150 mm.
Many agencies specify butterfly valves as opposed to gate valves because they are less
1935 susceptible to plugging.
Butterfly valves require the following preventive maintenance to be done by the manufacturer:
c. Adjust gland
The adjustable gland holds the plug against its seat in the body and acts through
compressible packing, which functions as a thrust cushion.
1940 Keep gland tight enough at all times to hold plug in contact with its seat. If this is not done,
the lubricant system cannot function properly, and solid particles may enter between the
body and plug and cause damage.
d. Lubricate all valves
Apply lubricant by removing lubricant screw and inserting stick of butterfly valve lubricant
1945 for stated temperature conditions.
Be sure to lubricate valves that are not used often to ensure that they are always in operating
condition. Leave lubricant chamber nearly full so that extra supply is available by turning
screw down. Use lubricant regularly to increase valve efficiency and service, promote easy
operation, reduce wear and corrosion, and seal valve against internal leakage.
1950 3.3.3 Actuators

These are replacements for physical operation by the operators. Actuators are used for
Final Draft 3-10

automation of valves. An actuator rotates the valve spindle or lifts and drops the same.
a. Electric geared motor actuator
The actuator consists of a rotor stator unit driving an output shaft through a single stage
1955 worm reduction gear, which incorporates an automatic mechanical device for changing
manual drive to power drive. The actuator includes a travel limit switch unit and a torque
switch unit, and is of totally enclosed construction. When power fails, electric motor driven
gear actuators retain their positions. When power supply returns, pay attention how the
valves move.
1960 Electric motor driven gear actuator is shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 Electric motor driven gear actuator

b. Solenoids
Solenoids are the most common actuator components. Basically, it consists of a moving
1965 ferrous core (a piston) that moves inside wire coil. Normally the piston is held outside the
coil by a spring. When a voltage is applied to the coil and current flows, the coil builds up a
magnetic field that attracts the piston and pulls it into the centre of the coil. The piston can
be used to supply a linear force. Diaphragm valve have small holes on it. The holes should
be free from clogging by debris otherwise the diaphragm may not open.
1970 c. Pneumatics
Pneumatic systems are very common, and have much in common with hydraulic systems
with a few key differences. The reservoir is eliminated as there is no need to collect and
store the air between uses in the pneumatic system. Also because air is a gas, it is
compressible and regulators are not needed to recirculate flow; however, since the gas is
1975 compressible, the systems are not as stiff or strong.
In general, the pneumatics are liable to cause accidents such as when the air hose suddenly
pull out of the hose clamp and jets high pressure air on persons nearby, and should
normally be avoided. The electric geared motor type is preferred.
Pneumatic valve is shown in Figure 3.8.
Final Draft 3-11

1980
Figure 3.8 Pneumatic valve
d. Hydraulic system
Actuator (hydraulic motor and hydraulic cylinder) is operated by hydraulic fluids
(hydraulic oil), which is pressurised by hydraulic pump driven by an electric motor.
1985 Smooth movement and variable speed can be achieved. Moreover, the installed relief
valve can prevent the system from breakdown. It should be noted that hydraulic oil leaks
as pressure increases. Check for oil leakage regularly. Hydraulic system should be kept
clean because it is vulnerable to dust or rust. Take precautions to avoid fires because the
hydraulic oil is combustible.
1990 In all cases, preventive maintenance by manufacturer shall be done periodically and a wall chart
exhibited on site.
3.4 Screen
Screenings in sewage from the incoming sewer at the depth below ground level need be
separated and lifted above ground level and removed there from either by mechanical or manual
1995 method.
3.4.1 Types of Screens

3.4.1.1 Coarse Screens
Coarse screens are usually bar screens consisting of vertical or inclined bars spaced at equal
intervals across a channel through which sewage flows. The openings are usually 25 mm.
2000 Hand-cleaned screens are usually inclined at 45 degrees to the horizontal.
3.4.1.2 Medium Bar Screens
Medium bar screens have clear openings of 12 mm.
3.4.1.3 Fine Screens
Fine screens are mechanically-cleaned devices. Fine screens may be of the drum or disc type,
2005 mechanically cleaned and continuously operated. They are also used for protecting beaches
where sewage without any treatment may be discharged into the sea for disposal by dilution.
3.4.2 Screenings Removal Method

3.4.2.1 Manual Bar Screen
Hand cleaned screens should be cleaned as often as required to prevent backing up of sewage.
2010 A manually-cleaned bar screen is shown in Figure 3.9.
Final Draft 3-12

Source: EPA, 2008
Figure 3.9 Manual bar screen

The following are important for O&M of manual bar screen:
2015 a. Preventive maintenance for checking and repairing the following once a week
Check whether the standing platform is at least 2 m wide with the first 1 m as
slotted. An example of a risky platform is presented in Figure 3.10, in which
there is no space for the operator to stand after he has lifted and dumped
screenings on it. Because of the lack of space, he may move backwards and fall
2020 into the sewage channel. Also, screens should be inclined to the horizontal by an
angle of 60 degrees or more, otherwise, the operator has to bend forward. The
rear side of the platform should have handrails. If handrails are not provided,
enter this point in the site book.
Check the condition of ladders and paint them periodically.
2025 Verify that there are no broken metal parts that protrude outside.
Once a month check the rigidity of handrails.
Verify the platform for its sturdiness by gently setting the foot on it.
Figure 3.10 An example of risky platform
Verify that the lighting is not in front or behind the operator. It should be above
Final Draft 3-13
2030 the operator, at least 2.5 m high and mounted on the sidewall.
These lights should not have local on-off switches.
Verify that the operator platform and slotted platform have 3-m head room and
roof so that the operator is not drenched and he can lift the cleaning rake freely.
b. Regular maintenance on a daily basis and repairs
2035 Verify that the screen rods have not broken loose.
Verify that the cleaning rake is well washed in running water after each use.
Verify that gum boots are kept inside a locker covered with mesh.
Verify that disposable gloves are available for all 3 shifts and a stock of one
month is available.
2040 Verify that helmet is available.

c. Operation
Before daily operation, verify all the above. If these points are not met, do not
enter the screen area. Enter all missing items in the site register.
If all items are in order, do the cleaning once in four hours in each shift.
2045 Ensure that operators do not stand one behind the other. This may cause an
accident because while pulling the rake backwards, the operator in the front
may hit and push the operator in the rear into the sewage channel.
Once the screens are cleaned and screenings are deposited on the slotted
platform allow them to drip dry till the next cleaning after 4 hours.
2050 Push the screenings with the rake to the side of the platform to drop them into
the tipper positioned there.
Move the tipper to the vermin compost site, dump the contents in the pit and
cover with earth as prescribed in Sec.3.4.4 Disposal of Screenings.
3.4.2.2 Mechanical Screen (Intermittent and Continuous)
2055 Mechanically cleaned racks are generally erected almost vertically. Additional provision should
be made for manual raking in case the mechanical rakes are temporarily out of order. Plants
using mechanically-cleaned screens have controls for
Manual start and stop
Automatic start and stop by clock control
2060 High level switch
High level alarm
Starting switch or overload switch actuated by loss of head and
Overload alarm.
There are various types of mechanisms in use, the more common being travelling rakes that
Final Draft 3-14

2065 bring the debris up out of the channel and drop them into hoppers or other debris containers
(Figure 3.11).
Source: WEF, 2010
Figure 3.11 Mechanically-cleaned bar screen

2070 The rotary drum screen by United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
(Figure 3.12) type arc screens is also included here.
In the drawing, the screening rods are in the form of arcs. The cleaning takes place when the
meshing teeth at both ends of a diametrical rotating arm plough through the screen openings and
push the screenings upwards. Upon exiting the upper end of the screen which is well above the
2075 operating sewage level, a built in spring loaded arrangement in the diametrical rods jacks out the
meshing teeth gently, which pushes the screenings gently into a collection trough. The
screenings can be manually removed or a conveyor belt can collect the droppings and drop them
into a container on the ground through a drop chute.
Final Draft 3-15

2080
Source: Tamilnadu Water Supply and Sewerage Board, 2012
Figure 3.12 UNIDO type arc screen

Refer to Sec.5.6 of Part A of the manual for details of screens.
a. Preventive Maintenance
2085 Verify the equipment manufacturers manual for preventive maintenance

instructions and carry out the same (if permitted to be done by the operator).
Switch off electrical power before doing any work on the mechanical screen.
b. Regular maintenance on a daily basis and repairs
Before you start the days work, check for any friction between metal parts. If
2090 friction exists and the sound is disturbing, disconnect the electric supply and
divert all sewage to manual screens. Enter this action in the site register. Do not
perform repairs by yourself because it is dangerous.
Final Draft 3-16

Check the alignment of the tipper plates. If the screenings are slipping back and
are not going up, allow the machine to work and do not stop it. Enter the
2095 abnormality in the site register and request for visit by the manufacturers
engineer. Do not perform repairs by yourself because it is dangerous.
c. Operation
Before you start the days work, do not approach the mechanical screen unless
you are wearing, electrical gloves, safety helmet, and safety boots.
2100 Before you start the days work, switch off the mechanical screen and restart it.
Watch for any friction or sparks. If you notice sparks, disconnect the electric
supply and divert all sewage to manual screens. Enter the abnormality in the site
register. Sometimes, these sparks can be dangerous and may cause
electrocution.
2105 Follow the procedure for disposing screenings as described earlier.
3.4.3 Accessories (Conveyors)

Belt conveyors are used in conveying the screenings to the trolley parked by the side of the
screen chamber. Generally these are meant only for mechanical screens. For manually operated
screens, the water content has to first drip out fully before the screenings can be put on the
2110 conveyor. In the case of mechanical screens, the angle is close to vertical, the height is more and
dewatering is automatic, but this is not the case with manual screens. If it is to be used, then the
conveyor belt has to be behind the operator. The operator first picks up the screenings, drops it
on the slotted platform and allows four hours for the screenings to drip fully. Thereafter, he can
lift it by the same fork and turn it around 180 degrees and place it on the conveyor belt behind
2115 him. On the other hand, in smaller plants he can directly push the screenings to the slotted
platform and into the trolley on the ground after the sidewall. All the guidelines for preventive
maintenance, regular day-to-day maintenance and operation, and site register entries by the
operator are the same as before.
3.4.4 Disposal of Screenings

2120 Screenings generally consist of non-bio degradable stuff like plastic sachets, milk packets,
shampoo packets, etc., with very little organic content. Hence, it is best disposed of as a secure
landfill, which should be prevented from direct rainfall and also flow of overland rainwater. The
procedure specified by the pollution control authority should be adhered to without fail.
3.5 Grit Removal

2125 The different types of grit removal equipment are given in Part A of the manual. These are
velocity controlled channels, detritors, aerated grit chambers, vortex type, etc.
3.5.1 Preventive Maintenance

Almost all these equipment are patented. Each manufacturer has proprietary schedules for
preventive maintenance. These schedules should be followed. Preventive maintenance should be
2130 done only by the manufacturer or the erection contractor who has installed these equipment, and
not by the operators.
3.5.2 Regular Day to Day Maintenance

The operator should hose the mechanical parts using the high pressure hose, and pump the final
treated sewage so that slime does not accumulate.
Final Draft 3-17

2135 Where flap gates or turnstiles are provided, the operator should necessarily exercise these
once a day.
The operator should not enter the chambers unless the sewage entry is blocked, the chamber has
been dry for at least two hours and the operator is wearing an oxygen mask.
In the case of velocity controlled channels, the trip switch controlled travelling bridge with
2140 suspended suction hoses for each channel all connected to a vacuum pump set are standard
items. If this system fails and grit accumulates in the channel, each channel should be taken out
of sewage flow. The scour valve should be opened below the chamber and the sewage after
filtering through the in-built filter port should be allowed to drain to the site drain. Thereafter,
the chamber should be allowed to air dry for at least two hours, high pressure water jetting,
2145 draining and air drying cycle carried out at least three times. Subsequently, labourers can be
deployed to scrap the grit provided that the labourers wear goggles, gloves, safety shoes and
oxygen masks.
3.5.3 Disposal of Grit

The grit is usually pre-rinsed in the grit removal chamber itself before it is evacuated from it.
2150 Figure 3.13 shows a typical grit chamber.
Clean grit is characterised by the lack of odour. Washed grit may resemble particles of sand and
gravel, interspersed with inert materials from households. Grit washing mechanism has to be
included whenever the detention time is more and flow through velocity is less. Unless washed,
it may contain considerable amount of organic matter. This becomes an attraction to rodents and
2155 insects and is also unsightly and odorous. The grit should be contained in a secure landfill as
directed by the local pollution control authority or disposed along with the municipal solid
wastes, if permitted.
Figure 3.13 Typical grit chamber
2160 3.6 Pump Equipment

The types of pumps are dealt with in Part A of the manual. These are horizontal centrifugal,
vertical shaft centrifugal, dry submersible and wet submersible pumps.
3.6.1 Preventive Maintenance

This shall be done only by the manufacturer / his authorized service agency / properly trained
2165 staff. The operator shall not carry out preventive maintenance.
Final Draft 3-18

3.6.2 Regular Day-to-Day Maintenance

This should include the tasks as given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Tasks to be addressed in day-to-day regular maintenance
Maintenance Interval
Description Comments
Daily Week Month Year
Earthing Check whether earthing is proper yes
Visual Appraisal Check that safety aids and first aid are in place yes
Gland packing Check for leaks and condition of mechanical seals yes
Alignment Check alignment using computerized monitor yes
Oil & Grease Check lubrication as per manufacturers procedure yes
Motors Check vibration and temperature yes
Mountings Check for vibrations from foundation bolts yes
Bearings Check for unusual sounds yes
Pump sequence Start & stop the pumps as per duty condition yes
Foundation Check for spalling or cracking yes
Proper operation of submersible pump systems requires that minimum submergence should be
2170 maintained always. This is for two primary reasons:
Prevention of motor overheating
Prevention of vortexing and associated problems

The following should be inspected:
Inspect seal for wear or leakage and repair, if required.
2175 Visually inspect the oil in the motor housing.
Remove pipe plug from housing.
Make sure oil is clean and clear, light amber in colour and free from suspended
particles.
Milky white oil indicates the presence of water.

2180 If the system fails to operate properly, carefully read the instructions and perform maintenance
recommendations.

Before starting the pump, check the following:
Check insulation resistance by megger at free end of cable and verify with pump
2185 manual.
Check continuity between ends of motor in the same phase and in all phases.
Check resistance across moisture sensing wires and verify with pump manual.
Physically rotate the coupling joint and verify smooth movement.
Check for leaky oil plug and fix it before starting.
2190 Check for the bulbs indicating the onoff status of the pump and replace fused bulbs.
Final Draft 3-19

Look for warning lamps for alerting the pumped liquid entering the oil chamber.
Close the discharge valve before starting the pump. This is also taken care by check
valve.
Open the discharge valve gradually and not all of a sudden.
2195 While the pump is running at full flow, check the power consumed to be within duty
point
If the power consumed is very high, stop the pump and inform the manufacturer.
Switch off the pump only after the discharge valve is closed.
3.6.4 Accessories
2200 3.6.4.1 Oil and Grease
Pumps, motors, and drives should be oiled and greased strictly in accordance with
the recommendations of the manufacturer. Cheap lubricants may often become the
most expensive in the end.
Oil should not be put in the housing while the pump shaft is rotating because a
2205 considerable amount of oil will be picked up and retained due to the rotary action of
the ball bearings. When the unit comes to rest, an overflow of oil will occur around
the shaft or oil will flow out of the oil cup.
3.6.4.2 Bearing
Pump bearings should usually last for many years if serviced properly and used
2210 correctly.
There are several types of bearings used in pumps such as ball bearings, roller
bearings, and sleeve bearings. Each bearing has a special purpose, such as thrust load,
radial load, and speed. The type of bearing used in each pump depends on the
manufacturer's design and application.
2215 Whenever a bearing failure occurs, the bearing should be examined to determine the
cause and, if possible, to eliminate the problem.
3.6.4.3 Packing Gland
Check packing gland, which is the unit's most abused and troublesome part. (Figure
3.14)
Final Draft 3-20

2220
Source: EPA, 2008
Figure 3.14 Packing gland
If the stuffing box leaks excessively when gland is pulled up with mild pressure,
remove the packing and examine the shaft sleeve carefully.
2225 Replace grooved or scored shaft sleeve because packing cannot be held in stuffing
box with roughened shaft or shaft sleeve.
Replace the packing a strip at a time, tamping each strip thoroughly and staggering
the joints. Position the lantern ring (water sealing) properly.
If grease sealing is used, completely fill the lantern ring with grease before putting
2230 remaining rings of packing in place.
The proper size of packing should be available in the plant's equipment files.
3.6.4.4 Mechanical Seal
Many pumps use mechanical seals instead of packing. (Figure 3.15)
Mechanical seals serve the same purpose as packing; that is, they prevent leakage
2235 between the pump casing and shaft. The seals have two faces that mate tightly and
prevent water from passing through them.
The different materials are selected for their best application. Some of the factors for
selection of material are:
Liquid and solids being pumped
2240 Shaft speed
Temperature
Corrosion resistance
Abrasives
Initially, mechanical seals are more expensive than packing when installed in a pump.
2245 This cost is recovered through maintenance savings over a period of time.
Final Draft 3-21

Some of the advantages of mechanical seals are as follows:
They last from three to four years without any maintenance, resulting in labour
savings.
Usually, there is no damage to the shaft sleeve at the time of their replacement.
2250 Continual adjusting, cleaning, or repacking is not required.

The construction of a mechanical seal is shown below.
Source: EPA, 2008
Figure 3.15 Mechanical seal
2255 Whatever be the method used, the mechanical seal must be inspected frequently.
Grease cups must be kept full at all times and inspected to make sure they are
operating properly. When a pump is fitted with a mechanical seal, it must never run
dry or the seal faces will be burned and ruined.
Mechanical seals should not leak from the gland. If a leak develops, the seal may
2260 require resurfacing or it may have to be replaced.
Repair or replacement of mechanical seal requires the pump to be removed and

dismantled.
Seals are quite delicate and special care must be taken when installing them.
Mechanical seals differ widely in their construction and installation, and the seal
2265 manufacturer's instructions must be followed.
3.7 Flow Measuring Devices

Flow, similar to water level (Refer to Sec.6.5.2 Level Measuring Equipment), is one of the
most important wastewater parameters to be measured. The various types of flow-measuring
devices have three basic criteria that determine their performance: area, velocity, and device
2270 characteristics. The two basic types of flow measurement are open-channel and closed-pipe. For
good measuring-device performance, both types require approach conditions free of
obstructions and abrupt changes in size and direction. Obstructions and abrupt changes produce
velocity-profile distortions that lead to inaccuracies.
Final Draft 3-22

3.7.1 Weir Flow-Meter

2275 A weir measures the liquid flowing in open channels or partially filled pipes under atmospheric
pressure. (Figure 3.16) This device causes the flow to take on certain characteristics (such as
shape and size) depending on the device used. Changes in flow-rate produce a measurable
change in the liquid level near or at the device. This level is related to flow-rate by an
appropriate mathematical formula. The specific device determines the location and accuracy of
2280 level measurements and is extremely important for accurate performance.
Measurement errors occur if the actual crest height differs from the designed height due to
accumulated matter on the channel floor. Remove sediment, if necessary. Floating matter or
surface wave may cause incorrect level measurements and lead errors in flow measurements.
Therefore, floating matter should be removed immediately.
2285
Source: WEF, 2010
Figure 3.16 Typical weir; generated elevation

Equation for rectangular weir is shown below.
2290 Q = 1.85 (L 0.2H) H1.5 (3.1)
Where Q is cum/sec and H is in m
Refer to Sec.3.10 of Part A of the manual for equations to calculate flow rate with various types
of weirs.
Final Draft 3-23

3.7.2 Electromagnetic Flow-Meter

2295 Magnetic flow meters are used extensively in applications ranging from filtered effluent to
thickened or digested solids. (Figure 3.17) They function by electromagnetic induction, in
which the induced voltage generated by a conductor moving through a magnetic field is linearly
proportional to the conductor's velocity. As the liquid (the conductor) moves through the meter
(generating the magnetic field), the voltage produced is measured and converted to a velocity
2300 and, thus, a flow-rate. Magnetic meters require a full pipe for proper operation. Proper
grounding is important for certain brands. In applications where greasing of electrodes is likely,
additional equipment for degreasing the electrode may be required. Magnetic flow meters
provide no obstructions and are manufactured with abrasion-and corrosion-resistant liners,
which is why they are frequently used in solids metering. Repairs should be done only by
2305 manufacturers representatives.
Electromagnetic flow meters rarely break down because they have no moving parts. Dirt on
sensors should be cleaned because that may cause error in measurements.
Source: WEF, 2010
2310 Figure 3.17 Magnetic flow meter
3.7.3 Ultrasonic Flow-Meter

Ultrasonic flow meters are based on the measurement of ultrasonic wave water-transit time or
frequency shift caused by the flowing fluid. An instrument that measures wave-transit time is
called a time-of-flight or counter-propagation ultrasonic flow meter (Figure 3.18). Ultrasonic
2315 waves of known frequency and duration are beamed across the pipe at known angles. The waves
are sensed either directly by an opposing receiver or indirectly as reflected waves. The changes
in wave transit time or frequency caused by the flowing liquid are linearly proportional to the
liquid velocity. This velocity is converted from flow and output to a display by conversion
electronics. The presence or absence of air bubbles and density of solids in the fluid being
2320 metered affect the meters. Operators should follow the manufacturers specifications and
carefully match the meters to the application.
Final Draft 3-24

Source: WEF, 2010
Figure 3.18 Reflecting ultrasonic flow meter
2325 3.7.4 Fluorescent Tracers

Florescent tracer method requires the use of a tracer like Rhodomine B Dye which is injected
using a peristaltic pump from a small volume of a known concentration of dye solution. The dye
is injected into the gravity or pumping main. After travelling and getting mixed, the dye
concentration is measured there. The mass is the same in the beginning and after travelling. The
2330 instrument used is called Fluorometer. The dye will automatically degrade. It does not affect the
water body.
3.8 Preventive Maintenance

Equipment becomes more complex with the application of advanced technologies and
automation systems in recent years. Thus, high technical knowledge is required and technicians,
2335 technical tools, and special instruments are necessary for implementing preventive maintenance
of the equipment. Unlike O&M contractors, manufacturers can provide such skilled staff and
special tools. The manufactures can provide safe and secure maintenance based on their long
experience and abundant information on their products. Preventive maintenance after expiry of
warranty period should be provided by the manufacturers continuously.
2340 A good maintenance program is essential for a pumping station to operate continuously at peak
design efficiency. A successful maintenance program will cover everything from mechanical
equipment, such as pumps, valves, scrapers, and other moving equipment, to the care of the
plant grounds, buildings, and structures. For preventive maintenance, it is advisable to follow a
schedule for the maintenance of the equipment. The schedule covers recommendations for
2345 checks and remedial actions to be observed at different intervals such as daily, monthly,
quarterly, semi-annually, annually and bi-annually.
Operators should receive training to obtain more knowledge of characteristics and structure of
machinery and to improve their maintenance skill.
a. Mechanical Maintenance
2350 Mechanical maintenance is of prime importance as the equipment must be kept in good
operating condition for the plant to maintain peak performance. Manufacturers provide
information on the mechanical maintenance of their equipment. Operators should
thoroughly read manuals on the plant equipment, understand the procedures, and contact
the manufacturer or the local representative if there are any questions. The instructions
Final Draft 3-25

2355 should be followed very carefully when performing maintenance on equipment. Operators
also must recognise tasks that may be beyond their capabilities or repair facilities, and
should request assistance when needed.
b. Maintenance of Civil Structures
Building maintenance is another program that should be maintained on a regular schedule.
2360 Buildings in a treatment plant are usually built of sturdy materials to last for many years.
Buildings must be kept in good condition by repairs. For selecting paint for a treatment
plant, it is always a good idea to have a painting expert help the operator select the types of
paint needed to protect the buildings from deterioration. The expert also will have some
good ideas as to colour schemes to help blend the plant in with the surrounding area.
2365 Consideration should also be given to the quality of paint. A good quality, more expensive
material will usually give better service over a longer period of time than the economy-type
products.
Building maintenance programs depend on the age, type, and use of a building. New
buildings require a thorough check to ensure that essential items are available and are
2370 working properly. Older buildings require careful observation and prompt attention to
detect leaks, breakdowns, and replacements beforehand. Attention must be given to the
maintenance requirements of many items in all plant buildings, such as electrical systems,
plumbing, heating, cooling, ventilating, floors, windows, roofs, and drainage around the
buildings. Regularly scheduled examinations and necessary maintenance of these items can
2375 prevent many costly and time-consuming problems in the future.
In each plant building, periodically check all stairways, ladders, catwalks, and platforms
for adequate lighting, head clearance, and sturdy and convenient guardrails. Protective
devices should be around all moving equipment. Whenever any repairs, alterations, or
additions are made, avoid building accident traps such as pipes laid on top of floors or hung
2380 from the ceiling at head height, which could create serious safety hazards.
Keep all buildings clean and orderly. Janitorial work should be done on a regular schedule.
All tools and plant equipment should be kept clean and in their proper place. Floors, walls,
and windows should be cleaned at regular intervals to maintain a neat appearance.
c. Valve Maintenance
2385 Valves should be lubricated regularly (according to the manufacturers instructions), and
valve stems should be rotated regularly to ensure ease of operation. These activities should
be part of a regular pump-maintenance program.
d. Electric Actuator Maintenance
Declutch and operate the manual hand wheel.
2390 Check oil level and top up, if required.
Re-grease the grease lubricated bearing and gear trains, as applicable.
Check the insulation resistance of the motor.
Check for undue noise and vibration and take necessary rectification measures.
Tighten limit switch cam ends. Check for setting; readjust, if necessary.
2395 Examine all components and wiring thoroughly and rectify as necessary.
Final Draft 3-26

Change oil or grease in the gear box and thrust bearing.
Check the condition of the gears and replace them if teeth are worn out.
e. Flow Meter Maintenance
Each individual sensing meter will have its own maintenance requirements.
2400 The single most important item to be considered in sensor maintenance is good
housekeeping. Always keep sensors and all instrumentation very clean. Good
housekeeping, the act of providing preventive maintenance for each of the various sensors,
includes ensuring that foreign bodies do not interfere with the measuring device. Check for
and remove deposits that will build up from normal use. Repair the sensor or measuring
2405 device whenever it is damaged.
External connections between the sensing and conversion and readout devices should be
checked to ensure such connections are clean and connections are firm. Be sure no foreign
obstruction will interfere or promote wear. On mechanical connections, grease as directed;
on hydraulic or pneumatic connections, disconnect and ensure free flow in the internal
2410 passage.
f. Maintenance of Pumps
The maintenance schedule should list out items to be attended to at different periods, such
as daily, semi-annually, annually, and others:
i. Daily Observations
2415 Leakage through packing
Bearing temperature
Undue noise or vibration
Pressure, voltage and current readings

ii. Semi-annual Inspection
2420 Free movement of the gland of the stuffing box
Cleaning and oiling of the gland bolts
Inspection of packing and repacking, if necessary
Alignment of the pump and the drive
Cleaning of oil-lubricated bearings and replenishing fresh oil. If bearings are

2425 grease-lubricated, the condition of the grease should be checked and replaced to
correct quantity, if necessary.
An anti-friction bearing should have its housing packed with grease so that the
void spaces in the bearings and the housing are 1/2 to 2/3 filled with grease. A
fully packed housing will cause the bearing to overheat and will result in
2430 reduced life of the bearing.
iii. Annual Inspection
Cleaning and examination of all bearings for flaws developed, if any
Final Draft 3-27

Examination of shaft-sleeves for wear or scour. Cleaning and examination of all

bearings for flaws developed, if any
2435 Checking clearances

Clearances at the wearing rings should be within the limits recommended by the
manufacturer. Excessive clearances indicate a drop in the efficiency of the pump. If
the wear is on only one side, it means misalignment. Not only should the
misalignment be corrected, but also the causes of the misalignment should be
2440 investigated and the clearances reset to the values recommended by the manufacturers.
If the clearance on wear is seen to be 0.2 or 0.25 mm more than the original clearance,
the wearing ring should be renewed or replaced to obtain the original clearance. These
are to be done by the equipment representative.
Impeller-hubs and vane-tips should be examined for any pitting or erosion.
2445 End-play of the bearings should be checked.
All instruments and flow-meters should be re-calibrated.
Pump should be tested to ensure proper performance is being obtained.
In the case of vertical turbine pumps, the inspection can be bi-annual. Annual
inspection is not advisable because it involves disturbing the alignment and
2450 clearances.
iv. Annual Maintenance and Repairs
Consumables and lubricants

Adequate stock of such items as packing glands, belts, lubricating oils, greases should
be maintained.
2455 Replacement of spares

To avoid downtime, a stock of fast-moving spares should be maintained. A set of
recommended spares for two years of trouble-free operation should be ordered along
with the pump.
Repair workshop
2460 The repair workshop should be equipped with tools such as bearing-pullers, clamps,
pipe-wrenches, and other general-purpose machinery such as welding set grinder,
blower, drilling machine.
3.9 Troubleshooting
Refer to Appendix 3.1 to Appendix 3.3.
2465 3.10 Record Keeping

The purpose of recording data is to track operational information that will identify and duplicate
optimum operating conditions.
A record of equipment performance and repairs allow operations or maintenance personnel to
properly evaluate an equipments effectiveness and determine if the equipment meets the
2470 objectives to justify its purchase and installation. As a minimum, the following basic
information should be maintained for each equipment in the pumping station:
Final Draft 3-28
Plant equipment identification number
Manufacturer
Model number and serial number
2475 Type
Dates of installation and removal from service
Reasons for removal
Location when installed
Calibration data and procedures
2480 Hours required to perform maintenance
Cost of replacement parts
Operations and maintenance manuals, references and their locations
Apparatus failure history

An example of an annual inspection report for pumping station is shown in Table 3.2. Inspection
2485 reports should be prepared for each pumping station according to the equipment installed.
Table 3.2 Annual inspection report for pumping station
Pumping station annual inspection report
Date:
General condition of equipment
Sewage pump
Mechanical: Sump Remarks
No.1 No.2 No.3 pump
1.Pump
Bearings
2.Gates
Gate operator (manual)
Gate operator (motor)
Stems
3.Crane and hoist
4.Siphon breaker
5.Trash racks
Drive chain
Bearings
Gear reducers
Electrical: Date:
1.Motors
2.Mortor bearing
3.Swichgear controls
4.Control panels
General:
1.Water levels Elevation Remarks
Forebay
Sumps
Building and grounds: Date:
Remarks
Final Draft 3-29

Pumping station annual inspection report

1.Sump
2.Forebay
3.Discharge chamber
4.Gatewell to river outlet
5.Structure
6.Fire extinguishers
7.Tools and cabinets
8.Painting
9.Caulking
10.Grating, rails and ladders
11.Water system and plumbing
12.Louvers and ventilators
13.Windows
14.Doors
Remarks
Source: JICA, 2011
Recommended maintenance/inspection tasks for equipment in pumping stations are summarised

by frequencies and are listed in Table 3.3. Because the required maintenance/inspection and
2490 their frequencies may differ depending on the equipment installed, maintenance plans should be
prepared according to manufacturers instruction manuals of related equipment.
Table 3.3 Recommended maintenance for pumping equipment
Start up Monthly 3-Mo 6-Mo 1Yr 5Yr Opr hrs
Trash rake GI,O,CL CL
Motors AL PG CL
Heaters GI
Gear reducers GI CH
Drive chain PG PG
Pillow blocks PG
Torque limit coupling PG
Shear pin and sprocket GI
Trip cam GI
Control panel GI,CL
Sub-station drainage GI
Building structure GI
Trash-rack GI
Toilet facility GI
Domestic water GI
Holding tank GI PO
Siphon breakers GI
Unit heaters GI
Fire extinguishers GI GI
Switch gear GI
Bus and connections GI,CL
Instruments and lamps GI GI,CL
Heaters GI
Lighting panel GI GI
Control panel GI GI
Grounding GRT
Float control GI GI
Final Draft 3-30

Start up Monthly 3-Mo 6-Mo 1Yr 5Yr Opr hrs

Main pump motors starts
Entrance channel GI,RS
Sump GI,RS
Gates GI,O,CL
Stem GI CL,SG
Thrust nut GI CL,SG
Manual operators PG
Motor operators GI,CL
Legend
O Operate GRT Ground resistance test
CH Change TO Test oil
CL Clean GI General inspection
MR Megger and record AL Add lubricant
PG Pressure grease PO Pump out
SG Surface grease TS Test
RC Remove condensate RS Remove silt
Source: JICA, 2011
2495 3.11 Duties of Site Engineer in Charge and Higher Ups

The site engineer should first check the entries of the operator in the previous three shifts and
take corrective action, or alert the supervisor by e-mail and make an entry in the site register. If
the site engineer cannot correct the problem within two weeks, he should directly send an e-mail
message to the plant in charge. If no action is taken even after two weeks, the complete
2500 responsibility will rest with the plant in charge from then onwards, including the responsibility
for any accidents/fatalities caused by not taking the requisite action.
3.12 If the STP is under O&M by the Contractor

The references to operator, site engineer and plant in charge inevitably apply to the staff of the
contractor. The engineer in charge of supervising the contractors work should review the site
2505 register once a fortnight and institute such remedies as available under the contract.
3.13 Summary
The most important thing for O&M of pumping stations is to minimize suspension time due to
facility failures and maximize the life of pumps.
For accomplishing these targets, the following causes of breakdown of pumps should be
2510 eliminated:
Inflow of screenings into pumping stations
Overloading of pumps
Preventive maintenance is also essential for early detection of abnormalities.
Final Draft 3-31

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 4: SEWAGE TREATMENT
FACILITIES
CHAPTER 4 SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITIES

2515 4.1 Introduction
Sewage treatment is a multi-stage process designed to clean water and protect natural water
bodies. Municipal sewage contains various wastes. If untreated or improperly collected and
treated, this sewage and its related solids could hurt human health and the environment.
A treatment plants primary objectives are to clean the sewage and meet the plants permit
2520 requirements. Treatment plant personnel do this by reducing the concentrations of solids,
organic matter, nutrients, pathogens, and other pollutants in sewage. The plant must also help
protect the receiving water body, which can only absorb so many pollutants before it begins to
degrade, as well as the human health and environment of its employees and neighbours.
One of the challenges of sewage treatment is that the volume and physical, chemical, and
2525 biological characteristics of sewage continually change. Some changes are the temporary results
of seasonal, monthly, weekly, or daily fluctuations in the sewage volume and composition.
Other changes are long-term, the results of alterations in local populations, social characteristics,
economies, and industrial production or technology. The quality of the receiving water and the
publics health and well-being may depend on a treatment plant operators ability to recognize
2530 and respond to potential problems. These responsibilities demand a thorough knowledge of
existing treatment facilities and sewage treatment technology.
4.2 Pump Equipment
Refer to Chapter 3. (Sec.3.6 Pump Equipment)
4.3 Fine Screen and Grit Chamber
2535 Refer to Chapter 3. (Sec.3.4 Screen and Sec.3.5 Grit Removal)
4.4 Oil and Grease Removal
4.4.1 Manual Process
The oil and grease removal unit consists of are simple tanks with an underflow baffle where the
floating oil and grease is detained on top of the sewage. These are fit only for small STPs of
2540 about 1 MLd capacity or less. The floating oil and grease is removed by a rotating slotted pipe
as in Figure 4.1.
In actual operation, the scum of oil and grease is removed by rotating the slit pipe so that the
scum flows over the slit, through the pipe and goes to a holding high-density polyethylene tank
below the pipe on the outside. The scum is then sold to pollution board-authorized oil
2545 re-refining firms. The grit that settles in the trough below is drained to a sump and pumped to
the beginning of the grit chamber.
The maintenance is very simple and requires periodic cleaning only.
4.4.2 Floatation Process
This process involves floating the oil and grease by either fine bubbles of compressed air or
2550 directly by steam liberated near the floor. The same figure as in Figure 4.1 can also be used by
releasing fine bubbles of compressed air at the floor or steam near the floor. Commercially, the
air is dispersed into very fine particles with the raw sewage and released under gravity in a
shallow tank where the fine bubbles take the oil along with them to the surface and are skimmed
off by a scoop pips as in Figure 4.2. The unit is typically called a dissolved air floatation (DAF)
2555 unit. The schematic of this is shown in Figure 4.3. A parallel plate separator is shown in
schematic in Figure 4.4.
Final Draft 4-1

FACILITIES
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment
Figure 4.1 Typical gravity type oil and grease removal unit
2560
Source: http://www.tradeindia.com/fp341764/High-Flow-Rate-Dissolved-Air-Flotation-Clarifier.html
Figure 4.2 DAF unit
Final Draft 4-2

FACILITIES
Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263876212002705
2565 Figure 4.3 Schematic of DAF unit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment
Figure 4.4 Parallel plate separator

All these units are almost patented types and there are no fixed O&M guidelines. Each unit has
2570 to follow the guidelines of the respective manufacturer.
4.5 Equalization
Flow equalization can be either inline or offline. With inline flow equalization, all of the flow
Final Draft 4-3

FACILITIES
enters the flow equalization basin, and a constant outflow rate is maintained. With offline flow
equalization, only that portion of the flow above a given flow rate (typically the average flow) is
2575 diverted into the flow equalization basin. The accumulated flow is then released during
low-flow periods to bring the total flow to average flow for the day.
The inline flow equalization is the easiest to control. Typically, the flow is pumped out using
flow-controlled variable-speed pumps or is pumped in and flows out by gravity using a flow
control valve and flow meter. If the latter is used, careful selection of the flow control valve is
2580 needed to prevent clogging, even if screened or primary treated sewage is to be equalized.
For offline flow equalization, flow control gates or variable speed pumps can be used. If a
constant elevation side weir is used, achieving a controlled flow rate over the side weir is
difficult and is not recommended. Variable speed pumps are a better choice.
4.5.1 Operation
2585 Fill-and-draw mode is the most efficient method of operating an equalization basin for flow
dampening. The basin is filled during the day when peak flows are occurring, and then it is
drawn down at night when the plant is receiving low flows and, hence, is more capable of
treating excessive flow. If an equalization basin is not operated in fill-and-draw mode, it will act
as a mass loading equalization basin only, assuming the basin is completely mixed.
2590 The successful operation of equalization basins requires proper mixing and aeration. Design of
mixing equipment provides for blending the contents of the tank and preventing deposition of
solids in the basin.
Mechanical aerators, which offers one method of providing both mixing and aeration, have
oxygen transfer in clean water under standard conditions, but the oxygen-transfer efficiency
2595 (OTE) in sewage is lower. Minimum operating levels for floating aerators typically exceed 1.5
m and vary with the power and design of the unit. Low-level shutoff controls are needed to
protect the unit. If the equalization basin floor is subject to erosion (earthen basins), concrete
pads on the basin floor are recommended. Baffling may be necessary to ensure proper mixing,
particularly with a circular tank configuration.
2600 Below are some of the recommended monitoring elements required in flow equalization basins.
Basin liquid level
Basin dissolved oxygen level
Influent pH
Mixers and/or aeration blower status
2605 Influent/effluent status pumps
Influent/effluent flow
4.5.2 Maintenance
Because grit removal is rarely provided ahead of equalization, grit will accumulate in the basins.
Therefore, provisions for collecting these solids should be made in the design. If the primary
2610 purpose of the equalization basin is flow dampening, then after the basin has been emptied
following the peak flow event, primary sludge solids will be present on the basin bottom. Water
cannons or strategically placed cleaning hoses, ideally supplied with plant effluent water, will
allow for cleaning the basins. Other equalization basin types that do not operate in a fill/draw
mode still will accumulate solids after a time and will have to be emptied for cleaning. The time
2615 between cleanings is dependent on the influent sewage characteristics and will likely have to be
established by plant operation staff based on operational experience.
Final Draft 4-4

FACILITIES
4.6 Primary Treatment

4.6.1 Primary Sedimentation Tank Management
This is a simple gravity controlled separation for removing the settleable solids and the
2620 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) that is removed along with it.
4.6.1.1 Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance of the equipment should be done by the equipment supplier as per the
manual.
4.6.1.2 Day to Day Maintenance
2625 The most important is the daily cleaning of the overflow weirs and the weekly scraping of the
floor and walls of the launder. Also periodical checking of the walkway for corrosion is
important. In actual day to day working, the operator should not lean or put his weight on the
handrails.
4.6.1.3 Troubleshooting
2630 Troubleshooting is as given in Appendix 4.1.
4.7 Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
The activated sludge process is still the most widely used biological treatment process for
reducing the concentration of organic pollutants in sewage. Well-established design standards
based on empirical data have evolved over the years.
2635 The activated sludge process has been designed in many different modifications. The process
selected depends on the treatment objectives, site constraints, operational constraints, etc. The
process can be categorized by loading rates, reactor configuration, feeding and aeration patterns,
and other criteria including numerous biological nutrient removal (BNR) processes. Typical
plan layout is illustrated in Figure 4.5.
2640
Figure 4.5 Typical plan layout of activated sludge plant
4.7.1 Description of Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
4.7.1.1 Biological Treatment Processes
In the biological treatment of sewage, the stabilisation of organic matter is accomplished
Final Draft 4-5

FACILITIES
2645 biologically using a variety of microorganisms, principally bacteria. Microorganisms convert

the colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous matter into gases and non-degradable matter and
incorporate it into their cell tissue. The resulting cell tissue, having a specific gravity slightly
greater than that of treatment achieved, is only to the extent of the portion of organic matter that
has been converted to various gaseous and non-degradable end products because the cell tissues,
2650 which itself is organic, and will be measured as BOD in the effluent.
Conversion of organic matter can be accomplished aerobically, anaerobically or facultatively.
Oxidation of organic matter to various end products is carried out to obtain the energy required
for the synthesis of new cell tissues. In the absence of organic matter, the cell tissue is
endogenously respired to obtain energy for maintenance. In most treatment systems, these three
2655 reactions, oxidation, synthesis and endogenous respiration occur simultaneously.
The microbial mass comprises a heterogeneous population of microorganisms, mostly
heterotrophic bacteria. Various groups of organisms carry out their metabolic reactions
independently as well as sequentially. The selection of organism in the treatment process occurs
naturally, depending upon the sewage characteristics and the environmental conditions
2660 maintained.
4.7.1.2 Design and Operational Parameters
The ASP operation is commonly controlled by maintaining the design Mixed Liquor Suspended
Solids (MLSS), or sometimes, by maintaining design Food to Microorganisms (F/M) ratio. The
latter approach takes care of fluctuations in the quality of raw sewage. If actual F/M is to be
2665 assessed, then measurement of active biomass measured as Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended
Solids (MLVSS) is needed, which is often difficult to measure and may also give an erroneous
result in case of industrial effluent containing suspended organic waste solids. The solid
retention time (SRT), which is directly related to F/M, is not being used for operational control.
Some of the important design and operational parameters are described and discussed in
2670 following sections.
Operational parameters and their formula are explained in Appendix 4.2. Examples of their
calculations are described in Appendix 4.3.
4.7.1.3 Choice between SRT and F/M as Operation Control Parameter
The evaluation of the active mass of microorganism often makes the use of F/M as a control
2675 parameter impractical. Biological solids are commonly measured by measuring volatile
suspended solids. This parameter is not entirely satisfactory because of the variety of volatile
matter not related to active cellular material.
On the other hand, the evaluation of SRT as a plant control parameter is simple. Since SRT is
the ratio of total suspended solids in the system and that wasted per day, it requires only
2680 measurement of total suspended solids. The proportion of active biomass in solids in the system
and that in solids wasted, either from the aeration tank or from the recycle line, is the same. Use
of SRT as a plant controlling parameter becomes simpler if sludge wasting is done directly from
aeration tank, as the ratio of total solids in system to solids wasting per day reduces to the
ratio of aeration tank volume to volume of sludge wastes per day, provided the mass of solids
2685 escaped in treated effluent is negligible.
4.7.1.4 Effect of c on Settling Characteristics and Drainability of Sludge
It has been established that as a system is operated at higher solids retention time, the settling
characteristics of the biological floc improve. For domestic sewage, SRTs of the order of 3 to 4
days are required to achieve effective settling. Further, it is established that drainability of waste
2690 sludge also improves when a system is operated at higher SRT. The SRT at which a process is
operated approximately represents the average age of biomass present in the process. As the
biomass ages, it contains increasing proportion of dead cells and inert matter. Presence of higher
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FACILITIES
proportion of mineralised sludge in a process operated at high SRT is responsible for better
setting characteristics and better drainability of sludge.
2695 4.7.1.5 Effect of c on Excess of Sludge Production
SRT is inversely related to F/M ratio. A higher operational SRT represents a low F/M ratio, a
condition of limiting substrate. Bacteria undergo endogenous respiration or decay under a
limiting substrate environment. More biomass undergoes endogenous respiration, resulting in
less net bacterial growth. Therefore, excess sludge production is reduced as a system is operated
2700 at high SRT. Further, since the settling characteristic of sludge improves at high SRT,
concentrated underflow can be withdrawn from the secondary sedimentation tank. This also
results in reduction in volume of excess sludge as for a fixed mass of excess sludge.
4.7.1.6 Excess Sludge Wasting
Excess bio-sludge is commonly wasted from return sludge line. It can also be wastes directly
2705 from aeration tank. If excess bio-sludge is directly wasted from aeration tank, then increased
volume of sludge is a disadvantage. However, if excess bio-sludge is mixed with influent of
primary settling tank and wasted as mixed sludge of primary settling tank, then direct wasting
from aeration tank has no influence on final volume of sludge and therefore, can easily be
adopted. The operator of a plant needs to have an idea of actual volume of excess sludge
2710 wasting required.
4.7.1.7 Return Sludge Flow
Sufficient return sludge capacity should be provided if the biological solids are not to be lost in
the effluent. However, a return flow rate higher than that is required unnecessarily increases
solids loading on settling tank and results in withdrawal of dilute sludge. The ratio of return
2715 sludge flow to average flow can be set on the basis of sludge volume index (SVI). SVI is
defined as the volume in mL occupied by one gram of activated sludge mixed liquor solids, dry
weight, after settling of 30 min. in a 1,000 mL graduated cylinder. The procedure of SVI
measurement is as follows (Figure 4.6).
a. Collect a sample of mixed liquor or return sludge.
2720 b. Carefully mix sample and pour into 1,000 mL graduate cylinder. Vigorous shaking
or mixing tends to break up floc and produces slower setting or poorer separation.
c. Record settleable solids percentage at regular intervals.
Figure 4.6 Sludge settling analysis

Sludge in settled mixed liquor in 30 min( ml / L ) 1, 000 mg
2725 SVI ( ml / g ) (4.1)
Suspended matter in mixed liquor ( mg / L ) 1g
Table 4.1 provides SVI values and probable indication of settling properties of activated sludge.
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For all cases refer to remedies in Troubleshooting in Appendix

Table 4.1 Relations between Sludge Volume Index and settling characteristics of sludge
SVI Indication
Less than 50 ml/g Pin floc potential
50 to 100 ml/g Good range
100 to 150 ml/g Filament growth
150 to 200 ml/g Bulking at high flows
200 to 300 ml/g Bulking
More than 300 ml/g Severe bulking
Sourse: JICA, 2011
2730 Quantity of return sludge flow is keyed to settled sludge volume. The ratio of recirculated
sludge flows to the settled sludge volume. V30 should be equal to the flow entering the clarifier
to the clarifier volume (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 Recirculated sludge flow ratio

2735 4.7.2 Conventional Activated Sludge Process
The conventional activated sludge process typically consists of a concrete biological reactor
followed by a concrete clarifier. Sewage and return activated sludge (RAS) enter together at one
end of the reactor and leave mixed at the other end. This mixed liquor flows into the clarifier
where it is allowed to settle and the treated effluent separates from the activated sludge. The
2740 effluent from the process flows over the clarifier weirs while the settled activated sludge is
either recycled to the reactor or wasted out of the system. (Figure 4.8)
Figure 4.8 Conventional activated sludge process

4.7.2.1 Start Up
2745 Start-up help should be available from the design engineer, vendors, nearby operators, or other
specialists. The equipment manufacturers or contractor should be under contractor start-up
instruction and assistance. During start-up, they should be present to be sure that any equipment
breakdowns are not caused by improper start-up procedures.
The operator may have several options in the choice of start-up procedures with regard to
2750 number of tanks used and procedures to establish a suitable working culture in the aeration
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tanks. The method described in this section is recommended because it provides the longest
possible aeration time, reduces chances of solids washout, and provides the opportunity to use
most of the equipment for a good test of its acceptability and workability before the end of the
warranty.
2755 First, start the air blowers and have air passing through the diffusers before primary effluent is
admitted to the aeration tanks. This prevents diffuser clogging from material in the primary
effluent and is particularly important if fine bubble diffusers are used.
Fill both aeration tanks to the normal operating water depth, thus allowing the aeration
equipment to operate at maximum efficiency. Using all of the aeration tanks will provide the
2760 longest possible aeration time. The operators are trying to build up a micro organism population
with a minimum amount of seed organisms, and you will need all the aeration capacity available
to give the organisms a chance to reach the settling stage.
After a biological culture of aerobes is established in the aeration tanks, sufficient oxygen must
be supplied to the aeration tank to overcome the following demands:
2765 DO usually is low in both influent sewage and return sludge to the aerator.
Influent sewage may be septic, thus creating an immediate oxygen demand.
Organisms in the presence of sufficient food create a high demand for oxygen.
The effluent end of the aerator should have a dissolved oxygen level of at least 1.0 mg/L. DO in
the aerator should be checked every two hours until a pattern is established.
2770 Thereafter, DO should be checked as frequently as needed to maintain the desired DO level and
to maintain aerobic conditions in the aerator. Daily flow variations will create different oxygen
demands. Until these patterns are established, you will not know whether just enough or too
much air is being delivered to the aeration tanks. Frequently, excess air is provided during early
mornings when the inflow waste load is low. Air supply may be too low during the afternoon
2775 and evening hours because the waste load tends to increase during the day.
If sewage enters the tank before air is coming out of the diffusers, the diffusers could become
plugged. If the plant is the diffused-air type with air lift pumps for return sludge, the air line
valve to the air lifts (pumps) will have to be closed until the settling compartment is filled.
Otherwise, all the air will attempt to go to the empty compartment and no air will go to the
2780 diffusers. Once the settling compartment is filled from the overflow from the aeration tank, the
air lift valves may be opened. They will have to be adjusted to return a constant stream of water
and solids to the aeration tank. This adjustment is usually two to three turns open on the air
valve to each air lift.
There may be a build-up of foam in the aeration compartment during the first week or so of
2785 start-up. A 25-mm water hose with a lawn sprinkler may be used to keep it under control until
sufficient mixed liquor solids are obtained.
Try to build up the solids or mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) as quickly as possible
during start-up. This can be achieved by not wasting sludge until the desired level of MLSS is
achieved.
2790 4.7.2.2 Routine Operation and Maintenance
4.7.2.2.1 Aeration Tanks
The operational variables in an activated sludge plant include:
Rate of flow of sewage,
Air supply,
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2795 MLSS,
Aeration period,
DO in aeration and settling tanks, and
Rate of sludge return and sludge condition.
The operator should possess a thorough knowledge of the type of system adopted, namely,
2800 conventional, high rate, extended aeration or contact stabilisation so that effective control of the
variables can be exercised to achieve the desired efficiency of the plant.
Inspection of mechanical aerators should be done for:
Bearings,
Bushes, and
2805 Transmission gears.
and they should be lubricated as per the schedule suggested by the manufactures.
The whole unit should be thoroughly inspected once a year, including replacement of worn out
parts and painting with anti-corrosive paints to achieve the desired efficiency of the plant. A
record of operations should be maintained.
2810 When inhibitory substance for activated sludge (such as industrial sewage) is contained in
influent, treatment in reactors may be affected. To avoid such an inhibition, colour and odour of
plant influent should be checked through daily inspections such as at the grit chambers or the
primary sedimentation tanks where sewage flows in at first. If any abnormal condition is
observed, report to a person in charge of water quality or the plant manager.
2815 4.7.2.2.2 Sewage Flow
Since the activated sludge treatment is biochemical in nature, conditions in the aeration tank
should be maintained uniform at all times. A sudden increase in the rate of flow or sludge of
flow should be avoided. If supernatants from digester containing more than 3,000 mg/L of SS
are taken into the settling tank, then they should be pre-treated as otherwise heavy load will be
2820 imposed on the activated sludge system. Measurement of sewage flow and the BOD applied to
the aeration tank should be made.
4.7.2.2.3 Air Supply
Frequent checks of DO at various points in the tank and at the outlet end should be made; it
should not be less than 1 mg/L. It will help in determining the adequacy of the air supply. The
2825 uniformity of air distribution can be easily checked by observing bubbling of the air at the
surface, which should be even over the entire surface area of the tank. If the bubbling looks
uneven, clogging of diffusers is indicated. Clogging is also confirmed by the increase of 0.1 to
0.15 kg/cm2 in the pressure gauge reading. Adding chlorine gas to air may help in removing
clogging of diffusers on air side if it is due to organic matter. Other methods of cleaning will
2830 have to be resorted to if this procedure does not clear up the clogging. Air flow meters should be
checked periodically for accuracy; air supply and air pressures should be recorded hourly and
daily, respectively, to avoid over-aeration or under-aeration. Mechanical or surface aerators
should be kept free from fungus or algae growths by cleaning them periodically.
4.7.2.2.4 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
2835 Control of the concentration of solids in the mixed liquor of the aeration tanks is an important
operating factor. It is most desirable to hold the MLSS constant at the suggested concentration.
The test of MLSS should be done at least once a day on large plants, preferably during peak
flow. As the MLSS will be minimum when the peak flow starts coming in and will be maximum
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in the night hours when the flow drops, operating MLSS value would be the average hourly
2840 value in a day; the same should be verified at least once a month. In case of very large plants,
regular daily check is desirable.
4.7.2.2.5 Return Sludge
The return sludge pumps provided in multiple units should be operated according to the increase
or decrease in return sludge rate of flow required to maintain the necessary MLSS in aeration
2845 unit, based on the SVI. The SVI should be determined daily to know the condition of sludge. A
value of over 200 definitely indicates sludge bulking.
A good operation calls for prompt removal of excess sludge from the secondary tanks to ensure
that the sludge is fully aerobic. This should be measured daily and recorded. The excess sludge
is taken to the digester directly or through the primary settling tank.
2850 4.7.2.2.6 Foaming
Foaming or frothing is sometimes encountered in activated sludge plants when the sewage
contains materials which reduce the surface tension, the synthetic detergents being the major
offender. Froth, besides being unsightly, is easily blown away by wind and contaminates all the
surfaces it comes into contact with. It is a hazard to workmen because it creates a slippery
2855 surface even after it collapses. Foam problems can be overcome by the application of a spray of
screened effluent or clear water, increasing MLSS concentration, decreasing air supply or
addition of other special anti-foam agents. The presence of synthetic anionic detergents in
sewage also interferes with the oxygen transfer and reduces aeration efficiency.
4.7.2.2.7 Microscopic Examination
2860 Routine microscopic examination of solids in aeration tank and return sludge to identify the
biological flora and fauna present will enable good biological control of the aeration tanks.
4.7.2.2.8 Records
Activated sludge operation should include recording of flow rates of sewage and return sludge,
DO, MLSS, MLVSS, biota, SRT (sludge age), air, BOD, COD and nitrates in both influent and
2865 effluent.
4.7.2.2.9 Biological Uptake Rate Procedure
After deaerating the sample of at least 250 ml of mixed liquor with sodium meta bi sulphite start
the diffuser and record the dissolved oxygen with time by a dissolved oxygen probe and plot the
saturation deficit with time in semi log paper. The slope of the graph is the uptake rate.
2870 Generally this is not for a plant control test. It is used for alpha value by comparing it with the
value for tap water.
4.7.2.2.10 Nutrient Control
Nutrient control should be referred subsection 5.8.1.7.6, 5.8.1.7.7, and 5.8.1.7.8 in the Part A
manual.
2875 4.7.2.2.11 DO Saturation
DO saturation table should be referred Table 5.9 and 5.10 in the Part A manual.
4.7.2.3 Aeration Equipment
4.7.2.3.1 Air Blowers
The blower system is designed to provide sufficient airflow to meet the system process
2880 requirements. Blower systems are available with either positive displacement (PD) or
centrifugal type units. Typically, PD units are used for plants with smaller air volume
requirements. Output airflow from a PD blower remains relatively constant with varying
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FACILITIES
discharge pressure. Centrifugal blower systems are generally equipped with additional controls
to regulate the flow as the discharge pressure varies.
2885 a. Positive Displacement Blowers
The positive displacement blower provides a constant volume (cubic meters) output of air
per revolution for a specific set of rotors or lobes. Blower output is varied by changing rotor
or lobe speed (RPMs or revolutions per minute). The higher the RPM, the greater is the air
output.
2890 Small positive displacement blowers ranging from 3 to 28 m3/min. are usually installed to
be operated at a fixed volume output. These smaller units are directly driven by electric
motors through a direct coupling or through sheaves and belts.
If a change in air volume output is required, it is accomplished by changing the motor to
one with a higher or lower RPM or by changing sheaves to increase or decrease blower
2895 rotor or lobe rotation (RPM), thus increasing or decreasing air output.
NOTE: These small units are commonly used with package plants, pond aeration systems, small aerobic
digesters, gas mixing in digesters and gas storage compressors.
Large positive displacement blowers ranging from 57 to 570 m3/min. may also be driven by
internal combustion engines or variable speed electric motors in order to change blower
2900 volume outputs as required in activated sludge plants. By increasing or decreasing engine
or motor RPM, the positive displacement blower output can be increased or decreased.
The air lines are connected to the blower through a flexible coupling in order to keep
vibration to a minimum and to allow for heat expansion. When air is compressed, heat is
generated; thus increasing the discharge temperature as much as 56 C or more.
2905 A check valve follows next, which prevents the blower from operating in reverse should
other blowers in the same system be operating while this blower is off.
The discharge line from the blower is equipped with an air relief valve which protects the
blower from excessive back pressure and overload. Air relief valves are adjusted by
weights or springs to open when air pressure exceeds a point above normal operating range,
2910 around 0.4 to 0.7 kg/cm2 in most sewage treatment plants. An air discharge silencer is also
installed to provide decibel noise reduction. Ear protective devices should be worn when
working near noisy blowers.
The impellers are machined on all exterior surfaces for operating at close tolerances; they
are statically and dynamically balanced. Impeller shafts are made of machined steel and are
2915 securely fastened to the impellers. Timing gears accurately position the impellers.
Lubrication to the gears and bearings is maintained by a lube oil pump driven from one of
the impeller shafts. An oil pressure gauge monitors the system oil pressure. An oil filter is
located in the oil sump to ensure that the oil is free from foreign materials. An oil level is
maintained in the gear housing so that gears and bearings will received splash lubrication in
2920 case of lube oil pump failure. Air vents are located between the seals and the impeller
chamber to relieve excessive pressure on the seals.
b. Centrifugal Blowers
The centrifugal blower is a motor connected to a speed-increasing gear-driven blower
(Figure 4.9) that provides a variable air output.
2925 Minimum through maximum air output is controlled by guide vanes, which are located on
the intake side of the blower. These vanes may be positioned manually by operating
personnel or may be controlled by plant instrumentation based on either DO levels in the
aeration tanks or the plant influent flows.
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FACILITIES
2930 Figure 4.9 Schematic of centrifugal blowers

The blower consists of an impeller, volute casing, shaft and bearings, speed-increasing gear
box and an electric motor or internal combustion engine to drive unit. Air enters the volute
casing through an inlet nozzle and is picked up by the whirling vanes of the impeller where
it is hurled by centrifugal force into the volute casing. Air enters the volute in its smallest
2935 section and moves in a circular motion to the largest section of the volute where it is
discharged through the discharge nozzle.
Air lines are connected to the blower through flexible couplings in order to keep variation
to a minimum and to allow for heat expansion. The air suction line is usually equipped with
a manually operated butterfly valves are usually electrically or pneumatically operated.
2940 The impeller is machined on all surfaces for operating at close tolerances and is statically
and dynamically balanced. The impeller shaft is supported in a shaft bearing stand which
contains a thrust bearing and journal bearings.
Lubrication to the bearings and gears is maintained by a positive displacement main oil
pump that is driven by the speed-increasing gear unit. An auxiliary electrically operated
2945 centrifugal oil pump is also used to provide oil pressure in the event of failure of the main
oil pump and to lubricate the blower shaft bearings before start-up and after shutdown. The
oil reservoir is located in the blower base plate. Cartridge type or disc-andspace type oil
filter is based on the degree of filtration required.
Due to the very high speeds at which these blower units operate and the resultant high oil
2950 temperature, an oil cooler unit is installed. This unit, in most cases, is a shell and tube, oil-to
water heat exchanger.
c. Air Filters
Filters remove dust and dirt from air before it is compressed and sent to the various plant
processes. Clean air is essential for the protection of blowers and downstream equipment
2955 Large objects entering the impellers or lobes may cause severe damage on
blowers.
Deposits on the impellers or lobes reduce clearances and cause excessive wear
and vibration problems on blowers.
Clean air prevents fouling of air conduits, pipes, tubing or dispersing devices on
2960 diffusers.
The filters may be constructed of a fibre mesh or metal mesh material that is sandwiched
between the screen material and encased in a frame. The filter frames are then installed in a
filter chamber. Other types of filters include bags, oil-coated travelling screens and
electrostatic precipitators.
Final Draft 4-13
FACILITIES
2965 The preventive maintenance schedule for the blowers is as follows:

Weekly
Maintain proper lubricant level
Quarterly
Check for abnormal noises and vibration
2970 Check if air filters are in place and not clogged
Check motor bearing for rise in temperature
Check that all covers are in place and secure
Lubricate motor ball bearings
Check that electrical connections are tight
2975 Check wiring integrity
Biannually
Lubricate motor sleeve bearing
Inspect and clean rotor ends, windings and blades
Check that electrical connections are tight and corrosion is absent
2980 Annually
Check bearing oil
4.7.2.3.2 Air Distribution
The air distribution system (Figure 4.10) is to deliver air from the blowers to air headers in the
aeration tanks and other plant processes and consists of:
2985 Pipes,
Valves, and
Metering devices.
Figure 4.10 Typical air distribution system in aeration tank

2990 An air metering device should be located in a straight section of the air main on the discharge
side of the blower.
Air headers are located in or along the aeration tank and are connected to the air distribution
system from which they supply air to the diffusers. The two most common types of air headers
are the swing header and the fixed header.
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FACILITIES
2995 The swing header is a pipe with a distribution system connector fitting, a valve, a double pivot
upper swing joint, upper and lower riser pipes, pivot elbow, levelling tee and horizontal air
headers. An air blow off leg, as an extension of the lower tee connection, is fabricated with
multiple alignment flanges, gaskets, and jack screws for levelling of the header.
The fixed header is a pipe with a distribution system connector fitting, a valve, union, a riser
3000 pipe, horizontal air headers and header support feet. These headers are generally not provided
with adjustable levelling devices; they rely on the fixed levelling afforded by the feet attached
to the bottom of the horizontal air headers. Raising and lowering the air header is commonly
found in package plants, channel aeration and grit chamber aeration. Header valves are used to
adjust the air flow to the header assembly and to block the air flow to the assembly when
3005 servicing the header or diffusers.
4.7.2.3.3 Diffusers
An air diffuser or membrane diffuser is an aeration device used to transfer air and oxygen with
oxygen into sewage. Oxygen is required by microorganisms/ bacteria resident in the water to
break down the pollutants. Diffusers use the followings to produce fine or coarse bubbles.
3010 Rubber membrane, or
Ceramic elements.
The shapes of the diffusers can be:
Disc,
Tube, or
3015 Plate.
a. Bubble size
The subject of bubble size is important because the aeration system in a sewage treatment
plant consumes an average of 50 to 70 per cent of the energy of the entire plant. Increasing
the oxygen transfer efficiency decreases the power the plant requires to provide the same
3020 quality of effluent water.
Fine bubble
Fine bubble diffusers produce a plethora of very small air bubbles which rise
slowly from the floor of tank and provide substantial and efficient mass transfer
of oxygen to the water.
3025 Fine bubble diffusers evenly spread out (often referred to as a grid
arrangement) on the floor of a tank and provide the operator of the plant a
great deal of operational flexibility.
This can be used to create zones with high oxygen concentrations (oxic or
aerobic), zones with minimal oxygen concentration (anaerobic) and zones with
3030 no oxygen (anoxic). This allows for more precise targeting and removal of
specific contaminants.
Coarse bubble
There are different types of coarse bubble diffusers from various manufactures,
such as the stainless steel wide band type coarse bubble diffuser.
3035 Fine bubble diffusers have largely replaced coarse bubble diffusers and
mechanical aerators in most of the developed world and in much of the
developing world.
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FACILITIES
b. Maintenance
The preventive maintenance schedule of bubble diffusers is as follows:
3040 Daily maintenance
Check biological reactor surface pattern.
Check air mains for leaks.
Check and record operating pressure and airflow.
Weekly maintenance
3045 Purge water and moisture from distribution piping.
Bump diffuser system.
Annual maintenance
Drain biological reactor.
Remove excess solids that may accumulate in the reactor.
3050 Clean diffusers.
Check that retaining rings are in place and are tight.
Check that fixed and expansion joint retaining rings are tight.
4.7.2.3.4 Surface Aerators
A surface aerator is a mechanical aeration device for various types of aerobic sewage treatment
3055 systems. Surface aerators may be either stationary or floating. The major components of the
mechanical surface aerators are motor, gear box and impeller/ aerator/ propeller. More
commonly, these components come combined; but for the purpose of maintenance, they can be
easily separated.
Floating aerators generally employ reinforced fibreglass foam filled pontoons connected to the
3060 aerator platform by a triangular tubular structural frame. The platforms are sized to provide
adequate work area around the drive. Pontoons are placed to minimise any interference with the
flow pattern and maximise stability. Each of the pontoons has a ballast compartment which can
be filled with water or other liquid or other suitable material to adjust submergence and level the
unit.
3065 4.7.3 Extended Aeration Process
This is a modification of the activated-sludge process using long aeration periods to promote
aerobic digestion of the biological mass by endogenous respiration (Figure 4.11). The process
includes stabilization of organic matter under aerobic conditions and disposal of the gaseous end
products into the air. Effluent contains finely divided suspended matter and soluble matter.
3070 Extended aeration is similar to a conventional activated sludge process except that the
organisms are retained in the aeration tank longer and do not get as much food. The organisms
get less food because there are more of them to feed. Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)
concentrations are from 3000 to 5000 mg/L and F/M ratio is 0.1 to 0.18. In addition to the
organisms consuming the incoming food, they also consume any stored food in the dead
3075 organisms. The new products are carbon dioxide, water, and a biologically inert residue.
Extended aeration does not produce as much waste sludge as other processes; however, wasting
still is necessary to maintain proper control of the process.
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FACILITIES
Figure 4.11 Types of extended aeration plants

3080 4.7.3.1 Operation of Aeration Equipment
Aeration equipment should be operated continuously. In a diffused-air system, the operator
controls air flow to the diffuser with the header control valve. This valve forces excess air to the
air lifts in the settling compartment. Good treatment rarely results from interrupted operation
and should not be attempted. The operator can judge how well the aeration equipment is
3085 working by the appearance of the water in the settling compartment and the effluent that goes
over the weir. If the water is murky or cloudy and the aeration compartment has a rotten egg
(H2S) odour, not enough air is being supplied. The air supplied or aeration rate should be
increased slightly each day until the water is clear in the settling compartment. If the water is
clear in the settling compartment, the aeration rate is probably sufficient. Try to maintain a DO
3090 level of around 2 mg/L throughout the aeration tank, if the operator has a DO probe or lab
equipment to measure the DO. Try to measure the DO at different locations in the aeration tank
as well as from top to bottom.
4.7.3.2 Operation and Maintenance
Two methods are commonly used to supply oxygen from the air to the bacteria-mechanical
3095 aeration and diffused aeration. Both methods are mechanical processes with the difference being
whether the mechanisms are at or in the aerator or at a remote location. Mechanical aeration
devices agitate the water surface in the aerator to cause spray and waves by paddle wheels
mixers, rotating brushes or some other method of splashing water into the air or air into the
water so that oxygen can be absorbed. Mechanical aerators in the tank tend to be lower in
3100 installation and maintenance costs. Usually, they are more versatile in terms of mixing,
production of surface area of bubbles, and oxygen transfer per unit of applied power. Diffused
air systems use a device called a diffuser to break up the air stream from the blower system into
fine bubbles in the mixed liquor. The smaller the bubble, the greater is the oxygen transfer due
to the greater surface area of rising air bubbles surrounded by water. Unfortunately, fine bubbles
3105 will tend to regroup into larger bubbles while rising unless they are broken up by suitable
mixing energy and turbulence.
Record the pumping time and weekly waste solids for this time period if results are satisfactory.
If the extended activated sludge plant does not have an aerobic digester, applying waste
activated sludge to drying beds may cause odour problems. If odours from waste activated
3110 sludge drying beds are a problem, consider the following solutions:
Waste the excess activated sludge into an aerated holding tank. This tank can be
pumped out and the sludge disposed of in an approved sanitary landfill. If aerated
long enough, the sludge could be applied to drying beds.
The excess or waste activated sludge can be removed by a septic tank pumper and
3115 disposed of in an approved sanitary landfill.
Arrange for disposal of the excess activated sludge at a nearby treatment plant.
Annually, check the bottom of the hoppers for rocks, sticks, and grit deposits. Also,
check the tail pieces of the air lifts to be sure that they are clear of rags and rubber
goods and in proper working condition.
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3120 Frequency and amount of wasting may be revised after several months of operation by
examining:
The amount of carryover of solids in the effluent
The depth to which the solids settle in the aeration compartment when the aeration
device is off (should be greater than one-third of the distance from top to bottom)
3125 The appearance of floc and foam in the aeration compartment as to colour,
settleability, foam makeup, and excess solids on the water surface of the tank
Results of laboratory testing; a white fluffy foam indicates low solids content in the
aerator while a brown, leathery foam suggests high solids concentrations. If the
operator notices high effluent solids levels at the same time each day, the solids
3130 loading may be too great for the final clarifier. Excessive solids indicate the mixed
liquor suspended solids concentration is too high for the flows and more solids
should be wasted.
4.7.3.3 Normal Operation
Extended activated sludge plants should be visually checked every day. Each visit should
3135 include the following:
Check the appearance of the aeration and final clarification compartments.
Check the aeration unit for proper operation and lubrication.
Check the return sludge line for proper operation. If air in the air lift is not flowing
properly, briefly close the outlet valve, which forces the air to go down and out the
3140 tail piece. This will blow it out and clear any obstructions. Reopen the discharge
valve and adjust to desired return sludge flow.
Check the comminuting device for lubrication and operation.
Hose down the aeration tank and final compartment.
Brush the weirs when necessary.
3145 Skim off grease and other floating material such as plastic and rubber goods.
Check the plant discharge for proper appearances, grease, or material of sewage
origin that is not desirable.
4.7.3.4 Abnormal Operation
Remember that changing conditions or abnormal conditions can upset the microorganisms in the
3150 aeration tank. As the temperature changes from season to season, the activity of the organisms
speeds up or slows down. Also, the flows and waste (food as measured by BOD and suspended
solids) in the plant influent change seasonally. All of these factors require the operator to
gradually adjust aeration rates, return sludge rates, and wasting rates. Abnormal conditions may
consist of high flows or solids concentrations as a result of storms or weekend loads.
3155 4.7.3.5 Countermeasures
Extended aeration plant problems may be caused by solids in the effluent, odours, and foaming.
These problems could be caused by under-or- over aeration, too little or too much solids in the
aeration tank, improper return sludge rate, improper sludge wasting or disposal of waste
activated sludge, and abnormal influent conditions such as excessive flows or solids or toxic
3160 wastes. When problems develop in the activated sludge process, try to identify the problem, the
cause of the problem, and select the best possible solution. Remember that the activated sludge
process is a biological process and may require from three days to a week or longer to show any
Final Draft 4-18

FACILITIES
response to the proper corrective action. Allow seven or more days for the process to stabilize
after making a change in the treatment process.
3165 a. Solids in the Effluent
i. If effluent appears turbid (muddy or cloudy), the return activated sludge
pumping rate is out of balance. Try increasing the return sludge rate. Also,
consider the possible presence of something toxic to the microorganisms or a
hydraulic overload washing out some of the solids.
3170 ii. If the activated sludge is not settling in the clarifier (sludge bulking), several
possible factors could be causing this problem. Look for too low a solids level
in the system, low dissolved oxygen concentrations in the aeration tank, strong,
stale, septic influent, high grease levels in influent, or alkaline wastes from a
laundry.
3175 iii. If the solids level is too high in the sludge compartment of the secondary
clarifier, solids will appear in the effluent. Try increasing the return sludge
pumping rate.If odours are present and the aeration tank mixed liquor appears
black as compared with the usual brown colour, try increasing aeration rates and
look for septic dead spots.
3180 iv. If light-coloured floating sludge solids are observed on the clarifier surface, try
reducing the aeration rates. Try to maintain the dissolved oxygen at around 2
mg/L throughout the entire aeration tank.
b. Odours
i. If the effluent is turbid and the aeration tank mixed liquor appears black as
3185 compared with the usual brown colour, try increasing aeration rates and look for
septic dead spots.
ii. If clumps of black solids appear on the clarifier surface, try increasing the return
sludge rate. Also, be sure the sludge return line is not plugged and that there are
no septic dead spots around the edges or elsewhere in the clarifier.
3190 iii. Examine the method of wasting and disposing of waste activated sludge to
ensure this is not the source of the odours.
iv. Poor housekeeping could result in odours. Do not allow solids to accumulate or
debris removed from sewage to sit around the plant in open containers.
c. Foaming/Frothing
3195 Foaming is usually caused by too low a solids level while frothing is caused by too long a
solids retention time.
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FACILITIES
i. If too much activated sludge was wasted, reduce wasting rate.

ii. If over aeration caused excessive foaming, reduce aeration rates.
iii. If plant is recovering from overload or septic conditions, allow time for
3200 recovery.
iv. Foaming can be controlled by water sprays or commercially available
defoaming agents until the cause is corrected by reducing or stopping wasting
and building up solids levels in the aeration tank.
v. Learn more about the operation of an activated sludge process under both
3205 normal and abnormal conditions. There operator will also find a troubleshooting
guide for activated sludge plants.
4.7.3.6 Maintenance
Maintenance of equipment in extended aeration plants should follow the manufacturer's
instructions. Items requiring attention include:
3210 a. Plant Cleanliness
Wash down tank walls, weirs, and channels to reduce the collection of odour-causing
materials.
b. Aeration Equipment:
i. Air blowers and air diffusion units
3215 ii. Mechanical aerators
c. Air Lift Pumps
d. Scum Skimmer
e. Sludge Scrapers
f. Froth Spray System
3220 g. Weirs, Gates, and Valves
h. Raw Sewage Pumps
4.7.4 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
In SBR operations, the cycle processes Fill-react, React, Settle and Decant are controlled by
time to achieve the objectives of the operation. Each process is associated with particular reactor
3225 conditions (turbulent/quiescent, aerobic/anaerobic) that promote selected changes in the
chemical and physical nature of the sewage. These changes lead ultimately to a fully treated
effluent. Figure 4.12 shows a typical SBR operation.
Fill or Fill-react
The purpose of Fill-React operation is to add substrate (raw sewage) to the reactor. The
3230 addition of substrate can be controlled either by limit switches to a set volume or by a timer
to a set time period. If the volume is set, the Fill-React process typically allows the liquid
levels in the reactor to rise from 50-80 per cent to 100 per cent. If controlled by time, the
Fill-React process normally lasts approximately 25 per cent to 50 per cent of the full cycle
time. Period of aeration and/or mixing during Fill are critical to the development of
3235 organisms with good settling characteristics and to biological nutrient removal (Nitrogen
(N), Phosphorus (P)). An advantage of the SBR system of time control is its ability to
modify the reactor conditions during the phases to achieve the treatment goals. This phase
ends when the liquid level in the tank reaches a predetermined level.
Final Draft 4-20

FACILITIES
3240 Source: Nishihara Environment Co., Ltd.
Figure 4.12 Operating cycles of intermittent SBR process

Settle
The purpose of SETTLE is to allow solids separation to occur, providing a clarified
supernatant to be discharged as effluent. In the SBR, this process is normally more efficient
3245 than in a continuous flow system, because in the Settle mode the reactor contents are
completely quiescent. The Settle process is controlled by time and is usually fixed between
30 minutes to an hour so that the sludge blanket remains below the withdrawal mechanism
during the next phase.
Decant/Discharge
3250 The purpose of the decantation is to remove the clarified, treated water from the reactor.
Sludge wasting is another important step in SBR operation that greatly affects process
performance. It is not included as one of the three basin processes because there is no set
time period within the cycle dedicated to wasting. The amount and frequency of sludge
wasting is determined by process requirements, as with conventional continuous flow
3255 systems. In an SBR operation, sludge wasting usually occurs during the Settle or Decant
phases. A unique feature of the SBR system is that there is no need for a RAS system. Since
the aeration and settling occurs in the same tank, no sludge is lost in the reaction phase and
none has to be returned from clarifier to maintain the sludge content in the aeration tank.
This eliminates the need for the hardware and controls associated with the conventional
3260 RAS system. The sludge volume and, thus, sludge age in the reactor of the SBR system is
controlled by sludge wasting only.
The manual given by the equipment supplier should be followed. Usually these units are
controlled automatically by programmable logic controllers (PLCs). The precaution
needed is to make sure that power supply is available continuously. If power supply fails,
3265 immediately bring the genset on-line. If there is no genset or if there is no diesel, do not
operate the SBR and close it. Inform the plant in charge and also report to the. official
responsible for overall O&M in the head office directly.
4.7.4.1 Process Control
The SBR has in built process control. Depending on the BOD load, it adjusts the Dissolved
3270 Oxygen (DO) supply by sensing the residual DO and varying the speed of air compressor and
hence the rate of air supply. The most important thing for day to day testing is to understand the
Final Draft 4-21
FACILITIES
SBR as designed. It may have fully aerobic or anoxic and aerobic or anaerobic, anoxic and
aerobic.
If anaerobic cycle is there, check whether the floor level mixer is working and if it is out of
3275 order, start the installed standby mixer. If both are not in order, enter in the site register and
inform the plant in charge. Make sure that hydrogen sulphide gas is not sensed in the ambient
air near the SBR. If it is sensed by smell, then going near the tank is not advisable. Make sure it
is entered in the site register and it is reported directly to the plant in charge. The operator
should not try and remedy the position. The supervisor should institute and take steps to get the
3280 designer, contractor and O&M team together and rectify the situation. There is a theory that
COD to sulphate ratio is deciding the process. This needs to be checked up and corrected. A
method of correcting the imbalance will be to recycle the treated effluent from a treated sewage
sump to dilute the COD of incoming sewage. The daily tests shall be pH, COD and dissolved
phosphate measured by colorimetric method or Nessler Tubes of 50 ml with fresh standards
3285 prepared every week. BOD can be a weekly test.
In the anoxic cycle, check whether the floor level mixer is working and if it is out of order, start
the installed standby mixer. If both are not in order, enter it in the site register and inform the.
plant in charge. Daily tests will be nitrate estimated by Nesslerization procedure in 50 ml
Nessler tubes. The test is to be done in the beginning, in the mid cycle and at the completion of
3290 the cycle of anoxic phase. If there is no reduction in the nitrate, then something is not in order.
Proceed to check the MLVSS. It should be at least 75 %. If this is not so, enter the value in the
site register and inform the plant in charge. The supervisor should institute and take steps to get
the designer, contractor and O&M team together and rectify the situation.
In the aeration cycle, check the residual DO. This is to be indicated by the built in sensor. If the
3295 sensor is not working use the Winkler method by collecting the mixed liquor and filtering it
through Whatman filter paper number 4 in a BOD bottle and with the tip of the funnel
connected by a rubber tubing so that the filtrate enters the BOD bottle in the submerged
condition always and avoids additional aeration. A procedure for easy use in the field for
instantly testing the BOD is to use a BOD tube. This has been introduced in the Chennai
3300 Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (CMWSSB) by M/S Severn Trent of UK as
part of a twinning arrangement. Details of the tube can be obtained from CMWSSB. A
photograph of the CMWSSB chemist using the tube is shown in Figure 4.13.
The principle of the test is related to the BOD caused by colloidal and suspended organics as
relatable to the BOD. The BOD related to suspended solids is inbuilt in the calibration. This
3305 tube is developed only for sewage and not for industrial effluents. The test is performed by
holding the tube as in the photo after filling the treated sewage to incremental heights and
finding out at which point, the black coloured + mark at the bottom vanishes. There is a reading
etched on the side of the tube and this is read at the sewage level when the + mark vanishes
from sight. The principle is the colloidal solids and SS have their portion of BOD. The more the
3310 volume needed to hide the bottom + mark, the less is the colloidal solids and SS and hence,
the lesser is the BOD due to this portion. It is a combination of nephelometry and theory.
Usually the results are within 90%.
The BOD tube
The Palintest Tube is a specially calibrated plastic tube and is the implest possible
3315 method of performing the instantaneous probable BOD and SS tests on secondary
treated sewage in the field to help the operator to get a feel of these parameters
quickly. The test kit is a tube graduated at 30 to 500 turbidity units. A double length
tube with additional graduations from 5 to 25 turbidity units is optionally available.
These were calibrated by the Department of Public Health Engineering, University
3320 of Newcastle upon Tyne. It has an etched black cross mark at bottom
Final Draft 4-22

FACILITIES
Procedure
Hold the tube vertically over a white surface and view downwards.
Gradually pour secondary sewage and watch the cross mark
Stop pouring when the cross mark is no longer visible
3325 Read the graduation at the top of the sample in the tube.
This represents the turbidity in Jackson Turbidity units (JTU).
For secondary sewage, the graduation may also be taken as SS
Half the value of JTU plus 5 is also the probable BOD
3330 Source: CMWSSB
Figure 4.13 Use of a BOD tube for instantaneous assessment of the BOD at site.
If the DO is lesser than 20 % of the design value, enter it in the site register and inform the plant
in charge. Check the MLVSS if the above situation occurs. This can be a weekly test. Check the
COD.
3335 In the settling cycle, check the SS of the decanted effluent and its COD. There is no need to
check the BOD at the end of every cycle. Prepare a curve of BOD to COD for the treated
sewage and verify the BOD by testing for the COD. This will show the trend every two hours
itself instead of 3 days for BOD actual test. This can however be a weekly test. If the SS and
BOD varies by more than 10 % in the treated sewage, enter the values in the site register and
3340 inform the plant in charge. The decanter cannot be subjected to preventive maintenance in a
functioning SBR. The raw sewage has to be bypassed with prior permission of the supervisor
before this is carried out. The electrical drive of the decanter will require its greasing in some
equipment. Make sure there is a grease guard and grease does not fall into the SBR basin.
Where the rope and pulley method is used, change the rope every month.
3345 4.7.4.2 Records
The limited parameters as above and the flow rate and cycle times are the records.
4.7.4.3 Housekeeping
In all SBR systems, verify build up of slime on the sidewalls in the freeboard. If noticed, scrub
it down into the basin itself during the filling phase. This can be done by the operator standing
Final Draft 4-23

FACILITIES
3350 on the peripheral walkway and using a long handle wire brush. If there is no such walkway,
leave the slime as it is.
4.7.5 Oxidation Ditch
An oxidation ditch is a modified activated sludge biological treatment process that utilizes long
Solids Retention Times (SRTs) to remove biodegradable organics. Oxidation ditches are
3355 typically complete mix systems, but they can be modified to approach plug flow conditions.
(Note: As conditions approach plug flow, diffused air must be used to provide enough mixing.
The system will also no longer operate as an oxidation ditch). Typical oxidation ditch treatment
systems consist of a single or multichannel configuration within a ring, oval, or
horseshoe-shaped basin. As a result, oxidation ditches are called "racetrack type" reactors.
3360 Horizontally or vertically mounted aerators provide circulation and aeration in the ditch.
Preliminary treatment, such as bar screens and grit removal, normally precedes the oxidation
ditch. Primary settling prior to an oxidation ditch is sometimes practiced, but is not typical in
this design.
Flow to the oxidation ditch is aerated and mixed with return sludge from a secondary clarifier. A
3365 typical process flow diagram for an activated sludge plant using an oxidation ditch is shown in
Figure 4.14.
There is usually no primary settling tank or grit removal system used in this process. Inorganic
solids such as sand, silt, and cinders are captured in the oxidation ditch and removed during
sludge wasting or cleaning operations. The raw sewage passes directly through a bar screen to
3370 the ditch.
The bar screen is necessary for the protection of the mechanical equipment such as rotor and
pumps. Comminutors or barminutors may be installed after the bar screen or instead of a bar
screen. The oxidation ditch forms the aeration basin and here the raw sewage is mixed with
previously formed active organisms. The rotor is the aeration device that entrains (dissolves) the
3375 necessary oxygen into the liquid for microbial life and keeps the contents of the ditch mixed and
moving. The velocity of the liquid in the ditch must be maintained to prevent settling of solids,
normally 0.3 to 0.45 m/sec. The ends of the ditch are well rounded to prevent eddying and dead
areas, and the outside edges of the curves are given erosion protection measures.
The mixed liquor flows from the ditch to a clarifier for separation. The clarified water passes
3380 over the effluent weir and is chlorinated. Plant effluent is discharged to either a receiving stream,
percolation ditches, or a subsurface disposal or leaching system. The settled sludge is removed
from the bottom of the clarifier by a pump and is returned to the ditch or wasted. Scum that
floats to the surface of the clarifier is removed and either returned to the oxidation ditch for
further treatment or disposed of by burial.
3385 Since the oxidation ditch is operated as a closed system, the amount of volatile suspended solids
will gradually increase. It will periodically become necessary to remove some sludge from the
process. Wasting of sludge lowers the MLSS (mixed liquor suspended solids) concentration in
the ditch and keeps the microorganisms more active.
Final Draft 4-24

FACILITIES
3390 Figure 4.14 Oxidation ditch

4.7.5.1 Operation
Process controls and operation of an oxidation ditch are similar to the activated sludge process.
To obtain maximum performance efficiency, the following control methods must be maintained.
a. Proper Food Supply For the Microorganisms
3395 Influent flows and waste characteristics are subject to limited control by the operator.
Municipal ordinances may prohibit discharge to the collection system of materials that are
damaging to treatment structures or to human safety. Control over wastes dumped into the
collection system requires a pre-treatment facility inspection program to ensure
compliance. Alternate means of disposal, pre-treatment, or controlled discharge of
3400 significantly damaging wastes may be required in order to permit dilution to an acceptable
level by the time the waste arrives at the treatment plant.
b. Proper DO Levels
Proper operation of the process depends on the rotor assembly supplying the right amount
of oxygen to the waste flow in the ditch. For the best operation, a DO concentration of 0.5
3405 to 2.0 mg/L should be maintained just upstream of the rotors. Over oxygenation wastes
power and excessive DO levels can cause a pinpoint floc to form that does not settle and is
lost over the weir in the settling tank. Control of rotor oxygenation is achieved by adjusting
the ditch outlet level control weir.
The level or elevation of the rotors is fixed but the deeper the rotors sit in the water, the
3410 greater the transfer of oxygen from the air to the water (greater DO). The ditch outlet level
control weir regulates the level of water in the oxidation ditch.
c. Proper Environment
The oxidation ditch process with its long-term aeration basin is designed to carry MLSS
concentrations of 3,000 to 5,000 mg/L. This provides a large organism mass in the system.
3415 Performance of the ditch and ditch environment can be evaluated by conducting a few
simple tests and general observations. The colour and characteristics of the floc in the ditch
as well as the clarity of the effluent should be observed and recorded daily. Typical tests are
settleable solids, DO upstream of the rotor, pH, and residual chlorine in the plant effluent.
Laboratory tests such as BOD, COD, suspended solids, volatile solids, total solids, and
3420 microscopic examinations should be performed periodically by the plant operator or an
outside laboratory. The results will aid operator in determining the actual operating
efficiency and performance of the process.
Oxidation ditch solids are controlled by regulating the return sludge rate and waste sludge
rate. Remember that solids continue to deteriorate as long as they remain in the clarifier.
3425 Adjust the return sludge rate to return the microorganisms in a healthy condition from the
Final Draft 4-25

FACILITIES
final settling tank to the oxidation ditch. If dark solids appear in the settling tank, either the
return sludge rate should be increased (solids remaining too long in clarifier) or the DO
levels are too low in the oxidation ditch.
Adjusting the waste sludge rate regulates the solids concentration (number of
3430 microorganisms) in the oxidation ditch. The appearance of the surface of the oxidation
ditch can be a helpful indication of whether the sludge wasting rate should be increased or
decreased. If the foam on the surface is white and crisp, reduce the wasting rate. If the foam
on the surface is thick and dark, increase the wasting rate. Waste activated sludge may be
removed from the ditch by pumping to a sludge holding tank, to sludge drying beds, to
3435 sludge lagoons, or to a tank truck. Ultimate disposal may be to larger treatment plants or to
approved sanitary landfills.
Remember that this is a biological treatment process and several days may be required
before the process, responds to operation changes. Make operator changes slowly, be
patient, and observe and record the results.
3440 d. Proper Treatment Time and Flow Velocities
Treatment time is directly related to the flow of sewage and is controlled by an adjustable
weir. Velocities in the ditch should be maintained at 0.3 to 0.45 m/sec to prevent the
deposition of floc. With this in mind, the ditch contents should travel the complete circuit
of the ditch, or from rotor to rotor every 3 to 6 minutes. If the rotors are operated by time
3445 clocks (30 minutes off and 30 minutes on, for example), the velocities in the ditch must be
sufficient to re-suspend any settled material.
e. Proper Water/Solids Separation
MLSS that have entered and settled in the secondary clarifier are continuously removed
from the clarifier as return sludge, by pump, for return to the oxidation ditch. Usually, all
3450 sludge formed by the process and settled in the clarifier is returned to the ditch, except
when wasting sludge. Scum that is captured on the surface of the clarifier also is removed
from the clarifier and either returned to the oxidation ditch for further treatment or disposed
of by burial.
f. Observations
3455 Some aspects of the operation of an oxidation ditch plant can be controlled and adjusted
with the help of some general observations. General daily observations of the plant are
important to help operator determine whether or not the oxidation ditch is operating as
intended. These observations include colour of the mixed liquor in the ditch, odour at the
plant site, and clarity of the ditch and sedimentation tank surfaces.
3460 i. Colour
Operator should note the colour of the mixed liquor in the ditch daily. Mixed liquor
from a properly operating oxidation ditch plant should have a medium to rich dark
brown colour. If the MLSS, following proper start-up, changes colour from a dark
brown to a light brown and the MLSS appears to be thinner than before, the sludge
3465 waste rate may be too high, which may cause the plant to lose efficiency in removing
waste materials. By decreasing sludge waste rates before the colour lightens too much,
operator can ensure that the plant effluent quality will not deteriorate due to low
MLSS concentrations.
If the MLSS becomes black, the ditch is not receiving enough oxygen and has gone
3470 anaerobic. The oxygen output of the rotors must be increased to eliminate the black
colour and return the process to normal aerobic operation. This is done by increasing
the submergence level of the rotor.
Final Draft 4-26

FACILITIES
ii. Odour
When the oxidation ditch plant is operating properly, there will be little or no odour.
3475 Odour, if detected, should have an earthy smell. If an odour other than this is present,
operator should check and determine the cause. Odour similar to rotten eggs indicates
that the ditch may be going anaerobic, requiring more oxygen or a higher ditch
velocity to prevent deposition of solids. The colour of the MLSS could be black if this
were the case. Odour may also be a sign of poor housekeeping. Grease and solids
3480 build-up on the edge of the ditch or sedimentation tank will go anaerobic and cause
odours. In an oxidation ditch, odours are much more often caused by poor
housekeeping than by poor operation.
iii. Clarity
In a properly operating oxidation ditch, a layer of clear water or supernatant is usually
3485 visible about a meter upstream from the rotor. The depth of this relatively clear water
may vary from almost nothing to as much as five or more cm above the mixed liquor.
The clarity will depend on the ditch velocity and the settling characteristics of the
activated sludge solids.
Two other good indications of a properly operating oxidation ditch are the clarity of
3490 the settling tank water surface and the oxidation ditch surface free of foam build-up.
Foam build-up in the ditch (normally not enough to be a nuisance) is usually caused
by insufficient MLSS concentration. Most frequently foam build-up is only seen
during plant start-up and will gradually disappear.
Clarity of the effluent from the secondary clarifier discharged over the weirs is the best
3495 indication of plant performance. A very clear effluent shows that the plant is achieving
excellent pollutant removals. A cloudy effluent often indicates a problem with the
plant operation.
4.7.5.2 Equipment Maintenance
Regularly scheduled equipment maintenance must be performed according to manufacturers'
3500 instruction manuals. Operator should check each piece of equipment daily to see that it is
functioning properly. There may have very few mechanical devices in the oxidation ditch plant,
but they are all important.
The rotors and pumps should be inspected to ensure that they are operating properly. If pumps
are clogged, the obstructions should be removed. Listen for unusual noises. Check for loose
3505 bolts. Uncovering a mechanical problem in its early stages could prevent a costly repair or
replacement at a later date.
Lubrication should also be performed with a fixed operating schedule and properly recorded.
Follow the lubrication and maintenance instructions furnished with each piece of equipment.
Make sure that the proper lubricants are used. Over lubrication is wasteful and reduces the
3510 effectiveness of lubricant seals and may cause overheating of bearings or gears.
4.7.6 Chemical Clarification
Chemicals are used for a variety of municipal treatment applications, such as to enhance
flocculation/sedimentation, condition solids, add nutrients, neutralize acid base, precipitate
phosphorus, and disinfect or to control odours, algae, or activated-sludge bulking.
3515 Chemical precipitation is a widely used, proven technology for the removal of metals and other
inorganics, suspended solids, fats, oils, greases, and some other organic substances (including
organophosphates) from sewage.
Precipitation is assisted through the use of a coagulant, an agent which causes smaller particles
Final Draft 4-27

FACILITIES
suspended in solution to gather into larger aggregates. Frequently, polymers are used as
3520 coagulants. The long-chain polymer molecules can be either positively or negatively charged
(cationic or anionic) or neutral (non-ionic). Since sewage chemistry typically involves the
interaction of ions and other charged particles in solution, these electrical qualities allow the
polymers to act as bridges between particles suspended in solution, or to neutralize particles in
solution. The specific approach used for precipitation will depend on the contaminants to be
3525 removed, as described below.
4.7.6.1 Metals Removal
Water hardness is caused primarily by the dissolution of calcium and magnesium carbonate and
bicarbonate compounds in water, and to a lesser extent, by the sulphates, chlorides, and silicates
of these metals. The removal of these dissolved compounds, called water softening often
3530 proceeds by chemical precipitation. Lime (calcium oxide), when added to hard water, reacts to
form calcium carbonate, which itself can act as a coagulant, sweeping ions out of solution in
formation and settling.
To do this with lime alone, a great deal of lime is typically needed to work effectively; for this
reason, the lime is often added in conjunction with ferrous sulphate, producing insoluble ferric
3535 hydroxide. The combination of lime and ferrous sulphate is only effective in the presence of
dissolved oxygen, however. Alum, when added to water containing calcium and magnesium
bicarbonate alkalinity, reacts with the alkaline substances to form an insoluble aluminium
hydroxide precipitate.
Soluble heavy metal ions can be converted into insoluble metal hydroxides or carbonates
3540 through the addition of hydroxide compounds. Additionally, insoluble metal sulphides can be
formed with the addition of ferrous sulphate and lime.
Once the optimal pH for precipitation is established, the settling process is often accelerated by
addition of a polymer coagulant, which gathers the insoluble metal compound particles into a
coarse floc that can settle rapidly by gravity.
3545 4.7.6.2 Phosphorus Removal
Metal salts (most commonly ferric chloride or aluminium sulphate, also called alum) or lime,
have been used for the removal of phosphate compounds from water. When lime is used, a
sufficient amount of lime must be added to increase the pH of the solution to at least 10,
creating an environment in which excess calcium ions can react with the phosphate to produce
3550 an insoluble precipitate (hydroxyl apatite). Lime is an effective phosphate removal agent, but
results in a large sludge volume.
When ferric chloride or alum is used, the iron or aluminium ions in solution will react with
phosphate to produce insoluble metal phosphates. The degree of insolubility for these
compounds is pH dependent.
3555 4.7.6.3 Suspended Solids
Finely divided particles suspended in solution can escape filtration and other similar removal
processes. Their small size allows them to remain suspended over extended periods of time.
More often than not, the particles populating sewage are negatively charged. For this reason,
cationic polymers are commonly added to the solution, both to reduce the surface charge of the
3560 particles, and also to form bridges between the particles, thus causing particle coagulation and
settling.
Alternatively, lime can be used as a clarifying agent for removal of particulate matter. The
calcium hydroxide reacts in the sewage solution to form calcium carbonate, which itself acts as
a coagulant, sweeping particles out of solution.
Final Draft 4-28

FACILITIES
3565 4.7.6.4 Additional Considerations

The amount of chemicals required for treatment depends on the pH and alkalinity of the sewage,
the phosphate level, and the point of injection and mixing modes, among other factors.
Competing reactions often make it difficult to calculate the quantities of additives necessary for
chemical precipitation. Accurate doses should be determined by jar tests and confirmed by field
3570 evaluations. Chemicals are usually added by a chemical feed system that can be completely
enclosed and may also include storage space for unused chemicals.
Choosing the most effective coagulant depends on jar test results, ease of storage, ease of
transportation, and consideration of the operation and maintenance costs for associated
equipment.
3575 Chemical precipitation is normally carried out through a chemical feed system, most often a
totally automated system providing for automatic chemical feeding, monitoring, and control.
Full automation reduces manpower requirements, allows for less sophisticated operator
oversight, and increases efficiency through continuous operation.
An automatic feed system may consist of storage tanks, feed tanks, metering pumps (although
3580 pumpless systems do exist), overflow containment basins, mixers, aging tanks, injection quills,
shot feeders, piping, fittings, and valves.
Chemical feed system storage tanks should have sufficient capacity to run for some time
without running out and causing downtime. At least a one month supply of chemical storage
capacity is recommended, though lesser quantities may be justified when a reliable supplier is
3585 located nearby, thus alleviating the need for maintaining substantial storage space. Additive
chemicals come in liquid and dry form.
4.7.6.5 Jar Testing
Secondary treated sewage from STPS may sometimes carry over the microbes from the clarifier.
When chlorination of the treated sewage is to be carried out, these suspended microbes will
3590 consume the added chlorine before the organic matter in the treated sewage can be oxidized and
pathogenic faecal organisms can be killed. Hence, it may be necessary to carry out coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation before chlorine is applied. For details of the theory of
coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation, the CPHEEO Manual on Water Supply and
Treatment may be consulted. The purpose of a jar test is to find out which chemical and at what
3595 dosage is needed to improve the clarity of secondary treated sewage. In general, such
coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation is not recommended for raw sewage because the
disposal of the resulting sludge becomes difficult due to a mix of biological and chemical sludge.
At the same time, the phosphorous present in sewage at even as low as 1 mg/l is known to form
a coating around the flocs and prevent them from settling and this in fact increases the turbidity
3600 of raw sewages. This is the reverse of addition of phosphate to cooling waters to prevent the
precipitated scales from settling out in the heat exchanged surfaces.
Jar testing entails adjusting the amount of treatment chemicals and the sequence in which they
are added to samples of raw sewage held in jars or beakers. The sample is then stirred so that the
formation, development, and settlement of floc can be watched just as it would be in the
3605 fullscale treatment plant. (Floc forms when treatment chemicals react with material in the raw
sewage and clump together.)
A typical laboratory bench scale jar test apparatus can be shown in Figure 4.15. The apparatus
allows for six samples each of 1-2 Litre in size, to tested simultaneously.
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3610 Source: http://www.neutecgroup.com/jartest.htm
Figure 4.15 Typical jar testing apparatus

The procedure of jar testing is as follows;
The following jar test procedure uses alum (aluminum sulfate) a chemical for coagulation/
flocculation in sewage treatment, and a typical six jar tester.
3615 a. First, using a 1,000 millilitre (mL) graduated cylinder, add 1,000 mL of raw water
to each of the jar test beakers. Record the temperature, pH, turbidity, and alkalinity
of the raw water before beginning.
b. Prepare a stock solution by dissolving 10.0 grams of alum into 1,000 mL distilled
water. Each 1.0 mL of this stock solution will equal 10 mg/L (ppm) when added to
3620 1,000 mL of water to be tested.
c. Using the prepared stock solution of alum, dose each beaker with increased
amounts of the solution. See Table 4.2 below for an example of the increments and
dosage:
d. After dosing each beaker, turn on the stirrers. This part of the procedure should
3625 reflect the actual conditions of the plant as much as possible. Meaning, if the plant
has a static mixer following chemical addition, followed by 30 minutes in a
flocculator, then 1.5 hours of settling time before the filters, then the test also
should have these steps. The jar test would be performed as follows: Operate the
stirrers at a high RPM for 1 minute to simulate the rapid mixer.
3630 e. Rreduce the speed of the stirrers to match the conditions in the flocculator and
allow them to operate for 30 minutes. Observe the floc formation periodically
during the 30 minutes.
f. At the end of the 30 minutes turn off the stirrers and allow settling. Most of the
settling will be complete after one hour.
3635 g. Use a pipette to draw a portion from the top of each beaker, and measure its
turbidity.
h. Plot supernatant turbidity versus alum dose (Figure 4.16) for the sewage sample and
comment on their shapes.
i. Find out the optimum alum dose. i.e, 25 mg/L from Figure 4.16
3640 If none of the beakers appear to have good results, then the procedure needs to be run again
using different dosages until the correct dosage is found.
Table 4.2 Dosing in Jar Test
Final Draft 4-30
FACILITIES
Jar No. ml Alum Stock Added mg/L Alum Dosage

1 1.0 10.0
2 1.5 15.0
3 2.0 20.0
4 2.5 25.0
5 3.0 30.0
6 3.5 35.0
Figure 4.16 Supernatant turbidity vs. Alum dose

3645 4.8 Aerated Lagoon
The aerated lagoon process consists of aeration of the facultative pond of the stabilization pond
by means of an aerator.(Refer to Section 4.13 Waste stabilization pond)
Aerated lagoons are generally provided in the form of simple earthen basins with inlet at one
end and outlet at the other to enable the sewage to flow through while aeration is usually
3650 provided by mechanical means to stabilize the organic matter. The major difference between
activated sludge systems and aerated lagoons is that in the latter settling tanks and sludge
recirculation are absent.
4.8.1 Process Control
Daily tests will be for SS and COD. The BOD will be obtained from the standard curve made
3655 out for this sewage from a curve of BOD to COD. The BOD tube is also useful. There is nothing
much to do by way of process control in aerated lagoon except making sure that all surface
aerators are in working condition. Some aerated lagoons have a final section of the lagoon itself
as the settling compartment. Some other lagoons have a dedicated clarifier outside the lagoon.
In such a case, the return sludge is also provided in some STPs. This return sludge arrangement
3660 must run continuously. The excess sludge disposal is not provided for in aerated lagoons
normally. In case of clarifiers it may be used. Mechanical dewatering facilities are generally not
advised because the MLSS concentrations will be much lesser than in conventional ASPs.
Sludge drying beds with green cover to prevent direct rainfall on the beds is the answer to such
situations.
3665 The DO concentration in an aerated lagoon is the best means to determine if the lagoon is
operating properly. Typical practice is to maintain 1 to 2 mg/l DO in the lagoon. A minimum DO
level of 1 mg/l should be maintained in the lagoon during the heaviest loading periods. Often
the heaviest oxygen demand is during the night when the algae are respiring. The pH range in
the lagoon should range from 7 to 8. The pH can exceed 9 during algal blooms, especially in
3670 low-alkalinity sewage. Surface mechanical aerators when used, should produce good turbulence
and a light amount of froth.
Final Draft 4-31
FACILITIES
4.8.2 Records
The limited parameters as above and the flow rate and cycle times shall be maintained as
records.
3675 4.8.3 Housekeeping
Keep the bunds free of any grass or weeds. Do not allow tree branches of trees to hang over the
lagoon. Follow all guidelines for motors. If high speed floating aerators are used, pull them out
of the lagoon before attending to it. Check if the power cable is having sufficient slack. Verify
that the power cable is tied at about 3-m centres to vertical secure posts. Do not enter the lagoon
3680 unless you are wearing a life vest and are on a boat with an aide if the aerators are not connected
by a platform.
In all aerated lagoons, weeds and over hanging tree branches shall be avoided. A photo of such a
situation is shown in Figure 4.17.
3685 Figure 4.17 Overhanging tree branches and the small area of the lined bund may be seen
The tree roots will enter the lining and break the concrete slab joints easily.
Once this occurs, the slabs will lose their strength and start falling down into the
lagoon itself.
Once this sets in, the earth in the bund will be easily eroded in rains and the bund will
3690 cave in.
This leads to the lagoon sewage running out on land and polluting the land and water
in wells and streams.
The hanging tree branches will be dropping leaves which will support growth of
mosquitoes.
3695 Manual scraping shall be done from the top of bund and not by persons entering the
lagoon.
In such cases, the branches shall be cut and the cut portions sealed with cow dung.
The biggest danger is if the bund gets broken and sewage escapes; it is very difficult to control
Reconstructing the bund is also a problem when raw sewage keeps coming daily.
3700 Stopping the sewage escaping from the broken bund can be done by the following:
Final Draft 4-32

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Pack cement bags with mix of 90 % clay and 10% sewage and stack them one
over the other.
These have to be dumped to form a cofferdam inside the sewage spread.
Thereafter, the reconstruction of the bund can be taken up easily.
3705 4.9 Attached Growth Systems
One of major attached growth systems adopted in sewage treatment lately is a fixed film
synthetic media filter, which consists of synthetic media such as inclined corrugated media
placed in cube sized packs and the inclinations changed to opposite directions in successive
layers as shown in Figure 4.18.
3710
Figure 4.18 Fixed film synthetic media filters
Primary sedimentation is a pre-requirement in these applications. In Figure 4.18, the applied
sewage is distributed from the top of the media pack by stationary or hydraulically driven
reverse jet arms on opposite radii or rotated by a mechanical drive. The requirements to apply
3715 the sewage on the entire plan are to uniformly and simultaneously allow the gas exchange by
releasing at the top and fresh air automatically forcing itself from the bottom. The microbial
films develop on the fixed media and bring about the metabolism as the sewage passes over
them as a film. In due course of time, the thickness of the film increases and results in sloughing
and getting carried away to secondary settling tanks. Recirculation of the treated effluent is
3720 sometimes practiced before sedimentation so that the enzymes released by the microbes are
returned to the reactor for solubilising the sewage organicmatter.
Final Draft 4-33

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4.9.1 Operation
Many operating problems may be avoided by changing one or more of the following process
control variables: distribution rates, and clarifier operation.
3725 a. Distribution Rates
As a principal process control measure, operators can control the rates at which sewage and
filter effluent are distributed to the filter media. Recirculation can serve several purposes,
as follows:
Reduce the strength of the sewage being applied to the filter.
3730 Increase the hydraulic load to reduce flies, snails, or other nuisances.
Maintain distributor movement during low flows.
Produce hydraulic shear to encourage solids sloughing and prevent ponding.
Reseed the filters microbial population.
Provide uniform flow distribution.
3735 Prevent filters from drying out.
b. Clarifier Operation.
The manner in which secondary clarifiers are operated can significantly affect the filter
performance. Although clarifier operation with fixed film reactors is not as critical as that
with suspended-growth systems, operators must still pay close attention to final settling.
3740 Sludge must be removed quickly from the final settling tank before gasification occurs or
denitrification causes solids to rise. Use of the secondary clarifier as a principal means of
thickening (rather than simply for solids settling) may not produce the best effluent quality,
especially during summer months, when denitrification is likely to occur. The sludge
blanket depth in the secondary clarifier should be limited to 0.3 to 0.6 m. Continuous
3745 pumping or intermittent pumping with automatic timer control are used to accomplish
solids wasting.
4.9.2 Maintenance
Planned maintenance will vary from plant to plant, depending on unique design features and
equipment installed. Although this chapter cannot address all of these items, a summary of the
3750 most common and important maintenance tasks follows.
Table 4.3 is a guide to planned maintenance.
Table 4.3 Planned maintenance for fixed film synthetic media filters
Rotary Distributors
Observe the distributor daily. Make sure the rotation is smooth and that spray nozzles are not
plugged.
Lubricate the main support bearings and any guide or stabilizing bearings according to the
manufacturers instructions. Change lubricant periodically, typically twice a year. If the bearings are
oil-lubricated, check the oil level, drain condensate weekly, and add oil as needed.
Time the rotational speed of the distributor at one or more flow rates. Record and file the results for
future comparison. A change in speed at the same flow rate indicates bearing trouble.
Flush distributor arms monthly by opening end shear gates or blind flanges to remove debris. Drain
the arms if idle during cold weather to prevent damage via freezing.
Clean orifices weekly with a high-pressure stream of water or with a hooked piece of wire.
Keep distributor arm vent pipes free of ice, grease, and solids. Clean in the same manner as the
distributor arm orifices. Air pockets will form if the vents are plugged. Air pockets will cause
uneven hydraulic loading in the filter, and nonuniform load and excessive wear of the distributor
Final Draft 4-34

FACILITIES
support bearing.
Make sure distributor arms are level. To maintain level, the vertical guy wire should be taken up
during the summer and let out during the winter by adjusting the guy wire tie rods. Maintain arms in
the correct horizontal orientation by adjusting horizontal tie rods.
Periodically check distributor seal and, if applicable, the influent pipe to distributor expansion joint
for leaks. Replace as necessary. During replacement check seal plates for wear and replace if wear is
excessive. Some seals should be kept submerged even if the filter is idle or their life will be severely
shortened.
Remove ice from distributor arms. Ice buildup causes nonuniform loads and reduces main bearing
life.
Paint the distributor as needed to guard against corrosion. Cover bearings when sandblasting to
protect against contamination. Check oil by draining a little oil through a nylon stocking after
sandblasting. Ground the distributor arms to protect bearings if welding on distributor and lock out
the drive mechanism at the main electrical panel. Adjust secondary arm overflow weirs and pan test
sewage distribution on filter as needed.
Fixed nozzle distributors
Observe spray pattern daily. Unplug block nozzles manually or by increasing hydraulic loading.
Flush headers and laterals monthly by opening end plates. Adjust nozzle spring tension as needed.
Filter media
Observe condition of filter media surface daily. Remove leaves, large solids and plastics, grease
balls, broken wood lath or plastic media, and other debris. If ponding is evident, find and eliminate
the cause. Keep vent pipes open, and remove accumulated debris.
Store extra plastic media out of sunlight to prevent damage via ultraviolet rays. Observe media for
settling. After they are installed, media settle because of their own weight and the weight of the
biofilm and water attached to its surface. Settling should be uniform and should stabilize after a few
weeks. Total settling is typically less than 0.3 m for random plastic media, less for plastic sheet
media, and nearly zero for rock. If settling is nonuniform or excessive, remove some of the media
for inspection.
Observe media for hydraulic erosion, particularly in regions where reversing jets hit the media.
Underdrains
Flush out periodically if possible. Remove debris from the effluent channels.
Media containment structure
Maintain spray against inside wall of filter to prevent filter fly infestation and to prevent ice buildup
in winter.
Practice good housekeeping. Keep fibreglass, concrete, or steel outside walls clean and painted, if
applicable. Keep grass around structures cut, and remove weeds and tall shrubs to help prevent filter
fly and other insect infestations. Remember, using insecticides around treatment units may have
adverse effects on water quality or biological treatment units.
Filter pumps
Check packing or mechanical seals for leakage daily. Adjust or replace as needed. Lubricate pump
and motor bearings as per manufacturers instructions. Keep pump motor as clean and dry as
possible. Periodically check shaft sleeves, wearing rings, and impellers for wear; repair or replace as
needed. Perform maintenance of speed reducer, coupling, and other appurtenant equipment
maintenance according to manufacturers instructions.
Secondary clarifier
Lubricate drive motor bearings, speed-reducing gear, drive chains, work and spur gears, and the
main support bearing for the solids-collection equipment according to the manufacturers
instructions. Flush scum troughs and grease wells daily. Maintain solids withdrawal equipment.
Clean effluent wells and baffles at least weekly. Paint or otherwise protect equipment from
corrosion as needed.
Appurtenant equipment
Maintain piping, valves, forced draft blowers, and other appurtenant equipment according to the
manufacturers instructions.
Source: WEF, 2008
The information provided in Table 4.3 is not equipment or plant-specific. Therefore, both the
Final Draft 4-35

FACILITIES
3755 manufacturers literature and engineers operating instructions should be consulted and followed.
The frequency of maintenance procedures depends on sitespecific conditions. However, until
operating experience is gained, frequent plant inspections and maintenance should continue.
Maintenance schedules should consider the increased performance of fixed film synthetic media
filters in warm weather months, which may reduce the effect of removing process units from
3760 service.
4.10 Moving Bed Bio Reactor (MBBR)
4.10.1 Configuration
The moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) is based on the biofilm carrier elements. Several types
of synthetic biofilm carrier elements have been developed for use in activated sludge processes.
3765 These biofilm carrier elements may be suspended in the activated sludge mixed liquor in the
reaction tank by air from the diffusers in aerobic reactors and by means of propeller mixers in
anaerobic and anoxic reactors. The carrier elements are retained by suitably sized sieves or
plates.
These processes are intended to enhance the activated sludge process by providing a greater
3770 biomass concentration in the aeration tank and thus offer the potential to reduce the basin size
requirements. They have also been used to improve the volumetric nitrification rates and to
accomplish the denitrification in aeration tanks by having anoxic zones within the biofilm depth.
Because of the complexity of the process and issues related to understanding the biofilm area
and activity, the process design is empirical and based on prior pilot-plant or limited full-scale
3775 results. Typical diagram of MBBR is shown in Figure 4.19.
Figure 4.19 Moving bed bioreactor

There are now more than 10 different variations of the processes in which a biofilm carrier
3780 material of various types is suspended in the aeration tank of the activated sludge process.
Differently varied processes have their own characteristics and require specific O&M. Therefore,
operators should have thorough knowledge on their systems and implement daily O&M
according to the manufacturers instruction manuals. Refer to PartA 5.16.13 MBBR for system
description on the varieties of MBBR.
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3785 4.11 Membrane Bio Reactor (MBR)

The membrane bioreactor (MBR) process is a combination of activated sludge process and
membrane separation process. Low pressure membranes (ultra filtration or microfiltration) are
commonly used. Membranes can be submerged in the biological reactor or located in a separate
stage or compartment and are used for liquid-solid separation instead of the usual settling
3790 process. (Figure 4.20)
Source: JSWA
Figure 4.20 Configuration of membrane bioreactor system

Basically, primary sedimentation tank, final sedimentation tank and disinfection facility are not
3795 installed in this process. The reaction tanks comprise an anoxic tank and an aerobic tank, and
the membrane modules are immersed in the aerobic tank. Pre-treated, screened influent enters
the membrane bioreactor, where biodegradation takes place. The mixed liquor is withdrawn by
water head difference or suction pump through membrane modules in a reaction tank, being
filtered and separated into solid and liquid. Surfaces of the membrane are continuously washed
3800 down during operation by the mixed flow of air and liquid generated by air diffuser set at the
Final Draft 4-37

FACILITIES
bottom of the reaction tank. Permeate from the membranes constitutes the treated effluent.
4.11.1 Operation
All MBR systems require some degree of pumping to force the water flowing through the
membrane. One type of membrane systems uses a pressurized system to push the water through
3805 the membranes. The major systems used in MBRs draw a vacuum through the membranes so
that the water outside is at ambient pressure. The advantage of the vacuum is that it is gentler to
the membranes; the advantage of the pressure is that throughput can be controlled. Both systems
also include techniques for continually cleaning the system to maintain membrane life and keep
the system operational for as long as possible. All the principal membrane systems used in
3810 MBRs use an air scour technique to reduce build-up of material on the membranes. This is done
by blowing air around the membranes out of the manifolds.
The permeate from an MBR has low levels of suspended solids, i.e., the levels of bacteria, BOD,
nitrogen, and phosphorus are also low. Disinfection is easy and may not even be required,
depending on permit requirements.
3815 The solids retained by the membrane are recycled to the biological reactor and build up in the
system. As in conventional biological systems, periodic sludge wasting eliminates sludge
build-up and controls the SRT within the MBR system. The waste sludge from MBRs goes
through standard solids-handling technologies for thickening, dewatering, and ultimate disposal.
Chemical addition increases the ability of solids to settle. As more MBR facilities are built and
3820 operated, a more definitive understanding of the characteristics of the resulting sludge will be
achieved. However, experience to date indicates that conventional sludge processing unit
operations are also applicable to the waste sludge from MBRs.
4.11.2 Maintenance
The key to the cost-effectiveness of an MBR system is membrane life. If membrane life is
3825 curtailed such that frequent replacement is required, costs will increase significantly. Membrane
life can be increased in the following ways:
Good screening of larger solids before the membranes to protect the membranes from physical
damage.
Throughput rates that are not excessive, i.e., that do not push the system to the limits of the
3830 design. Low rates reduce the amount of material that is forced into the membrane, and thereby
reduce the amount that has to be removed by cleaners or that will cause eventual membrane
deterioration.
Mild cleaners - cleaning solutions most often used with MBRs include regular bleach (sodium)
and citric acid, are regularly used. The cleaning should be in accordance with manufacturers
3835 recommended maintenance protocols.
4.12 Up Flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)
The Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB) (Figure 4.21), maintains a high
concentration of biomass through formation of highly settleable microbial aggregates. The
sewage flows upwards through a layer of sludge. Separation between gas-solid-liquid takes
3840 place at the top of the reactor phase. Any biomass leaving the reaction zone is directly
recirculated from the settling zone. The process is suitable for both soluble wastes and those
containing particulate matter. The process has been used for treatment of municipal sewage at
few locations and hence performance data and experience available presently are limited.
Final Draft 4-38

FACILITIES
3845 Figure 4.21 Schematic diagram of an up flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor
4.12.1 Plant Commissioning and Operation
Two to three months are needed to build up a satisfactory sludge blanket without the addition of
seed sludge from a working UASB. A shorter time is needed, if seeding is done.
During the start-up period, COD removal in the UASB gradually improves as sludge
3850 accumulation occurs. This may be called the sludge accumulation phase. The end of the sludge
accumulation phase is indicated by sludge washout. At this time, the reactor is shut down to
improve the quality of the sludge. This may be called the sludge improvement phase. After
sludge improvement, blanket formation starts. Once the blanket is formed, again some surplus
sludge washout could occur and to stabilise the stable operation, the excess sludge needs to be
3855 removed periodically. The excess sludge so removed can be sent directly to the sludge treatment
process.
The sludge accumulated in the UASB is tested for pH, volatile fatty acids (VFA), alkalinity,
COD and SS. If the pH reduces while VFA increases, new material should not be fed until the
pH and VFA stabilise.
3860 Daily operation of the UASB requires minimum attention. No special instrumentation is
necessary for control, especially where gas conversion to electric power is not practiced. As
stated, surplus sludge is easy to dry over an open sand bed. The reactor may need to be emptied
completely once in five years, while any floating material (scum) accumulated inside the gas
collector channels may have to be removed every two years to ensure free flow of gas.
3865 4.12.2 Daily Operation and Maintenance of UASB
a. Cleaning of Effluent Gutters
All V-notches must be cleaned in order to maintain the uniform withdrawal of UASB
effluent coming out of each V-notch. The irregular flow from each V-notch results in the
escape of more solids washout. Similarly, blocking of the V-notches of the effluent gutters
3870 will lead to uneven distribution of sewage in the reactor. Therefore, the effluent gutters
have to be inspected on a regular basis to remove any material blocking and even the
outflow over the V-notches in the gutters. The regular maintenance involves cleaning of
Final Draft 4-39

FACILITIES
V-notches with a broom three times a day (Figure 4.22) and removing sludge with a brush
or with a water jet once a day.
3875
Figure 4.22 Cleaning of effluent gutters
b. Unclogging Feeder Pipes
The feeder pipes should be checked regularly for clogging. Flexible iron rods can serve the
purpose. A submersible pump can be used to unclog the feeder pipes (Figure 4.23). These
3880 feeder pipes are generally clogged due to rags and floating material. It is necessary to
provide a fine screen or extra prevention at the screen to capture floating material at the
pre-treatment unit itself.
Final Draft 4-40

FACILITIES
3885 Clogged inlet pipes Submersible pump
Cleaning of feed pipes by submersible pumps Clean feed pipes (equal flow distribution)
Source: PWSSB
Figure 4.23 Cleaning of feed inlet pipes

3890 c. Removal of Floating Mat
Floating mat must be removed from the top of the surface of reactor with a rake. The
removed material should be disposed at the dumping site.
d. Check of Leakage of Biogas
The gas collectors should be checked for leakage. Leakage is easily detected by applying
3895 soap solution to the piping. This should be done on a regular basis. If the gas collectors are
leaking, the valve at the end of one bay in the gas leak should be first closed and then
repaired as soon as possible. Regular maintenance includes opening of hatch boxes and
removing floating layer inside the gas collectors.
e. Scrubbing of Biogas
3900 Waste at the Top of UASB Reactor
The risk of the corrosion of dual fuel engine parts, as biogas contains H2S, can be
minimised if biogas can be scrubbed before using it as fuel for dual fuel gas engines.
f. Check for Sludge Withdrawal Ports
The ports of the sludge withdrawal must be free from any clogging which reduces the
3905 chances of checking of sludge height in reactor.
The feeder pipes should be checked regularly for clogging. Flexible iron rods can serve the
Final Draft 4-41
FACILITIES
purpose. A submersible pump can be used to unclog the feeder pipes.

g. Methanogenic Activity
Successful operation of a UASB reactor depends upon maintaining a satisfactory balance
3910 between methane and acidogenic bacteria. The methane formers are susceptible to changes
in environmental conditions such as pH, temperature etc. The methanogenic activity must
be analysed monthly.
h. Proper Sludge Wasting
Sludge must be removed or transferred from the UASB reactor occasionally based on the
3915 sludge yield or concentration of TSS or VSS. Higher sludge withdrawal points to a poor
performance of the reactor in terms of treatment.
i. Biogas Analysis
The biogas analysis is used largely at sewage treatment plants where information on fuel
value of gas is important. In addition, knowledge of gas composition can be of considerable
3920 help in the control of digestion units. Sudden changes in gas composition can signal a
change either in the operation of the treatment unit or in the amount or composition of
incoming sewage. Such changes can thus be used as a warning sign to suggest the need for
closer observation and control of treatment unit.
j. H2S Determination
3925 The determination of hydrogen sulphide will continue to be an important consideration
wherever gas is used for fuel in gas engines, particularly in areas where the sulphate content
of sewage is very high.
k. Sludge Pumping Station Maintenance
After every sludge withdrawal operation, clean the pipeline by opening the top flushing
3930 valve until all the sludge in the pipeline is washed out. The sump has to be cleaned with
water.
Never keep the sludge in the sump, it may damage the pumps. Before getting into the
sumps for any maintenance, keep the top cover open for an hour before anybody gets in so
that any accumulated biogas will vent to the atmosphere. Keep the valve chamber dry and
3935 valves clean. Check the electrical components regularly.
l. Biogas Holder Operation and Maintenance
The biogas produced in the reactors is taken in the common FRP pipes to the biogas holder.
The biogas before going to the gas holder passes through moisture trap. The gas coming to
the gas holder is measured through gas flow metres connected to FRP pipe after the
3940 moisture trap
The biogas before going to the holder is branched off. One branch is taken to the flaring
system, the other to the biogas engine. Before going to the engine, the gas is measured from
the flow meter provided on pipeline going to the engine. Sluice valves are provided on the
lines to isolate the flow which is manually operated.
3945 In case of sudden reduction in dome levels, the reactor FRP dome connector and its
connection to the gas pipe header should be checked with soap water for any leakage of
gas. This is one of the reasons for having a gas holder level trap.
The typical UASB preventive maintenance check list is below.
Date and time
3950 Check and clean weir levels of division boxes
Final Draft 4-42

FACILITIES
Clean-up- feed inlet points

Cleaning of V-notches
Removal of sludge from effluent gutter by water jet or brush
Removal of floating layer on the top of reactor
3955 Cleaning and scrubbing of effluent channels
Check gas pipes for leakage
Leakage greasing of spindle of sludge valves
Cleaning of sludge sump
4.12.3 Routine Maintenance
3960 4.12.3.1 Quarterly Maintenance
The spindles of the valves have to be greased every three months.
The glands and packing of the valves have to be checked every three months and
replaced, if necessary.
4.12.3.2 Annual Maintenance
3965 The reactor should be emptied after the first year of full operation to check the complete feeder
and sludge withdrawal systems, especially the valves and the internal pipes for any
accumulation of debris, sludge etc.
A first check of the complete system including valves and holes should be made after
one year, or earlier when required. Routine check can be established on the basis of
3970 the first inspection observation.
The effluent gutters should be checked for levelling and alignment once a year. Each
gutter should be horizontally levelled and all gutters in one reactor should be at the
same level.
Electrical wiring should be checked every year.
3975 Corrosion on electrical connections should be removed every year.
The cement structures should be checked yearly and repaired when necessary.
The sludge filtrate water pumps should be maintained.
4.12.3.3 Five-Yearly Maintenance
Every five years, the following maintenance should be carried out.
3980 Each reactor should be alternately put out of operation.
Clean the inside concrete surface.
Apply new coating of epoxy to the concrete surface.
Check quality of feed inlet pipes and replace when necessary.
Check fixing of the feed inlet pipes, both at the distribution boxes and at the bottom.
3985 Change corroded fixing material when necessary.
Check position of PVC sheets.
Check the fixing-material of the PVC sheets and replace when necessary.
Final Draft 4-43

FACILITIES
Check the quality of gas collectors and carry out repairs where necessary.
4.12.4 Decision Schemes for Sludge Removal
3990 The removal of sludge is subject to a number of choices-how much sludge should be removed,
from where should be removed, etc.
4.12.5 Shut-Down and Standstill
At shutdown of the plant, the sludge will settle at the bottom of the reactor. The biological
activity of the sludge decreases slowly during standstill. Care should be taken to ensure that the
3995 sludge is not exposed to aerobic conditions. This might occur, for instance, when the reactor is
flushed with clean water for prolonged periods.
At shutdown of the plant, the gas production will decrease. At a prolonged period of plant
standstill, the pressure in the gas collection system can drop and air may enter into the system.
In this situation, internal parts of the gas flare, the gas metre and the pressure/vacuum release
4000 valves that normally are not in contact with the atmospheric air start to corrode. These parts
have to be protected, for instance by greasing.
If the water level in the tank is lowered during shutdown, the limited capacity of the vacuum
release valves should be kept in mind. It is possible that imploding of the gas collectors may
occur due to fast withdrawal of the reactor contents. At lowering of the water level in the reactor,
4005 it is advised to open the manholes on the top of the gas collectors. Only after re-establishing the
maximum water level, the manholes can be closed and sealed.
In general, any type of work on the gas collectors requires the opening of the manholes as the
explosive moisture of air and methane can develop in or around the gas collectors. When it is
necessary to enter the reactor while sludge is present, it should be realised that methane is being
4010 formed continuously. A proper ventilation of the reactor is necessary. Very strict rules
concerning open fire, spark emission, etc, should be followed. When entering the reactor plant,
personnel should wear respiration equipment. Measurement of explosion risk and hydrogen
sulphide concentration should be taken frequently when repair work is carried out.
4.12.6 Operational Cautions
4015 Do not get upon the UASB unless you have a gas mask, safety shoes, goggles and
helmets.
Do not carry any ignitable matters on your person.
Once you reach the walking platform at top, check the H2S by hand held meter.
Unless it registers safety, immediately climb down the UASB.
4020 Once all the above are ensured, proceed to check any overflows of sewage and if so,
stop the UASB.
Check for corrosion at least once in 6 months and get it rectified.
4.12.7 Final Polishing Unit (FPU)
Not much maintenance is required for this unit. The algal growth needs to be maintained, and
4025 the dead algae floating on the top of water surface has to be periodically removed. The baffles
provided at the outlet unit have to be cleaned regularly. Keep the floating material away from
the unit. See that dead algal do not pass out into the pond. These ponds should be
de-sludged/de-silted regularly depending on the depth of sludge accumulation. Maintenance
record should be maintained.
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4030 4.12.8 Duckweed Pond

The bund sides shall not be grown over by weeds. The Figure 4.17 illustrates the same.
4.13 Waste Stabilization Pond (WSP)
Waste stabilization ponds are open, flow-through earthen basins specifically designed and
constructed to treat sewage and biodegradable industrial wastes. Waste stabilization ponds
4035 provide comparatively long detention periods extending from a few to several days.
There are three principal types of WSP:
Anaerobic,
Facultative, and
Maturation ponds.
4040 Anaerobic ponds and facultative ponds are designed for BOD removal, and maturation ponds
are designed for faecal bacterial removal. These three types of WSP are arranged in a series
first an anaerobic pond, then a facultative pond, and finally (and if needed to achieve the
required effluent quality) one or more maturation ponds.
Apart from the above three types, there is another type of WSP called aerobic pond, which are
4045 seldom used. When used, follow the same procedures as in facultative ponds.
4.13.1 Start-up Procedures
Pond systems should preferably be commissioned at the beginning of the hot season so as to
establish as quickly as possible the necessary microbial populations to effect waste stabilization.
Prior to commissioning, all ponds must be free from vegetation. Facultative ponds should be
4050 commissioned before anaerobic ponds: this avoids odour release when anaerobic pond effluent
discharges into an empty facultative pond. It is best to fill facultative and maturation ponds with
freshwater (from a river, lake or well; mains water is not necessary) so as to permit the gradual
development of the algal and heterotrophic bacterial populations. Primary facultative ponds may
advantageously be seeded in the same way as anaerobic ponds. If freshwater is unavailable,
4055 facultative ponds should be filled with raw sewage and left for three to four weeks to allow the
microbial population to develop; a small amount of odour release is inevitable during the period.
4.13.2 Routine Maintenance
The maintenance requirements of ponds are very simple, but they must be carried out regularly.
Otherwise, there will be serious odour, fly and mosquito nuisance. Maintenance requirements
4060 and responsibilities must therefore be clearly defined at the design stage so as to avoid problems
later. Routine maintenance tasks are as follows:
Removal of screenings and grit from the inlet works
Cutting the grass on the embankments and removing it so that it does not fall into the
pond (this is necessary to prevent the formation of mosquito-breeding habitats; the
4065 use of slow-growing grasses minimises this task)
Removal of floating scum and floating macrophytes, such as. Lemna, from the
surface of facultative and maturation ponds (this is required to maximize
photosynthesis and surface re-aeration and prevent fly and mosquito breeding)
Spraying the scum on anaerobic ponds (which should not be removed as it aids the
4070 treatment process), as necessary, with clean water or pond effluent, or a suitable
biodegradable larvicide, to prevent fly breeding
Removal of any accumulated solids in the inlets and outlets
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FACILITIES
Repair of any damage to the embankments caused by rodents, rabbits or other

animals
4075 Repair of any damage to external fences and gates
And precautions and practices are described below:
The scum has a tendency to form at the corners of the ponds and supports mosquito
growth.
In anaerobic ponds, during times of low pH odour is produced. In such occasions,
4080 addition of sodium hydroxide is required to raise the pH to 7. The advantage of
sodium hydroxide is it produces less sludge. In case production of sludge is not a
concern then lime can be added to raise the pH to 7. Once the pH is raised to 7
odour can be eliminated.
Anaerobic ponds, low pH produces odours.In such cases addition of NaOH it
4085 produces less sludge, or lime can be added to raise the pH to 7 to eliminate odour
caused by H2S
The scum need not be taken out of the ponds at any cost.
When scum has accumulated to dense zones in the corners, they need to be removed.
What is needed is beating the surface of the scum by a light long pole while standing
4090 at the bank.
This releases the gases that are supporting the scum layer and automatically the mat
sinks back.
These are dealt with like any other foods which are stabilized by the organisms of the
pond.
4095 Fish shall not be allowed to breed in any of the ponds.
The precautions of operating manually the scum removal shall be totally adopted.
Sometimes sludge removal would become necessary.
Thumb rule will be to verify the depth of sludge and de-sludge once it is about 30 %
of depth.
4100 4.13.3 De-Sludging
The biggest challenge to an operator in the management of pond systems is to identify when a
pond requires de-sludging, and to carry out the de-sludging thereafter; it is more important to
deal with the sludge thus taken out without giving rise to environmental problems. These issues
are addressed in this section so as to help the operator develop adequate confidence in this task.
4105 4.13.3.1 When to De-Sludge
When raw sewage without grit removal is admitted to the pond, a general rule of thumb to
calculate the grit accumulation can be taken as 0.5 meters for a ten year period. Similarly, the
accumulation of sludge can be taken as 0.7 meters for a ten year period. Thus, in the illustrative
design, it can be seen that the total depth has adequate allowance for these plus the required
4110 minimum depth of liquid depth for the treatment. In the absence of adequate design reference,
the build-up of sludge to a height wherein it will start overflowing through the outlet is the
upper limit. However, if that is allowed, there is no space for the liquid holding capacity and
treatment efficiency will suffer. Hence, the operator must clearly know the basis on which the
pond has been designed and commence de-sludging when that depth is reached by the sludge
4115 accumulating from the bottom. If even that information is not available, the operator must make
Final Draft 4-46

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a decision.
4.13.3.2 The white towel test
The white towel test is used to understand the depth of the sludge and this will help in deciding
desludging Malan (1964). White towelling material is wrapped along one-third of a sufficiently
4120 long pole, which is then lowered vertically into the pond until it reaches the pond bottom; it is
then slowly withdrawn. The depth of the sludge layer is clearly visible since some sludge
particles will have been entrapped in the towelling material Figure 4.24. The sludge depth
should be measured at various points throughout the pond, away from the embankments, and its
mean depth calculated. Duncan Mara (2004)
4125
Figure 4.24 The White Towel test
4.13.3.3 De-Sludge Procedure
Measure the depth of the pond from the top of the bund to the bottom. To do this, use the
effluent chamber that may be outside the pond. Usually, these chambers have the same or
4130 slightly larger depth than the pond. If there is no effluent chamber, assemble a long casuarina
sturdy pole of about some 6 meters long and start sliding it slowly on the inside slope so that the
pole follows the gradient and stops at the bottom of the pond which could be sensed by the
strong reaction for a gentle push of the pole. Mark the top of the bund elevation on the pole with
a gentle cut in the hacksaw. Pull the pole out and measure the distance of the cut from the
4135 bottom of the pole after laying the pole flat on the ground. Record the distance. Repeat the
measurement on all sides of the pond. If the readings are within plus or minus 5%, take the
average. If not repeat the measurement at different locations until you get a reading within plus
or minus 5%. Let us say this reading is 5 meters. Nail a perpendicular small pole to one end of
the longer pole such that the distance of protrusion of this short pole is a meter. Then slide the
4140 long pole horizontally over the bund top by resting it on the bund top and checking the
horizontality with a spirit level by placing it on the long pole such that the free end of the short
pole touches the inner side of the bund. Mark the location with a gentle double cut by a hacksaw
Final Draft 4-47

FACILITIES
on the long pole where the inner side slope of the bund crosses the long pole. Measure this
length. Let us say this is 2 meters. The total depth of the lagoon will now be calculated as [1 / 2]
4145 x [5] = 2.5 meters. Next, measure the inclined length of the waterline from the inner edge of the
inside slope of the bund. Let us say this is 1.4 meters. The freeboard will now be calculated as
[1.4 / 2] = 0.7 meters. The design liquid depth is 2.5-0.7 = 1.8 meters. In this depth, it is now
necessary to measure the depth of sludge accumulation such that at least 1.2 meters of liquid
depth is available for treating the sewage.
4150 This measurement requires the use of the serrated glass tube as described earlier and in addition,
support from fire service personnel, life vests for all those on board the paddle boat, minimum
of two persons, a good fibreglass or wooden boat doubly checked for water tightness, an
experienced boatman and oxygen masks for all those on board the boat. Once all these are
assembled, the boat has to be rowed to the three or four random locations and the glass tube
4155 exercise has to be carried out. After driving the glass tube into the hardness of the bottom clay,
rotate it gently in-situ and lift with an unscrewing motion. Do not pull straight. Gently release
the tube from the clay by feeling it and raise by changing the grip on the tubes and allowing the
tube to go up freely. Once out of the water surface, keep it on the floor of the boat vertically and
allow the contents to settle down for 30 minutes. Thereafter paint on the glass tube with a good
4160 paint the level at which the sludge is seen. Then return to the shore and lay the tube horizontally
over the ground and use a water jet or air jet to clear the tube contents. If the chemist requires it,
collect the sludge and give it to him for analysis. On any account, do not use a mechanized boat.
The methane gas present on the surface of the pond can be ignited by the spark of the motor
with unpleasant consequences.
4165 Another method is to take a slim bamboo pole with a height equal to the depth of the pond plus
2 m as the optimum. A white fluffy towel is wrapped around end of the pole for a height equal
to the designed liquid depth of the pond. It should be tied securely and tightly in not less than
three to four wrappings. Thereafter set sail on a good manual paddle boat over the pond as
described earlier. Lower the pole with the white towel end into the pond till the pole has reached
4170 the bottom. Hold steady for about 15 minutes. Then raise the pole. The darkish or blackish
colour at the bottom end as seen on the towel is the mark of the depth of sludge. Rinse it well by
repeatedly dipping into the liquid upper layers before proceeding to the next random location
and repeat the testing.
Repeat the above depth measurements slowly without hurry. Always do this in clear
4175 non-rainy weather. Make sure you have at least four readings, which are fairly close.
Once the sludge depth is thus measured, consult the chemist for any tendency of
efficiency drop in the pond for BOD removal. If the chemist feels that there is a
steady decline and efficiency is going down, consult the plant superintendent.
As a rule of the thumb, if the liquid height is less than 1.2 meters in a facultative or
4180 anaerobic pond, it is time for de-sludging. Take the decision jointly and never by
yourself.
The best method of de-sludging is to take one pond out of operation during the
beginning of summer and pump out the water portion to the other ponds. Thereafter,
it normally takes two months for a sludge depth of about 2 meters to dry out.
4185 Deploy manpower equipped with oxygen mask to gently turn the dried sludge upside
down uniformly over the whole area so that drying is hastened. Never use a machine
during this operation as methane may get released.
Once this is completed and the sludge is dried, deploy scraper equipment like a
Procaine and evacuate the sludge over the bund and on to the ground on the earth
4190 side of the bund.
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The sludge can be heaped into a pile by manual labourers who should wash their
hands thoroughly with soap after finishing their work.
4.13.3.4 Special cautions for anaerobic pond / maturation pond
All the points listed earlier in aerated lagoon and facultative ponds apply here also except that
4195 the depth of sludge before de-sludging will be according to the original design. The boat ride to
measure the sludge depth shall not be used in these ponds. Instead, the white towel test shall be
conducted and a long boom crate shall be used without making any person stand at the end of
the boom.
4.13.4 Process Control
4200 There is nothing much to control in the process of purification of sewage in WSP except making
sure that the sludge accumulation does not exceed 30% of the total liquid depth or the design
depth of sludge.
4.13.5 Record Keeping
4.13.5.1 Records necessary for Anaerobic Pond
4205 Daily tests and records will be the flow and SS
Monthly tests shall be the BOD after filtering through Whatman 42 filter paper and
pH
4.13.5.2 Records necessary for Facultative Pond
Daily tests and records will be the flow and SS
4210 Weekly tests will be identification of organisms as per Standard Methods drawings
Monthly tests shall be the BOD after filtering through Whatman 42 filter paper and
pH
4.13.5.3 Records necessary for Maturation Pond
Daily tests and records will be the flow and SS
4215 Monthly tests shall be the BOD after filtering through Whatman 42 filter paper and
pH
Yearly test of faecal and total coliforms at the peak summer and peak monsoon shall
be conducted.
4.14 Farm Forestry
4220 Please hand over the O&M work to the local forestry department who are competent in this.
4.15 Fish Pond
These ponds shall not be used henceforth except in the case of the Mudiali farm.
4.16 Secondary Sedimentation Tank
A typical plant may have clarifiers located at two different points. The one that immediately
4225 follows the bar screen, comminutor, or grit channel is called the primary sedimentation tank,
merely because it is the first sedimentation tank in the plant. The other, which follows other
types of treatment units, is called the secondary sedimentation tank or the final sedimentation
tank. The two types of sedimentation tanks operate almost exactly the same way. The function
of a primary clarifier is to remove settleable and floatable solids. The reason for having a
4230 secondary sedimentation tank is that other types of treatment following the primary
sedimentation tank convert more solids to the settleable form, and they have to be removed from
Final Draft 4-49

FACILITIES
the treated sewage. Because of the need to remove these additional solids, the secondary
clarifier is considered part of these other types of processes.
The main difference between primary and secondary sedimentation tanks is in the density of the
4235 sludge handled. Primary sludge is usually denser than secondary sludge. Effluent from a
secondary clarifier is normally clearer than primary effluent.
Solids that settle to the bottom of a sedimentation tank are usually scraped to one end (in
rectangular clarifiers) or to the middle (in circular clarifiers) into a sump. From the sump, the
solids are pumped to the sludge handling or sludge disposal system. Systems vary from plant to
4240 plant and include sludge digestion, vacuum filtration, filter presses, incineration, land disposal,
lagoons, and burial.
Disposal of skimmed solids varies from plant to plant. Skimmed solids may be buried with
material cleaned off the bar screen, or pumped to the digester. Even though pumping skimmed
solids to a digester is not considered good practice because skimmings can cause operational
4245 problems in digesters, it is a common practice.
4.16.1 Operation
Of all the different types of clarifiers that an operator must regulate, secondary clarifiers in the
activated sludge process are the most critical and require the most attention from the operator.
Levels of sludge blanket in the clarifier
4250 Concentration of suspended solids in the clarifier effluent
Control and pacing of return sludge flows
Concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the clarifier effluent
Level of pH
Concentration of RAS
4255 4.16.2 Maintenance
Annually, during periods of low flow, each clarifier should be shut down for inspection, routine
maintenance, and any necessary repairs. Even though the clarifier and all equipment are
working properly, an annual inspection helps to prevent serious problems and failures in the
future when harmful consequences can result.
4260 During normal operations, operator should schedule the following daily activities:
a. Inspection
Make several daily inspections with a stop, look, listen, and think routine.
b. Cleanup
Using water under pressure, wash off accumulations of solid particles, grease, slime, and
4265 other material from walkways, handrails, and all other exposed parts of the structure and
equipment.
c. Lubrication
Grease all moving equipment according to manufacturer's specifications and check oil
levels in motors where appropriate.
4270 4.17 Advanced Treatment
Advanced sewage treatment processes typically are used to further reduce the concentrations of
suspended solids, nutrients (nitrogen or phosphorus) and soluble organic chemicals in secondary
treatment effluent. These processes may be physical, chemical, biological, or a combination of
Final Draft 4-50
FACILITIES
these processes.
4275 4.17.1 Sand Filtration
Sand filters have influent and effluent distribution systems consisting of pipes and fittings. Head
loss is a measure of solids trapped in the filter. As the filter becomes filled with trapped solids,
the efficiency of the filtration process falls off, and the filter must be backwashed. Filters are
backwashed by reversing the flow so that the solids in the media are dislodged and can exit the
4280 filter; sometimes air is dispersed into the sand bed to scour the media.
Sand filters can be automatically backwashed when the differential pressure exceeds a preset
limit or when a timer starts the backwash cycle.
4.17.2 Multimedia Filtration
A multimedia filter operates with the finer, denser media at the bottom and the coarser, less
4285 dense media at the top. A common arrangement is given as below.
Top: Anthracite
Middle: Sand
Bottom: Garnet
These media can be used alone, such as in sand filtration, or in a multimedia combination.
4290 Some mixing of these layers occurs and is anticipated. During filtration, the removal of the
suspended solids is accomplished by a complex process involving one or more mechanisms,
such as:
Straining,
Sedimentation,
4295 Interception,
Impaction, and
Adsorption.
The size of the medium is the principal characteristic that affects the filtration operation. If the
medium is too small, much of the driving force will be wasted in overcoming the frictional
4300 resistance of the filter bed. If the medium is too large, small particles will travel through the bed,
preventing optimum filtration. As same as sand filtration, back wash is required to keep
adequate filtration efficiency.
4.17.3 Membrane Filtration (MF, UF, NF, RO)
Membrane filtration is used for polishing water for specific uses like industry process water, or
4305 for aquifer infiltration. In India, membrane filtration is widely used in the water and sewage
sectors. (Figure 4.25)
MF Microfiltration membranes are porous membranes with pore sizes between 0.1 and 1
micron (1 micron=1000 nanometre). They allow almost all dissolved solids to get through and
retain only solids particles over the pore size.
4310 UF Ultra filtration membranes are asymmetric or composite membranes with pore sizes
around between 0.005 and 0.05 micron. They allow almost mineral salts and organic molecules
to get through and retain only macromolecules
NF Nano filtration membranes are reverse osmosis membranes with pore sizes around 0.001
micron. They retain multivalent ions and organic solutes that are larger than 0.001 micron.
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4315 RO Reverse osmosis membranes are dense skin, asymmetric or composite membranes that let
water get through and rejects almost all salts.
a. Operational Unit Processes
All membrane filtration systems have associated operational unit processes that are
4320 essential for maintaining and optimizing system performance and therefore critical to the
successful implementation of the technology. These operational processes include
backwashing, chemical cleaning, and integrity testing. For the purposes of this discussion,
pre-treatment and post-treatment are also considered operational unit processes associated
with membrane filtration. Each of these processes and its role in the operation of a
4325 membrane filtration system are described in the following sections. Although not every
membrane filtration system utilizes all of these processes, many utilize each process to
some degree.
b. Pre-treatment
Pre-treatment is typically applied to the feed water prior to entering the membrane system
4330 in order to minimize membrane fouling, but in some cases may be used to address other
water quality concerns or treatment objectives. Pre-treatment is most often utilized to
remove foulants, optimize recovery and system productivity, and extend membrane life.
Pre-treatment may also be used to prevent physical damage to the membranes. Different
types of pre-treatment can be used in conjunction with any given membrane filtration
4335 system, as determined by site-specific conditions and treatment objectives. Pilot testing can
be used to compare various pre-treatment options, optimize pre-treatment, and/or
demonstrate pre-treatment performance. Several different types of commonly used
pre-treatment for membrane filtration systems are discussed in the following subsections.
4340 Figure 4.25 Filtration spectrum
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c. Pre-filtration
Pre-filtration, including screening or coarse filtration, is a common means of pre-treatment
for membrane filtration systems that are designed to remove large particles and debris.
Pre-filtration can either be applied to the membrane filtration system as a whole or to each
4345 membrane unit separately. The particular pore size associated with the pre-filtration
process (where applicable) varies depending on the type of membrane filtration system and
the feed water quality. For example, although hollow-fibre microfiltration (MF) and ultra
filtration (UF) systems are designed specifically to remove suspended solids, large
particulate matter can damage or plug the membranes fibres.
4350 Because nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) utilize non-porous semi permeable
membranes that cannot be backwashed and are almost exclusively designed in a
spiral-wound configuration for municipal water treatment applications, these systems must
utilize much finer pre-filtration in order to minimize exposure of the membranes to
particulate matter of any size.
4355 A summary of the typical pre-filtration requirements associated with the various types of
membrane filtration is presented in Table 4.4.
d. Backwashing
The backwash process for membrane filtration systems is similar in principle to that for
conventional media filters and is designed to remove contaminants accumulated on the
4360 membrane surface. Each membrane unit is backwashed separately and in a staggered
pattern so as to minimize the number of units in simultaneous backwash at any given time.
During a backwash cycle, the direction of flow is reversed for a period ranging from about
30 seconds to 3 minutes. The force and direction of the flow dislodge the contaminants at
the membrane surface and wash accumulated solids out through the discharge line.
4365 Membrane filtration systems are generally backwashed more frequently than conventional
media filters, with intervals of approximately 15 to 60 minutes between backwash events.
Typically, the membrane backwash process reduces system productivity in the range of 5
to 10 percent due to the volume of filtrate used during the backwash operation.
Table 4.4 Typical membrane system pre-filtration requirements
Membrane System Pre-filtration Requirements
Classification Configuration Size (m) Type(s)
Membrane Cartridge Strainers;
Cartridge 300 - 3,000
Filtration (MCF)* Bag Filters
Hollow-Fibre, Strainers;
100 - 300
Microfiltration (MF) / Inside-Out Bag Filters
Ultra filtration (UF) Hollow-Fibre, Strainers;
300 - 3,000
Outside-In Bag Filters
Nanofiltration (NF) /
Spiral-Wound 5 - 20 Cartridge Filters
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
*
4370 Pre-filtration is not necessarily required for MCF systems
Source: WEF, 2008
Backwashing is conducted periodically according to manufacturers specifications and

site-specific considerations. Although more frequent backwashing allows for higher fluxes,
this benefit is counterbalanced by the decrease in system productivity. In general, a
4375 backwash cycle is triggered when a performance-based benchmark is exceeded, such as a
threshold for operating time, volumetric throughput, increase in transmembrane pressure
(TMP), and/or flux decline. Ideally, the backwash process restores the TMP to its baseline
(i.e., clean) level; however, most membranes exhibit a gradual increase in the TMP that is
observed after each backwash, indicating the accumulation of foulants that cannot be
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FACILITIES
4380 removed by the backwash process alone. These foulants are addressed through chemical
cleaning.
Because the design of spiral-wound membranes generally does not permit reverse flow, NF
and RO membrane systems are not backwashed. For these systems, membrane fouling is
controlled primarily with chemical cleaning, as well as through flux control and cross flow
4385 velocity. The inability of spiral-wound membranes to be backwashed is one reason that NF
and RO membranes are seldom applied to directly treat water with high turbidity and/or
suspended solids.
e. Chemical Cleaning
Chemical cleaning is another means of controlling membrane fouling, particularly those
4390 foulants such as inorganic scaling and some forms of organic and biofouling that are not
removed via the backwash process. As with backwashing, chemical cleaning is conducted
for each membrane unit separately and is typically staggered to minimize the number of
units undergoing cleaning at any time. While chemical cleaning is conducted on both
MF/UF and NF/RO systems, because non-porous, semi-permeable membranes cannot be
4395 backwashed, chemical cleaning represents the primary means of removing foulants in
NF/RO systems. Although cleaning intervals may vary widely on a system-by-system
basis, the gradual accumulation of foulants makes eventual chemical cleaning virtually
inevitable. Membrane cartridge filters are an exception, however, in that cartridge filters
are usually designed to be disposable and thus are typically not subject to chemical
4400 cleaning. (Table 4.5)
Table 4.5 Chemical cleaning agents
Typical Target
Category Chemicals Commonly Used
Contaminant (s)
Citric Acid (C6H8O7)
Acid Inorganic scale
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
Base Caustic (NaOH) Organics
Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)
Oxidants / Organics;
Chlorine (Cl2) Gas
Disinfectants Biofilms
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Organics;
Surfactants Various
Inert particles
Source: WEF, 2008
As with backwashing, the goal of chemical cleaning is to restore the TMP of the system to
its baseline (i.e., clean) level. Any foulant that is removed by either the backwash or
4405 chemical cleaning process is known as reversible fouling. Over time, membrane processes
will also typically experience some degree of irreversible fouling which cannot be removed
through either chemical cleaning or backwashing. Irreversible fouling occurs in all
virtually membrane systems, albeit over a wide range of rates, and eventually necessitates
membrane replacement.
4410 4.17.5 Integrated Nutrient Removal
4.17.5.1 Nutrient Removal
Sewage may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release of
these nutrients to the environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients, called eutrophication,
which can in turn encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green
4415 algae). This may cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae
numbers are unsustainable and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by
bacteria uses up so much of oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which
creates more organic matter for the bacteria to decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation,
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some algal species produce toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies. Different treatment
4420 processes are required to remove nitrogen and phosphorus.
4.17.5.2 Nitrogen Removal
Nitrogen is removed through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia to nitrate
(nitrification), followed by denitrification, i.e., the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. (Figure
4.26)
4425 Nitrogen gas is released into the atmosphere and thus removed from the water. Nitrification
itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria. The
oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2) is most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp.
(nitroso referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate
(NO3), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. (nitro referring the
4430 formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the environment almost
exclusively by Nitrospira spp.
Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities
to form. It is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagoons and reed beds can
all be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge process (if designed well) can do the job
4435 the most easily. Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas, an electron donor
is needed.
Figure 4.26 Configuration of recycled nitrification/denitrification process

This can be, depending on the sewage, organic matter (from faeces), sulphide, or an added
4440 donor like methanol. Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to
as tertiary treatment. Many sewage treatment plants use axial flow pumps to transfer the
nitrified mixed liquor from the aeration zone to the anoxic zone for denitrification. These pumps
are often referred to as Internal Mixed Liquor Recycle (IMLR) pumps.
4.17.5.2.1 Process Control
4445 Operators of biological nitrogen removal (BNR) facilities need more process-control knowledge
than those of conventional treatment facilities to keep them operating smoothly. The key
operating parameters for a BNR facility typically include:
a. SRT
SRT is the key to understanding whether the BNR process has enough time to function
4450 effectively. When evaluating SRT, operators should answer such questions as:
Is the SRT long enough to establish nitrification?
How much sludge should be wasted to maintain a desired SRT?
Final Draft 4-55

FACILITIES
Can the SRT be increased by maintaining a higher MLSS?

b. F/M Ratio
4455 The F/M ratio is a good indicator of how well selector reactors will promote the growth of
floc-forming bacteria. When the F/M ratio is high, floc-forming bacteria have a
competitive advantage over filamentous bacteria. Selector loading also helps ensure that
nuisance bacteria will not cause operating problems. The selector cells should be arranged
so BOD is taken up rapidly.
4460 c. HRT
Although not used in daily BNR operations, HRT indicates whether the plant is operating
within a normal contact time. Nitrifying facilities, such as conventional activated sludge
and A2O, typically have an HRT between 5 and 15 hours.
d. Oxygen Levels
4465 When a conventional activated sludge system is converted into a BNR facility, its dissolved
oxygen requirements typically increase, requiring changes in the aeration equipment or
diffuser layout.
e. Alkalinity and pH Control
Every time 1 mg of ammonia-nitrogen is oxidized to nitrate, 7.14 mg of alkalinity is
4470 consumed. Likewise, every time 1 mg of nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas, 3.57 mg of
alkalinity is recovered.
f. ORP (OxidationReduction Potential).
Automated control systems for the internal anoxic mixing process measure the ORP so
they can detect nitrate depletion in the mixed liquor. This variable indirectly measures
4475 nitrate availability in an aqueous media, although there is no direct correlation between any
specific ORP value and nitrate concentration.
Oxidationreduction potential measures the net electron activity of all oxidationreduction
reactions occurring in sewage. It is affected by temperature, pH, biological activity, and the
systems chemical constituents, but its response pattern to changes in a solutions oxidative
4480 state is reproducible in a specific system. In continuous-flow suspended-growth systems,
the control systems ORP breakpoints must be constantly reviewed and revised. In batch
systems (e.g., SBR or cyclic aeration systems), however, a characteristic knee (change in
ORP values) indicates when the system is changing from an oxidized state to a reduced
one.
4485 g. Recycle Flows
For sewage facilities with either ammonia and/or nitrate limitations, it will be necessary to
adjust recycle flows (typically RAS flow) to achieve operational goals.
h. Secondary Clarification
It is essential that the secondary clarifier be able to both separate biological solids from the
4490 treated effluent and also concentrate the solids without a build-up of sludge within the
clarifier. Parameters of concern with clarification are the hydraulic loading rate (HLR) and
the solids loading rate (SLR).
4.17.5.3 Phosphorus Removal
Phosphorus removal is important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water
4495 systems. It is also particularly essential for water reuse systems where high phosphorus
concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream equipment such as reverse osmosis.
Final Draft 4-56

FACILITIES
Phosphorus removal in excess of metabolic requirements can be achieved by using enhanced

biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) or chemical addition.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus
4500 removal In this process, specific bacteria, called Polyphosphate Accumulating Organisms
(PAOs), are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their
cells (up to 20 percent of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated
from the treated water, these biosolids (sludge) have a high fertilizer value.
The EBPR process consists of anaerobic and aerobic zones. By definition, an anaerobic zone
4505 contains no usable dissolved oxygen or nitrate. In this zone, PAOs do not grow, but consume
and convert readily available organic material (i.e. VFAs) to energy-rich carbon polymers called
poly-hydroxyalkanoates (PHA). The energy required for this reaction is generated through
breakdown of the stored polyphosphate (poly-P) molecules, which results in phosphorus release
and an increase in the bulk liquid soluble phosphorus concentration in the anaerobic stage.
4510 Magnesium and potassium ions are concurrently released to the anaerobic medium with
phosphate. In addition, for a substantial amount of reducing power is required PAOs to produce
PHA. The breakdown of glycogen, another form of internal carbon storage, generates the
reducing power.
Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron
4515 (e.g. ferric chloride), aluminium (e.g. alum), or lime. This may lead to excessive sludge
production as hydroxides precipitate and the added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical
phosphorus removal requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological removal,
is easier to operate and is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal. Another
method for phosphorus removal is the use of granular laterite. Once removed, phosphorus, in
4520 the form of a phosphate-rich sludge, may be stored in a land fill or resold for use in fertilizers.
4.18 Disinfection Facility
Disinfection of effluent from water reclamation facilities (WRFs) is required to decrease the
disease risks associated with the discharge of sewage containing human pathogens (disease
causing organisms) into receiving waters. These microorganisms are present in large numbers in
4525 sewage effluents.
The chlorine gas is controlled, metered, introduced into a stream of injector water and then
conducted as a solution to the point of application.
The primary advantage of vacuum operation is safety. If a failure or breakage occurs in the
vacuum system, the chlorinator either stops the flow of chlorine into the equipment or allows air
4530 to enter the vacuum system rather than allowing chlorine to escape into the surrounding
atmosphere. In case the chlorine inlet shutoff fails, a vent valve discharges the incoming gas to
the outside of the chlorinator building.
The operating vacuum is provided by a hydraulic injector. The injector operating water absorbs
the chlorine gas and the resultant chlorine solution is conveyed to a chlorine diffuser through
4535 corrosion resistant conduit. A vacuum chlorinator also includes a vacuum regulating valve to
dampen fluctuations and allow smooth operation. Vacuum relief prevents excessive vacuum
within the equipment.
Chlorine gas flows from the chlorine container to the gas inlet. After entering the chlorinator,
the gas passes through spring-loaded pressure regulating valve which maintains the proper
4540 operating pressure. A rotameter is used to indicate the rate of gas flow. The rate is controlled by
V-notch variable orifice. The gas then moves to the injector where it dissolved in water and
leaves the chlorinator as a chlorine solution (HOCl) ready for application.
Final Draft 4-57

FACILITIES
4.18.1 Operational Variables

The process-control variables associated with chlorination systems are:
4545 a. Detention (Contact) Time
The chlorine solution is best injected into the effluent via a diffuser or, preferably, a flash
mixer. Otherwise, some of the chlorine gas could come out of solution undissolved
(stratification). This would impair the efficiency of disinfection and increase its costs.
Typically, depending on the STPs (sewage treatment plants) permit requirements or the
4550 state or regional regulatory requirements, chlorine detention time should range from 30 to
60 minutes at the average daily flow (ADF) and should equal or exceed 15 minutes at peak
flows. Such detention times allow a safety factor for possible hydraulic inefficiency of the
contact chamber, thus maximizing pathogen inactivation.
b. Chlorine Residual
4555 Depending on the effluent-disposal method (receiving-water discharge or reclaimed-water
reuse) the permit may require a chlorine residual in the contact chamber effluent. The three
types of chlorine residuals are combined, free, and total. Free and total residuals are
typically monitored.
The combined residual consists of chloramines and chloro-organic compounds that are
4560 formed by the reaction of chlorine with ammonia and organic compounds in the secondary
or tertiary effluent. Each milligram per litre of ammonia consumes 10 mg/L of chlorine.
The chlorine dose that satisfies the ammonias chlorine demand is called the breakpoint.
Note that the combined residual decreases slightly as the chloramines and chloro-organic
compounds are oxidized at a narrow range of chlorine doses less than the breakpoint
4565 (Figure 4.27)
Figure 4.27 Breakpoint chlorination curve

c. Indicator Bacteria Results
Regardless of the chlorine residual method employed enough chlorine solution must be
4570 injected into the effluent to sufficiently destroy or inactivate the indicator bacteria that
signal the likely presence of pathogens. The primary objective of chlorination is to destroy
pathogenic organisms; however, the coliform bacteria often used as indicators are not
pathogenic. The indicator bacteria inactivation concept works because coliform and other
indicator bacteria are much easier to detect than pathogens and more difficult to destroy
4575 than most pathogens, except possibly viruses.
Final Draft 4-58

FACILITIES
Testing directly for pathogens is complex and costly. If the coliform count has been
sufficiently reduced through disinfection, a corresponding proportion of pathogens has
probably been inactivated.
4.18.2 Operational Hazards
4580 a. Chlorine Hazards
Chlorine is a gas, 2.5 times heavier than air, extremely toxic, and corrosive in moist
atmospheres. Dry chlorine gas can be safely handled in steel containers and piping, but
with moisture it must be handled in corrosion-resisting materials such as silver, glass,
Teflon, and certain other plastics. Chlorine gas at container pressure should never be
4585 piped in silver, glass, Teflon, or any other plastic material. Even in dry atmospheres, the
gas is very irritating to the mucous membranes of the nose, to the throat, and to the lungs;
a very small percentage in the air causes severe coughing. Heavy exposure can be fatal.
b. Warning
When entering a room that may contain chlorine gas, open the door slightly and check for
4590 the smell of chlorine. Never go into a room containing chlorine gas with harmful
concentrations in the air without a self-contained air supply, protective clothing, and help
standing by. Help may be obtained from your chlorine supplier and your local fire
department.
4.18.3 Maintenance
4595 Routine operations and troubleshooting
Table 4.6 lists routine operational checks of chlorination equipment and remedies if these
checks indicate potential problems.
Table 4.6 Routine operational checklist and troubleshooting guide for chlorination system
Items What to check Potential problems Corrective actions
Degrading effluent increases
Monitor dose and demand. Adjust
chlorine demand (nitrite
process to improve effluent quality.
demand increases use)
Record scale
Usage Replace container or cylinder
reading
Low scale weight, chlorine before
about to run out scale reaches zero to prevent
sediment from entering system.*
If necessary, retare or calibrate
Erratic reading Scale not tared out properly
scale.
Work with a trained assistant, wear
SCBAs ( Self-Contained Breathing
Apparatus ), and follow all
appropriate safety procedures when
Personal injury (potential
closing container or cylinder main
Presence of death), evacuation logistics,
valve and evacuating chlorination
Chlorine chlorine leaks and corrosion of nearby
pipe network.
lines, equipment and electronics
Repair all leaks immediately; they
valves, and
will only get worse. Notify
Unions
emergency response teams if
required.
Reduce chlorination rate, or
manifold containers or cylinders
Iced container together. If an evaporator is being
Chlorination rate too high
or cylinder used, be certain liquid chlorine is
being withdrawn from the
containers bottom valve.
Final Draft 4-59

FACILITIES
Items What to check Potential problems Corrective actions

Repair all leaks immediately.
Evacuate chlorine network and
Solution repair PVC pipes.
Leaks Chlorine evaporating
lines Follow all appropriate safety
procedures when working with any
chlorine leak.
Chlorination system Correct all potential problems
Gauges
downtime immediately.
System If necessary, evacuate network and
gauges Main manifold replace rupture disk. Check all
Could break rupture disk?
pressure network valves for correct
positioning.
*This will prevent sediment in the container from entering the chlorination network and possibly damaging the
4600 process equipment.
Source: WEF, 2008
4.19 Operation & Maintenance of DEWATS and Johkasou

The package treatment plants like Johkasou and also DEWATS have to be maintained as per the
in accordance with the instructional procedures of the respective vendors of these systems.
4605 4.20 Preventive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance addresses the civil, mechanical, electrical, instrumentation and
automation aspects.
In respect of civil works, follow the local rules, regulations and guidelines of the local Public
Works Department (PWD). These procedures are mostly annual. It will be better to hand over
4610 such maintenance to the PWD and remit the costs to that department.
In respect of mechanical equipment, it is better to enter into a contract with the contractor who
has built the STP to do this as per the directions of the equipment suppliers and retain the
equipment supplier to check and certify the work.
In respect of the electrical installations, it is better to entrust this work to the local Electricity
4615 Department, similar to civil works.
In respect of instrumentation and automation, similarly, entrust the work to the contractor who
supplied and erected these and retain a third party agency to certify the proper completion of the
work.
The following checklist (Table 4.7) is an example of a preventive maintenance program for
4620 activated-sludge facilities. When developing a site-specific schedule consult the service manuals
that were provided with each piece of equipment.
Table 4.7 An example of a preventive maintenance program for activated-sludge facilities
checklist
Quarterly
Biannual
Monthly
Weekly
Annual
Activated-sludge system preventive

Daily
Comments
maintenance (typical)
Aeration blower
Maintain proper motor lubricant level
Lubricate motor roller bearings 1.5months
Check for abnormal noises and vibration
Check that air filters are in place and not clogged
Check motor bearing rise temperature
Final Draft 4-60

FACILITIES
Quarterly
Biannual
Monthly
Weekly
Annual
Daily
Comments
Check motor for voltage and frequency variations

Check that all covers are in place and secure
Rotate blower operation
Lubricate motor ball bearings
Check that electrical connections are tight
Check wiring integrity
Lubricate motor sleeve bearing or 2000 hours
Inspect and clean rotor ends, windings, and blades
Check that electrical connections are tight and

corrosion is absent
Change blower bearing oil
Re-lubricate after checking flexible couplings As needed
Oxygen dissolution system
Lubricate motor
Change gear drive oil
Lubricate flex coupling or 2500 hours
Inspect gear tooth pattern wear, shaft and bearing

end play alignment, bolting, and seal condition
Fine bubble diffusers
Check biological reactor surface pattern
Check air mains for leaks
Check and record operating pressure and airflow
Purge water moisture from distribution piping
Bump diffuser system
Drain biological reactor
Remove excess solids that may accumulate
Clean diffusers
Check that retaining rings are in place and tight
Check that fixed and expansion joint retaining

rings are tight
Secondary clarifier
Remove trash and debris
Test torque-control line switches
Test torque overload alarm
Verify torque scale pointer moves
Check drive unit for accumulated condensation
Check drive oil level and quality
Check drive overload response controls
Inspect entire mechanism above and below water

line
Regular
Inspect and tighten all nuts and bolts
interval
e.g., 18
Inspect lubrication for torque-overload protection
months or 500
device, per manufacturers instructions
cycles
Return activated sludge pumps (centrifugal)
Lubricate pump bearings or 2000 hours
Lubricate motor bearings
Waste activated sludge pumps (centrifugal)
Final Draft 4-61

FACILITIES
Quarterly
Biannual
Monthly
Weekly
Annual
Daily
Comments
Lubricate pump bearings or 2000 hours

Lubricate motor bearings
Source: WEF, 2008
4625 4.21 Troubleshooting

Refer to Appendix 4.1.
4.22 Record Keeping
The importance of maintaining adequate O&M records cannot be overemphasized. The purpose
of recording data is to track operational information that will identify and duplicate optimum
4630 operating conditions. Records of the volume and concentration of waste sludge fed to the
digester and volume and concentration of digested solids removed from the digester should be
kept. Additional information that needs to be maintained, include DO concentration and pH.
Keep a monthly report form. In plants where the aeration system capacity is marginally
adequate in providing desirable DO concentration in the digester, record DO concentration data
4635 on a trend chart. If chemicals are added to the digester for pH or odour control, record the type
and amount of chemicals added. If mechanical aerators are used, record the power usage. In the
case of diffused-air systems, air flow records may be of interest. If airflow meters are not
available, records of power consumption may be useful. Experimenting with the aeration system
often leads to significant savings in power costs.
4640 A record of instrument performance and repairs allow operations or maintenance personnel to
properly evaluate an instruments effectiveness and determine if the instrument meets the
objectives used to justify its purchase and installation. As a minimum, the following basic
information should be maintained for each instrument in the sewage treatment plant:
Plant equipment identification number
4645 Model number and serial number
Type
Dates placed into and removed from service
Reasons for removal
Location when installed
4650 Calibration data and procedures
Hours required to perform maintenance
Cost of replacement parts
Operations and maintenance manual references and their locations
Apparatus failure history
4655 4.23 Summary
This manual provides troubleshooting lists for possible problems in STPs in Appendices.
Operators should check their operational problems and study the countermeasures from the
troubleshooting lists so that they can take prompt measures against the problems when they
occur.
Final Draft 4-62

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 5: SLUDGE TREATMENT FACILITIES
4660 CHAPTER 5 SLUDGE TREATMENT FACILITIES

5.1 Introduction
Sludge treatment processes are often the most difficult and costliest part of sewage treatment.
Untreated sludge is odorous and contains pathogens. Sludge stabilization processes reduce
odours, pathogens, and biodegradable toxins, as well as bind heavy metals to inert solids, such
4665 as lime that will not leach into the groundwater. The resulting biosolids can be used or disposed
of safely.
Sewage residuals include primary, secondary, mixed, and chemical sludge, as well as screenings,
grit, scum, and ash. The concentration and characteristics of chemical sludge depend on the
treatment chemicals (alum, ferric salts, or lime) used. It typically is found at treatment plants
4670 that have tertiary treatment, such as phosphorus removal. The use or disposal method for
residuals depends on how much treatment they have received. Biosolids are residuals that have
been stabilized so they can be beneficially used as a soil amendment. Combustible residuals,
such as screenings, may be incinerated or landfilled. Non-combustible residuals, such as grit,
may be landfilled.
4675 5.2 Sludge Thickening
The role of sludge thickening is to thicken the sludge of low concentration generated in sewage
treatment facilities, and to make subsequent processes such as sludge digestion and sludge
dewatering more effective. Thickened sludge may be of two kinds: primary settling tank sludge
generated in the primary settling tank and excess sludge generated in the secondary settling
4680 tank.
Sludge thickening may be broadly classified into four types by thickening method: gravity
thickening, centrifugal thickening, floatation thickening and belt type thickening.
When the thickening of sludge is inadequate, not only will the efficiency of subsequent sludge
treatment reduce, but also centrate containing large amount of suspended solids will return to
4685 the sewage treatment facilities and degrade the water quality of treated water.
For this reason, excess sludge for which gravity thickening is difficult is increasingly being
mechanically thickened using centrifugal thickening machines or floatation thickeners. When
the water content of thickened sludge is 98% or more especially, separation and thickening
should be considered.
4690 5.2.1 Gravity Thickening
Gravity thickening is the most common practice for concentration of sludge (Figure 5.1).
Gravity thickening concentrates sludge through sedimentation. The normal acceleration of
gravity provides the driving force for the separation.
This is adopted for primary sludge or combined primary and activated sludge but is not
4695 successful in dealing with activated sludge independently. Gravity thickening of combined
sludge is not effective when activated sludge exceeds 40% of the total sludge weight, and other
methods of thickening of activated sludge have to be considered.
Continuous flow tanks are deep circular tanks with central feed and overflow at the periphery.
Better efficiencies can be obtained by providing slow revolving stirrers, particularly with gassy
4700 Sludge.
It is necessary to ensure provisions for:
Regulating the quantity of dilution water needed
Adequate sludge pumping capacity to maintain any desired solids concentration,
Final Draft 5-1

continuous feed and underflow pumping

4705 Protection against torque overload
Sludge blanket detection
Figure 5.1 Example of a gravity thickener.

Variable-speed drives may be used to increase rake speed to agitate the sludge
4710 blanket and release trapped gas bubbles, and to prevent rat-holing or coning.
Prolonged operation at high speeds will reduce the ultimate solids concentration and
reduce the life of the thickener drive mechanism.
Scum removal equipment may include a skimmer and scum box. The ancillary
equipment should include positive-displacement pumps (plunger, rotary lobe,
4715 diaphragm, or progressing cavity pumps). Process control equipment includes
sludge blanket indicators (light path, sonic, or variable-height taps), online process
monitors on the feed or underflow, torque readouts on the rake drive, and timers to
vary the pump on-off (or speed) sequences. In cold weather areas or areas where
odours are a problem, thickeners are typically covered.
4720 Gravity thickeners are either continuous flow or fill and draw type, with or without addition of
chemicals. Use of slowly revolving stirrers improves the efficiency. Continuous flow tanks are
deep circular tanks with central feed and overflow at the periphery.
5.2.1.1 Process Control
Greater attention to the thickener is required when thickening waste activated sludge because it
4725 has a large surface area per unit mass, resulting in low settling rates and resistance to being
compacted. Sludge tends to stratify in the gravity thickener while continuing biological activity,
which includes the production of gases that can cause accumulated sludge to float.
Gravity thickener operation responds to changes in process temperatures; therefore, loading
rates should be reduced to values at the lower end of the range when temperatures exceed 15 to
4730 20C, depending on the ratio of primary to secondary sludges. Higher temperatures will require
additional dilution.
The following should be checked before or during operation:
Avoid starting a thickener that contains accumulated sludge. To avoid overload, the
sludge should be disposed of before starting the mechanism.
4735 Check and adjust the skimming mechanism to increase the amount of scum drawn
Final Draft 5-2
into the scum box and to reduce the amount of supernatant carried with the
skimming.
5.2.1.2 Maintenance
Check all condensate drains and remove any accumulated moisture.
4740 Visually examine the skimmer to ensure that it properly comes into contact with the
scum baffle and scum box.
Inspect skimmer wipers for wear.
Install kick plates on the gravity thickener bridge to prevent objects from falling into
the tank.
4745 An object lodging in the underflow discharge pipe or under the mechanism will
quickly halt operation of the thickener. If an object falls into the tank, immediately
halt thickener operation to prevent torque overload.
During plant rounds, regularly observe and record the drive torque indicator, which
is the best indicator of mechanical problems.
4750 Regularly check the underflow pump capacity because pumps wear rapidly in a
thickened sludge operation.
Follow the manufacturers recommended lubrication schedule and use
recommended lubricant types. Oil should typically be changed after the first 250
hours of operation and every 6 months thereafter.
4755 5.2.2 Centrifugal Thickening
Thickening by centrifugation is chosen only when space limitations or sludge characteristics
will not permit the adoption of other methods. This method involves high maintenance and
power costs.
5.2.2.1 Configuration
4760 Decanter centrifuges are centrifuges that have a screw conveyor inside that transports the settled
sludge along the bowl and out of the centrifuge. They thicken and dewater the sludge
simultaneously.
In the centrifuge, the process is the same, varying only in degree. Centrifuges use the principle
of sedimentation to separate liquids from solids based on the same principle as the clarifiers and
4765 thickeners in the wet end of the plant. In case of sedimentation, it is the difference in density
between the solids and the surrounding liquid that drives separation.
5.2.2.2 Operation and Maintenance
All process devices benefit from a constant feed quality, and centrifuges are no exception.
Common problems are varying ratios of primary to secondary sludges or feed material that has
4770 become septic. For very complicated reasons, septic sludge is more difficult to thicken than
fresh sludge. Holding feed material in storage tanks under uncontrolled conditions is poor
practice. When in doubt, measure the pH drop through the tankage.
The manufacturer generally sets the bowl speed and it is rarely changed thereafter. Assuming
the present speed was the correct speed several years ago is not proof that it is the best speed
4775 now. The plant engineer should adjust the speed periodically, to confirm that it is correct and to
remind operators that it is a variable. It is good policy to consult the manufacturer before
changing the bowl speed.
a. Start-up
Final Draft 5-3

Most modern centrifuges have a one-button start. Manual systems take a few minutes, but
4780 are not onerous. When the centrifuge is up to speed, the controls unlock the feed and
polymer pumps, and the operator begins to put the centrifuge online. The start-up sequence
is as follows:
Turn on the feed and polymer to about one-third of the normal rate.
Reduce the differential revolutions per minute and/or pond to minimum.
4785 When the cake thickness reaches the normal value, begin increasing the
differential and the polymer feed rate. Some plants can jump directly to the
normal operating conditions as soon as the cake is sealed, while others have to
ramp up more slowly.
b. Shutdown
4790 Again, modern centrifuges have a one-button stop. The shutdown sequence is as follows:
Shut off the feed and polymer and turn the flushing water on.
When clear water exits both ends of the centrifuge, push the centrifuge stop
button.
At some point, as the centrifuge slows down, flush water will come around the
4795 feed tube or around the casing seals. Note how long it took between engaging
the stop button and the water gushing out. Next time, shut the water off a
minute or two sooner.
With the flush water off, the centrifuge can usually coast to a stop without
operator intervention.
4800 c. Sampling and Testing
Sampling and testing should include TSS and/or total solids for the feed, total solids for
thickened sludge, and TSS, ammonia, and/or phosphorus (under some conditions) for
centrate.
5.2.3 Air Floatation Thickening
4805 Air floatation units employ floatation of sludge by air under pressure or vacuum and are
normally used for thickening the waste activated sludge. These units involve additional
equipment, higher operating costs, higher power requirements, and more skilled maintenance
and operation. However, removal of grease and oil, solids, grit and other material as also odour
control are distinct advantages.
4810 In the pressure type floatation units, a portion of the subnatant is pressurised from 3 to 5 kg/ cm2
and then saturated with air in the pressure tank. The effluent from the pressure tank is mixed
with influent sludge immediately before it is released into the flotation tank. Excess dissolved
air then rises up in the form of bubbles at atmospheric pressure attaching themselves to particles
which form the sludge blanket. Thickened blanket is skimmed off while the unrecycled
4815 subnatant is returned to the plant.
Flotation thickeners are equipped with both surface skimmers and floor rakes. The surface
skimmers remove floating material from the thickening tank to maintain a constant average float
blanket depth. Floor rakes are essential for removing the non-floatable heavier solids that settle
4820 to the bottom of the flotation thickener. Most units are baffled and equipped with an overflow
weir. Clarified effluent passes under an end baffle (rectangular units) or peripheral baffle
(circular units) and then flows over the weir to an effluent launder. The weir controls the liquid
level within the flotation tank with respect to the float collection box and helps regulate the
Final Draft 5-4
capacity and performance of the flotation unit.

4825 The saturation system typically includes a recycle pressurization pump, an air compressor, an air
saturation tank, and a pressure release valve. Although the flow through the pressurization pump
typically is recycle-flow, it can be makeup water. The pressure release valve controls pressure
loss and distributes the gas-saturated pressurized flow into the feed sludge as dissolved air
emerges from solution. The rapid reduction in pressure causes dissolved air (under pressure) to
4830 emerge from solution or effervesce into minute bubbles.
Other important equipment that forms part of an air floatation thickening system is the float
handling and pumping system. After removal of the float from the air floatation thickening unit,
float solids are deposited in a hopper and then pumped for further processing. This aspect of the
operation requires special considerations because of the following characteristics of float solids:
4835 The parameter that is manipulated by the operator to control the performance of a thickener is
the effective drainage time. This parameter is controlled by:
Adjustment of skimmer on-time,
Adjustment of skimmer off-time, and
Adjustment of skimmer speed.
4840 5.2.3.2 Operation
A float total solid content of 4% represents a typical minimum for flotation thickeners handling
solids without primary sludge. Under optimum conditions, however, 5 to 6% solids content can
be expected.
Proper operation requires reducing variations of the feed rate and concentration. A feed sludge
4845 holding and mixing tank helps with intermittent operation. Most units are operated continuously.
Some are operated with a short period shut-down during weekends, while others are operated
only during certain hours of the day.
The speed and the on-off times of the float skimmers should be set to maximize the float solids
concentration, but should not be set too slow to cause excessive float-depth accumulation.
4850 Dilution reduces the effect of particle interference on the rate of separation. Concentration of the
sludge increases and the concentration of effluent suspended solids decreases as the sludge
blanket detention time increases.
a. Start-up
Fill the tank with screened final effluent or plant non-potable water until
4855 overflowing.
Continue plant non-potable water flow to the air floatation unit and engage the
recycle system, including the compressor, if applicable. Adjust to proper pressures
and flow. After proper functioning, proceed.
Ensure that the float and underflow pumps are functional by pumping some water.
4860 Prepare the polymer, if applicable, and engage the polymer addition at proper flow or
as jar tests have indicated if starting after prolonged shutdown, start-up, or process
changes.
b. Shutdown
Stop polymer flow, if applicable, and at the same time stop waste activated sludge
4865 feed.
If only down for a short time (30 minutes or so), there is no need to shut down the
Final Draft 5-5

recycle system, including the compressor. If down for longer than this period, shut
down the recycle system.
The float rake timer can be left on until most of the float is removed into the hopper
4870 and pumped for further processing.
If the unit is going to be down for more than 24 hours, displace the tank contents with
non-potable water or drain and clean the tank, all troughs, and pipelines.
In a typical operation, only the recirculation pump and retention tank discharge
valves are closed when stopping a units operation. All other valves remain open,
4875 with the exception of valves on drain lines.
5.2.3.3 Maintenance
Checking all oil levels and ensuring that the oil fill cap vent is open;
Checking all condensation drains and removing any accumulated moisture;
Examining drive control limit switches;
4880 Visually examining the skimmer to ensure that it is in proper contact with the scum
baffle and scum box;
Inspecting skimmer wipers for wear;
Adjusting drive chains or belts;
Semi-annual inspections of major elements for wear, corrosion, and proper
4885 adjustment include:
Saturation systemseductors (if used) or nozzles should be inspected for wear
or cleaned whenever the efficiency begins to decline, or on a semi-annual basis;
Mechanical systems, including shaft bearings and bores, bearing brackets, baffle
boards, flights and skimming units, suction lines and sumps, and sludge pumps.
4890 5.2.4 Belt Type Thickening
Gravity belt thickeners (Figure 5.2) work by filtering free water from conditioned sludge by
gravity drainage through a porous belt. The gravity drainage area is usually horizontal but may
be inclined under some circumstances. Chemical conditioning is generally required to flocculate
the sludge and separate the solids from the free water. Chemical conditioning may be
4895 accomplished by injecting the chemical through an injection ring and mixing it with the sludge.
After chemical injection, the sludge velocity is reduced in a retention tank and the sludge is
allowed to fully flocculate before overflowing by gravity onto the moving belt.
Final Draft 5-6

Figure 5.2 Gravity belt thickener process

4900 As the moving belt carries the sludge, plows clear portions of the belt for the filtrate to drain
through and gently turn over the solids, thereby exposing more free water. Prior to the discharge,
most gravity belt thickeners have some type of dam or an adjustable ramp.
The hydraulic capacity of the equipment is determined by multiple factors including sludge type,
sludge concentration, polymer type and polymer dosage, belt speed, belt type, as well as the
4905 obvious machine width and length.
a. Polymer Addition
Polymer addition usually occurs by injection through a multiport injection ring; it is mixed
with the sludge as it flows through an inline mixing device. In some cases, the polymer may
4910 be mixed mechanically in the retention tank. However, this generally results in higher
polymer consumption.
b. Flocculation Tank
The flocculation tank allows the incoming sludge velocity to be reduced so that
flocculation can fully occur before the sludge overflows onto the moving belt. Design of
4915 the tank is critical to prevent short-circuiting within the tank.
c. Belt and Supports
Belts are typically woven from polyester fibre. High pH and other unusual conditions may
require special materials. The belt is supported on grid strips that also serve as wipers on
the bottom of the belt. This wiping action increases the drainage capacity of the belt.
4920 d. Belt Tensioning
Unlike a belt press, the performance of the belt thickener is not dependent on belt tension.
Once the dewatering belt on a thickener is tight enough to prevent slippage on the drive
roller, additional tension is unnecessary. Additionally, the belt tension on a thickener is not
dependent on the type or amount of sludge loading. As such, the requirements for belt
4925 tension are much lower on a gravity belt thickener compared to a belt filter press.
Belt tension is a result of moving one roller closer to or further away from the other
roller(s). This displacement may be through hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical actions.
Once the belt is tensioned, it is not necessary to relax the tension until the belt is replaced.
e. Belt Drive
Final Draft 5-7

4930 All belt thickeners have a variable-speed belt drive with a typical speed range of 8 to 40
m/min. The belt speed may be either mechanically or electrically varied with speed
controls at the local control panel. Typically, the belt drive is attached to a rubber-coated
drive roller.
f. Belt Tracking
4935 During operation of a belt thickener, the belt should more or less remain centered and not
move laterally on the machine. Although the belt should not move, some type of belt
tracking device is included on most machines. Comparatively, the belt on a belt thickener is
similar to a conveyor belt; all tracking devices have some roots in the conveyor or
papermaking industry.
4940 5.2.4.2 Operation and Maintenance
a. Start-up
Start the hydraulic unit (or air compressor) and allow tension to develop in the
belt.
Start the belt drive and use an initial setting of approximately 20 m/min belt
4945 speed.
Start the wash water pump and allow the belt to pre-wet.
Start the polymer pump and allow the fresh polymer to reach the polymer
injection point.
After thickened sludge is available, start the thickened sludge pump (or
4950 thickened sludge conveyor).
After the system is running, begin fine-tuning the process by adjusting the
sludge flow, polymer dose, mixing energy, belt speed, and so on until the results
are within the desired process parameters. It is important to only adjust one item
at a time and to allow time for the adjustment to take effect before making
4955 another change.
b. Shutdown
Shut down sludge feed pump.
Shut down polymer feed pump.
As the thickened sludge hopper empties, shut down the thickened sludge pump
4960 (or thickened sludge conveyor).
Drain the flocculation tank.
Wash the machine down from top to bottom.
Allow the belts to be completely washed (this could take 15 to 45 minutes)
without sludge or polymer.
4965 Shut down the wash water pump.
Shut down the belt drive.
Shut down the hydraulic unit/air compressor.
c. Sampling and Testing
At a minimum, gravity belt thickeners should be sampled and analyzed as follows:
4970 Sample influent feed for total solids, TSS, total volatile solids, pH, and flow.
Final Draft 5-8
Sample wash water for TSS and flow.

Sample thickened sludge for total solids and flow.
Sample filtrate for TSS and flow.
Measure flow and quantity of polymer used.
4975 Measure any dilution water used to make up polymer.
d. Process Control
Numerous variables affect the overall thickening process. Listed below are most of these
variables.
Sludge feed, polymer, polymer dosage, mixing energy, retention time
4980 Belt speed, belt tension, belt type, ramp angle
Upstream variables, slurry pump selection, solids concentration
Biological sludge content, sludge storage time, wash water characteristics
5.3 Anaerobic Digestion
In anaerobic digestion, anaerobic bacteria thrive in an environment without dissolved oxygen by
4985 using the oxygen that is chemically combined with their food supply.
Two major types of bacteria are present in the digester. The first group starts eating the organic
portion of the sludge to form organic acids and carbon dioxide gas. These bacteria are called
acid formers. The second group breaks down the organic acids to simpler compounds and forms
methane and carbon dioxide gas. These bacteria are called gas formers. The methane gas is
4990 usually used to heat the digester or to run engines in the plant. The production of gas indicates
that organic material is being eaten by the bacteria. Sludge is usually considered properly
digested when 50% of the organic matter has been destroyed and converted to gas. This
normally takes approximately 30 days if the temperature is kept at about 35C.
Most digestion tanks are mixed continuously to bring the food to the organisms, to provide a
4995 uniform temperature, and to avoid the formation of thick scum blankets. When a digester is not
being mixed, the solids usually settle to the bottom, leaving a liquid known as supernatant above
the sludge. In many plants, however, there is no separation of solids and liquids after two days
of sitting without mixing due to the type of sludge. The supernatant is displaced from the tank
each time a fresh charge of raw sludge is pumped from the primary clarifier. The displaced
5000 supernatant usually is returned from the digester back to the plant head-works and mixed with
incoming raw wastes. Supernatant return should be slow to prevent over-loading or shock
loading of the plant.
In most new plants, sludge digestion takes place in two tanks. The first or primary digester is
usually heated and mixed. Rapid digestion takes place along with most of the gas production. In
5005 the secondary tank, the digested sludge and supernatant are allowed to separate, thus producing
a clearer supernatant and better-digested sludge.
Digester sludge from the bottom of the tank is periodically removed for dewatering.
5.3.1 Digestion Types
Two different types in anaerobic sludge digestion process namely, Low rate and High rate, are
5010 used in practice. The basic features of these processes are shown in Figure 5.3.
5.3.1.1 Low Rate Digestion
Low rate digestion is the simplest and the oldest process; essentially a low rate digester is a
Final Draft 5-9

large storage tank, occasionally, with some heating facility. The basic features of this process are
shown in Figure 5.3.
5015 Raw sludge is fed into the digester intermittently. Bubbles of sewage gas are generated and their
rise to the surface provides some mixing. In the case of few old digesters, screw pumps have
been installed to provide additional intermittent mixing of the contents, say once in 8 hours for
about an hour. As a result, the digester contents are allowed to stratify, thereby forming four
distinct layers: a floating layer of scum, layer of supernatant, layer of actively digesting sludge
5020 and a bottom layer of digested sludge; essentially the decomposition is restricted to the middle
and bottom layers. Stabilized sludge which accumulates and thickens at the bottom of the tank is
periodically drawn off from the centre of the floor. Supernatant is removed from the side of the
digester and returned back to the treatment plant.
5025 Figure 5.3 Sludge digestion system

5.3.1.2 High Rate Digestion
The essential elements of high rate digestion are complete mixing and more or less uniform
feeding of raw sludge. Pre-thickening of raw sludge and heating of the digester contents are
optional features of a high rate digestion system. All these four features provide the best
5030 environmental conditions for the biological process and the net results are reduced digester
volume requirement and increased process stability.
Complete mixing of sludge in high rate digesters creates a homogeneous environment
throughout the digester. It also quickly brings the raw sludge into contact with microorganisms
and evenly distributes toxic substances, if any, present in the raw sludge. Furthermore, when
5035 stratification is prevented because of mixing, the entire digester is available for active
decomposition, thereby increasing the effective solids retention time.
5.3.2 Configuration
5.3.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion Tank
Anaerobic digestion tanks may be cylindrical or cubical in shape. Most tanks constructed today
5040 are cylindrical. The floor of the tank is sloped so that sand, grit, and heavy sludge will tend to be
Final Draft 5-10

removed from the tank. Most digesters constructed today have either fixed or floating covers.
A fixed cover digester may develop an explosive mixture in the tank when sludge is withdrawn
if proper precautions are not taken to prevent air from being drawn into the tank. Each time a
new charge of raw sludge is added, an equal amount of supernatant is displaced because the
5045 tank is maintained at a fixed level
A floating cover moves up and down with the tank level and gas pressure. Normally, the vertical
travel of the cover is about 2.5m, with stops (corbels) or landing edges for down (lowering)
control and maximum water level for upward travel. Maximum water level is controlled by an
overflow pipe that must be kept clear to prevent damage to the floating cover by overfilling. Gas
5050 pressure depends on the weight of the cover. The advantages of a floating cover include less
danger of explosive mixtures forming in the digester, better control of supernatant withdrawal,
and better control of scum blankets. Disadvantages include higher construction and maintenance
costs.
5.3.2.2 Agitator
5055 Maintenance requires that the condensate be drained from the lines at least twice a day, that the
diffusers be cleaned to prevent high discharge pressures, and that the compressor unit be
properly lubricated and cooled.
Propeller mixers are found mainly on fixed cover digesters. Normally, two or three of these
units are supported from the roof of the tank with the propeller blades submerged 3 to 3.5 m in
5060 the sludge. An electric motor drives the propeller stirring the sludge. Digested sludge normally
contains a great deal of grit and debris. This type unit usually has reversible motors so the
propeller may rotate in either direction. In one direction the contents are pulled from the top of
the digester and forced down the draft tube to be discharged at the bottom. By operating the
motor in the opposite direction, the digested sludge is pulled from the bottom of the tank and
5065 discharged over the top of the draft tube to the surface. Reversible motors also assist in
minimizing accumulations of rags on the propeller.
If two units are installed in the same tank, an effective way to break up a scum blanket is
operating one unit in one direction and the other unit in the opposite direction, thereby creating
a push-pull effect. The direction of flow in the tubes should be reversed every day.
5070 A limitation of draft tube-type mixers is the potential formation of a scum blanket. If the water
level is maintained at a constant elevation, a scum blanket forms on the surface. The scum
blanket may be a thick layer and the draft will only pull liquid sludge from under the blanket,
not disturbing it, Lowering the level of the digester to just 7 to 10 cm over the top of the drain
tube forces the scum to move over and down the draft tube. This applies mainly to
5075 single-direction mixers.
Pumps are sometimes used to mix digesters. This method is common in smaller tanks. The tank
may or may not be equipped with a draft tube positioned in such a way that the pump suction
may be from the top or valved from the bottom of the digester. Control of scum blankets with
this method of mixing depends on how the operator maintains the sludge level and where the
5080 pump is pulling from and discharging to the digester.
Pressure gauges should be installed on the pump suction and discharge pipes. A change in
pressure could indicate that the pump is not functioning properly and the desired mixing may
not be taking place in the digester.
5.3.2.3 Digester Gas Equipment
5085 a. Gas Tank
Several types of gas storage are available. The most common means of low-pressure gas
storage is the floating gas-holder cover. Membrane storage can be installed either on the
Final Draft 5-11

digester, to serve both as cover and storage space, or on the ground as a standalone
structure.
5090 b. Flow Meter
Gas production is a measure of digester performance. Reliable monitoring equipment alerts
plant operators to process malfunctions and gas leaks. The flow meters used for gas
monitoring can be broadly classified as positive-displacement, thermal-dispersion, and
differential pressure flow meters (Table 5.1).
5095 Separate flow meters are recommended for each digester because digester gas-production
rates vary. Separate flow meters are also recommended to monitor gas use by the utilization
equipment. The gas may contain moisture and impurities, which may cause maintenance
problems for the metering devices.
Table 5.1 Gas-flow indication and metering
Type Application Operation and maintenance
Used in many plants. Large
devices that require bypasses
when servicing.
Somewhat tolerant of dirty gas.
Accurate gas measurement unless
Positive displacement Requires periodic
dirty.
cleaning and rebuilding.
Does not require upstream and
downstream straight-pipe
sections for accuracy.
Increasingly used technology
because of tolerance to dirty gas
and simple installation. Accurate Smaller than most metering
for low flows. devices. Requires periodic
Some accuracy problems with cleaning of probe. Must not have
Thermal dispersion insert zero flow, such as for flares. liquid impinging on probe. No
Requires some upstream and bypass needed, reducing need for
downstream straight-pipe piping and isolation valves to
distances for accuracy. Can be service.
inserted and removed through
ball valve.
Requires frequent cleaning when
Commonly used in older plants. used for dirty gas. Accuracy
Pressure differentia
Upstream and downstream depends on instrument
orifices and Venturis
straight piping sections needed. cleanliness. Can significantly
constrict gas flow when fouled.
5100 Source: WEF, 2008
c. Gas system safety and control devices (Table 5.2)

Table 5.2 Gas system safety and control devices
Used to stop flame propagation in
a pipe. Flame traps are installed Require periodic cleaning, typically
Flame traps with thermal shutoff valves as monthly.
(large pipe) noted below. Installed on gas May require insulation and heating in
and flame check supplies to engines, compressors, cold climates to prevent ice formation.
valves boilers, flares, or other sources of Foam will blind the devices, rendering
(small piping) ignition. Also used on digester other devices, particularly relief valves,
covers with pressure- and ineffective.
vacuum-relief valves.
Spring-loaded or pressure-operated Replace element periodically or when
Thermal shutoff
isolation valves that trip and shut tripped.
valves
off at flame temperatures. Must be Usually includes an indicator to show
Final Draft 5-12

installed between flame trap and that the valve has tripped. May require
source of ignition. insulation and heating in cold climates to
prevent ice formation.
Provided for all digester covers to
prevent over pressurization or
vacuum conditions in the digester.
Check seals periodically; replace if leaks
Typically adjustable, weighted
develop.
valves, built as common unit.
May require insulation and heating in
Pressure- and Should be set below design limits
cold climates to prevent ice formation.
vacuum relief of cover. Typically two sets
Relief valves are last safety measure for
valves provided for each cover to allow
digester covers to prevent over pressure
servicing of one set while keeping
or vacuum. These valves do not provide
digester in service. Typically
liquid relief.
discharge to area around valves.
Available with pipe to allow
discharge away from valves.
Typically provided with waste gas
flares. Maintain pressure upstream
by relieving overpressure to flare. Frequent maintenance required to
Usually uses weights to set relief prevent sticking (open or closed). These
Back pressure pressure; however, some use valves regulate pressure in the
valves springs. Upstream sensing line gas-collection piping system and are the
should ideally be in gas collection first level of protection for over
piping header, away from the pressurization of the digester cover.
valve and large enough to reduce
the potential for clogging.
Used to prevent backflow of gas.
Typically constructed with leather
Low-pressure Check flap and replace if not
or flexible flap to ensure operation
check valves functioning.
at low pressure. Not commonly
used.
Provided for all plants to serve as a
Provided to dispose of surplus gas.
Waste gas flare means of suitable disposal of gas.
Usually provided with standing
or burners Untreated gas should not be freely
pilot or electronic ignition.
released.
Good pilot-gas supply is needed (may
Used for smaller plants and where
require natural gas or propane supply).
Open pipe or stringent air-emissions control is
Heat and corrosion make periodic
candle flare not needed. Generally visible
replacement necessary.
flame, gas disposal device.
Pilot system requires frequent servicing.
Used at plants where stringent air
emissions are required and visible
flame is not desired. Control air
Controlled
supply to maintain sufficient
combustion flare,
temperature to completely burn Require periodic system maintenance for
ground flare, or
gas. These flares must be operated controls and air blowers.
emissions
at a specific temperature to achieve
controlled flare
emission limits. If oversized,
auxiliary fuel may be required; this
increases operating costs.
Periodically clean manometers, replace
Manometers used for low pressure. fluid, and calibrate gauges. Pressure
Pressure Gauges used for higher pressures, gauges should be provided with an
indication particularly for gas utilization isolating diaphragm to prevent gas
lines. contaminants from fouling the
mechanism.
Final Draft 5-13

Source: WEF, 2008
5.3.2.4 Gas Scrubbers

5105 a. Foam and Sediment Removal
Many systems are equipped with sediment traps and foam separators for cleaning digester
gas. These devices provide a wide spot in the gas piping system for slowing velocities,
collecting foam and particulates entrained in the gas, and removing collected condensate.
The foam separator is a large vessel with an internal plate fitted with water nozzles that
5110 provide a continuous spray. The foam- and sediment-laden gas enters the vessel near the
top and travels down through the spray wash under the baffle wall and up through a second
spray wash, exiting the vessel through an elevated discharge nozzle. The spray wash and
the internal plate reduce foam in the gas to prevent carryover to gas utilization equipment.
b. Hydrogen Sulphide Removal
5115 The generation of hydrogen sulphide can also be inhibited by using ferric chloride injection
into the digester. But this is usually very difficult as handling ferric chloride is not easy
because it is very acidic and reactions with skin can be troublesome. Injection of ferric
chloride can however be used as a temporary measure when sulphates in raw sewage
become very high in drought situations when the population may use a lot of hard water for
5120 many purposes other than drinking, and which may increase the sulphate in raw sewage.
Iron salts can be added at the following locations in the treatment process:
The primary clarifier (helps settling and improves overall facility odour control)
The suction side of the digester sludge-recirculation pump
The suction side of a mechanical mixer
5125 Iron salts should not be added directly upstream from the heat exchangers because this can
result in deposits of vivianite on heat exchanger surfaces.
Refer to section 6.5.15.3 of the Part-A manual for the methods in use in India for removing
hydrogen sulphide from digester gas.
c. Moisture Reduction
5130 Moisture is condensed from digester gas as it cools. Gas piping should have a slope of at
least 1% toward the condensate collection point. To effectively remove the moisture, the
gas flow should not exceed 3.7 m/s countercurrent to condensate flow.
The condensate is collected in traps that should be located at low points in long pipe runs
and wherever gas is cooled. Drip taps, which can be controlled manually or automatically,
5135 provide a convenient and safe means for removal of accumulated condensate. Manually
operated drip taps are recommended for indoor applications. Float-controlled, automatic
drip taps are also available, but these require frequent maintenance to keep the valves
operating. Should the float stick, gas can escape to the surrounding atmosphere, which
limits their use to outdoor installations (where permitted by local codes and safety
5140 considerations).
d. Carbon Dioxide Removal
Carbon dioxide can be removed from the digester gas by water or chemical scrubbing,
carbon sieves, or membrane permeation; however, all of these technologies are expensive
and their use may be cost-effective only if the gas is to be upgraded to natural gas quality
5145 and sold.
e. Siloxane Removal
Siloxanes are components of toiletries and personal care cosmetics such as sprays,
Final Draft 5-14
deodorants, lipsticks, gels, lotions, shaving creams, cleaning fluids, and so on. Their use
is growing every year. Not much data is available on their removal in STPs. It has been
5150 reported that siloxanes find their way in digester gas. The concern is in cold climates, if
digesters are to be heated to maintain temperature of about 35C, silicon dioxide deposits
on the heat exchanger tubes, which reduces heat transmission. A typical photograph is
shown in Figure 5.4.
5155 Figure 5.4 Silicon dioxide deposits on boiler tubes

Hence it becomes necessary to protect equipment from siloxanes. This problem can occur
also when digester gas is burned in gas engines. However, this has not been reported as a
serious problem in digester gas usage in India.
f. Activated Carbon Scrubbers
5160 Activated carbon scrubbers used to remove siloxanes from digester gas operate according
to the same principles as the carbon scrubbers used for odour control in sewage treatment
plants. The digester gas is passed through a vessel filled with activated carbon, which
captures the organics, including siloxanes, hydrogen sulphide, and several other
compounds in digester gas. With proper maintenance and replacement of the carbon, the
5165 siloxanes in the digester gas can be removed to below detection limits. However,
activated carbon is not selective with regard to siloxanes and will remove other
compounds as well. Consequently, if the digester gas contains other organics, the carbon
will require frequent replacement. In India, the cocoanut shell activated carbon is locally
available and is economical. Removal of hydrogen sulphide before it passes through the
5170 carbon scrubbers will provide better siloxane removal and extend the life of the carbon
bed.
5.3.2.5 Gas Power Generator
Refer to Sec.6.4.2 Gas Engines.
5175 5.3.3.1 Feeding Schedule
Uniformity and consistency are keys to digester operation. Sudden changes in feed solids
volume or concentration, temperature, composition, or withdrawal rates will inhibit digester
performance and may lead to foaming. The ideal feeding procedure is a continuous,
24-hour-per-day addition of a blend of different types of feed solids (primary and WAS). Where
5180 continuous feeding is impossible, a 5- to 10-min/h feed cycle is used. Smaller STPs that operate
a single 8-hour shift use a schedule of at least three feedings: at the beginning, middle, and end
of the shift. And typical causes of organic overloads include the following:
Starting the digester too rapidly,
Final Draft 5-15

Excessive volatile solids loading as a result of erratic feeding or a change in feed

5185 solids composition,
Volatile solids loadings exceeding the daily limits by more than 10%,
Loss of active digester volume because of grit accumulation, and
Inadequate mixing.
5.3.3.2 Withdrawal Schedule
5190 Solids should be withdrawn from the primary digester immediately prior to feeding raw sludge
to prevent short-circuiting. In digesters with surface overflow, the timing and rate of solids
withdrawal and feed are coordinated to occur concurrently. Solids should be withdrawn at least
daily to avoid a sudden drop in the active microorganism population. The primary digester may
be regulated to simply overflow to the secondary digester or to the digested sludge storage tank
5195 as raw sludge is added. Solids may be withdrawn from the following locations:
The bottom of the digester,
The overflow structure, and
Any point within a well-mixed digester.
A benefit of removing solids from the bottom of the digester is that it may also remove the grit
5200 that accumulates on the bottom of the digester. If possible, solids removal should be performed
periodically.
It is important to recognize that because digestion destroys volatile solids, the concentration of
the biosolids removed from the digester will be lower than the feed concentration unless the
digester is decanted.
5205 5.3.3.3 Scum Control
Scum accumulation in digesters is common. Scum is a combination of undigested grease and oil
and often contains buoyant materials, such as plastics that are not removed at the plants
headworks. Scum floats on the digester liquid surface and can accumulate, forming a dense mat.
Properly designed and operated digester mixing systems can typically blend the scum into the
5210 tank contents.
If the digester operates without mixing for longer than 8 hours, scum may rise and float on the
liquid surface. After mixing is restarted, the scum is re-suspended within the liquid. The primary
method of scum control is to keep the digester mixing system well-maintained during operation.
5.3.3.4 Precipitate Formation and Control
5215 The digestion process can produce crystalline precipitates that affect both the digestion system
and downstream solids-handling processes. The precipitates can accumulate on pipes and
dewatering equipment, causing damage and blockages and requiring costly and time-consuming
maintenance. Common precipitates include struvite, vivianite, and calcium carbonate. The
constituents that form these precipitates are present in undigested sludges and are released
5220 during the digestion process and converted to soluble forms that can react and crystallize. Their
formation varies from site to site, depending on the chemistry of the digested sludges and the
treatment processes. Because precipitates preferentially form on rough or irregular surfaces,
glass-lined sludge piping and long-radius elbows help minimize their accumulation.
5.3.3.5 Digester Upsets and Control Strategies
5225 The four basic causes of digester upsets are hydraulic overload, organic overload, temperature
stress, and toxic overload. Hydraulic and organic overloads occur when the design hydraulic or
organic loading rates are exceeded by more than 10% per day. The overload conditions can be
Final Draft 5-16

controlled by managing digester feeding, as well as ensuring that the effective digester volume
is not diminished by grit accumulation or poor mixing. Digester feeding is controlled by proper
5230 operation of upstream headworks, clarifiers, and thickeners to ensure the feed sludge
concentrations. In the event of a digester upset, an effective control strategy includes the
following steps:
Stop or reduce sludge feed.
Determine the cause of the imbalance.
5235 Correct the cause of the imbalance.
Provide pH control until treatment returns to normal.
If only one digester tank is affected, the loading on the remaining units can be carefully
increased to allow the upset unit to recover. If overloading is affecting several units, reducing
the feed will require a method of dealing with the excess sludge by hauling it to another facility,
5240 providing temporary storage onsite, or chemically stabilizing and disposing of the sludge.
5.3.3.6 Temperature
Temperature-related stress is caused by a change in digester temperature of more than 1 or 2C
in fewer than 10 days, which would reduce the biological activity of the methane-forming
microorganisms. If the methane formers are not quickly revived, the acid formers, which are
5245 unaffected by the temperature change, continue to produce volatile acids, which will eventually
consume the available alkalinity and cause the pH to decline.
The most typical causes of temperature stress are overloading sludge and exceeding the
instantaneous capacity of the heating system. Most heating systems can eventually heat the
digester contents to the operating temperature, but not a harmful temperature variation.
5250 5.3.3.7 Toxicity Control
The anaerobic process is sensitive to certain compounds, such as sulphides, volatile acids, heavy
metals, calcium, sodium, potassium, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and chlorinated organic
compounds. The inhibitory concentration of a substance depends on many variables, including
pH, organic loading, temperature, hydraulic loading, the presence of other materials, and the
5255 ratio of the toxic substance concentration to the biomass concentration.
5.3.3.8 pH Control
The key to controlling the digester pH is to add bicarbonate alkalinity to react with acids and
buffer the system pH to about 7.0. Bicarbonate can be added directly or indirectly as a base that
reacts with dissolved carbon dioxide to produce bicarbonate. Chemicals used for pH adjustment
5260 include lime, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide,
and gaseous ammonia. Lime addition can be messy and will produce CaCO3. Although
ammonia compounds can be used for pH adjustment, they may cause ammonia toxicity and
increase the ammonia load on the liquid treatment processes through return streams.
Consequently, their use is not recommended.
5265 During a digester upset, volatile acid concentrations may begin to rise before bicarbonate
alkalinity is consumed. Because pH depression does not occur until alkalinity is depleted, it may
be observed only after the digester is well on its way to failure.
5.3.3.9 Digester Foaming
Digester foam consists of fine gas bubbles trapped in a semi-liquid matrix with a specific
5270 gravity of 0.7 to 0.95. The gas bubbles are generated below the sludge layer and are trapped as
they form. While some foaming always occurs, it is considered excessive if it plugs piping or
escapes from the digester. Excessive foaming can cause the loss of active digester volume,
Final Draft 5-17

structural damage, spillage, and damage to the gas-handling system, as well as being
malodorous and unsightly. The most common cause of digester foaming is organic overload,
5275 which results in the production of more VFAs (volatile fatty acids) than can be converted to
methane. The acid formers (which release carbon dioxide) work much more quickly than the
methane-forming microorganisms. The resulting increase in carbon dioxide typically increases
foam formation. Factors that can contribute to organic overload include:
Intermittent digester feeding;
5280 Separate feeding or inadequate blending of primary sludge and waste activated
sludge;
Insufficient or intermittent digester mixing; and
Excessive amounts of grease or scum in digester feed (especially problematic if the
digester is fed in batches).
5285 Organic overload can be minimized by feeding the digesters continuously (or as often as
possible), blending different feed sludges well before feeding, ensuring that the digester-mixing
system is operable, and limiting the quantities of grease or scum in the digester feed.
5.4 Sludge Dewatering
Most of the digested primary or mixed sludge can be compacted to a water content of about
5290 90% in the digester itself by gravity but mechanical dewatering with or without coagulant aids
or prolonged drying on open sludge drying beds may be required to reduce the water content
further. The dewatering of digested sludge is usually accomplished on sludge drying beds which
can reduce the moisture content to below 70%. But excess oil or grease in the sludge will
interfere with the process. Where the required space for sludge drying beds is not available,
5295 sludge conditioning, followed by mechanical dewatering on centrifugation, belt press, filter
presses, screw press, rotary press, and vacuum filters.
5.4.1 Chemical Dosing Equipment
5.4.1.1 Coagulant
Chemical conditioning is the process of adding certain chemicals to enable coalescence of
5300 sludge particles facilitating easy extraction of moisture. The chemicals used are ferric and
aluminium salts and lime, the more common being ferric chloride with or without lime.
Digested sludge, because of its high alkalinity exerts a huge chemical demand and therefore the
alkalinity has to be reduced to effect a saving on the chemicals. This can be accomplished by
elutriation. Polyelectrolytes show promise for sludge with finely dispersed sludge. The choice of
5305 chemical depends on pH, ash content of sludge, temperature and other factors. Optimum pH
values and chemical dosage for different kinds of sludge have to be based on standard
laboratory tests. The dosage of ferric chloride and alum for elutriated digested sludge is of the
order of 1.0 kg/m3 of sludge. Alum when vigorously mixed with sludge, reacts with the
carbonate salts and releases CO2, which causes the sludge to separate and water drains out more
5310 easily. Hence for effective results, alum must be mixed quickly and thoroughly. The alum floc,
however, is very fragile and its usefulness has to be evaluated as compared with ferric chloride
before resorting to its application.
Feeding devices are necessary for applying chemicals; mixing of chemicals with sludge should
be gentle but thorough, taking not more than 20 to 30 seconds. Mixing tanks are generally of the
5315 vertical type for small plants and of the horizontal type for large plants. They are provided with
mechanical agitators rotated at 20 to 80 rpm.
a. Inorganic Chemicals
Inorganic chemical conditioning is associated principally with vacuum and pressure
Final Draft 5-18
filtration dewatering. The chemicals typically are lime and ferric chloride. Ferrous
5320 sulphate, ferrous chloride, and aluminium sulphate are also used, although less commonly.
i. Ferric Chloride
Ferric chloride solutions typically are used at the concentration received from the
supplier (30 to 40%); however, some STPs dilute the ferric chloride to approximately
10% to improve mixing and reduce the acidity and corrosivity of the material. This
5325 can be done in day tanks or inline. Dilution may lead to hydrolysis reactions and the
precipitation of ferric chloride crystals.
An important consideration in the use of ferric chloride is its corrosive nature. It reacts
with water to form hydrochloric acid, which attacks steel and stainless steel. When
diluted with sludge, the acidity is neutralized by the alkalinity of the sludge and
5330 thoroughly diluted so that the end product is quite benign. Interlocks must be used to
ensure that ferric chloride is always added to sludge in the proper ratio and is never
pumped into sludge lines or process equipment by itself.
Special precautions must be taken when handling this chemical. The best materials are
epoxy, rubber, ceramic, polyvinylchloride, and vinyl. Contact with the skin and eyes
5335 must be avoided. Rubber gloves, face shields, goggles, and rubber aprons must be
used at all times. Ferric chloride can be stored indefinitely without deterioration.
Customarily, it is stored in above-ground tanks constructed of resistant plastic and
surrounded by a containment wall. Ferric chloride can crystallize at low temperatures,
which means that the tanks must be kept indoors or heated.
5340 ii. Lime
Vacuum filters and filter presses commonly use lime and ferric chloride to make the
sludge easier to filter and improve the release of the sludge from the filter media. Lime
is available in two dry formsquicklime (calcium oxide) and hydrated lime [Ca(OH) 2].
When using quicklime, it is first slurried with water and converted to calcium
5345 hydroxide, which is then used for conditioning. Because this process (known as
slaking) generates heat, special equipment is required.
Quicklime must be stored in a dry area, because it reacts with moisture in the air and
can become unusable.
Hydrated lime is much easier to use than quicklime, because it does not require
5350 slaking, mixes easily with water with minimal heat generation, and does not require
any special storage conditions.
Lime typically is used in conjunction with ferric salts. Although lime has some slight
dehydration effects on colloids, odour reduction, and disinfection, it is used because it
improves filtration and release of the cake from the filter media. The lime reacts with
5355 bicarbonate to form a precipitate of calcium carbonate, which provides a granular
structure that increases porosity and reduces compressibility of the sludge.
b. Organic Flocculants
Organic flocculants are widely used in many industries and processes involving the
separation of sludge from liquids. These liquid- sludge separation applications may involve
5360 processes related to the recovery of finished products, clarification or purification of
liquids, and volume reduction of waste materials.
While organic polyelectrolytes are commonly used in applications involving liquid-sludge
separation, the processes of sewage sludge thickening and dewatering are completely
dependent on their use.
Final Draft 5-19

5365 i. Polymer Characteristics

The product characteristics of these complex and proprietary polyacrylamide
flocculants may vary according to the following:
Electronic charge (anionic, nonionic, or cationic)
Charge density
5370 Molecular weight (standard viscosity)
Molecular structure
ii. Polymer Specifications and Quality Control
Along with the product identification and type and form of product, the following
standard product specifications should be obtained to determine storage conditions,
5375 pumping requirements, and potential hazards:
Total solids
Specific gravity
Bulk viscosity
Flash point
5380 Freezing point
5.4.1.2 Equipment
a. Liquid Feeders
A typical solution-feed system consists of a bulk storage tank, transfer pump, day tank
(sometimes used for dilution), and liquid feeder. Some liquid chemicals can be fed directly
5385 without dilution, and these may make the day tank unnecessary, unless required by a
regulatory agency. Nonetheless, dilution water can be added to prevent plugging, reduce
delivery time, and help mix the chemical with the sewage. However, sometimes, the
dilution water can have adverse chemical effects. For instance, dilution water that has not
been softened can potentially cause calcium carbonate scale to build up on the piping.
5390 Special consideration should be given to the final water chemistry of the solution before
adding dilution water.
Liquid feeders are typically metering pumps. Metering pumps are generally of the
positive-displacement type using either plungers or diaphragms.
Positive-displacement pumps can be set to feed over a wide range (10:1) by adjusting the
5395 pump stroke length.
The chemical addition rate can be set manually by adjusting a valve or the stroke/speed on
a metering pump.
b. Dry Chemical Feeders
Lime and alum are typical of the kinds of chemicals used with a dry chemical-feed system.
5400 It consists of a feeder, a dissolver tank, and a storage bin or hopper. These systems are
complex because of their many storage and handling requirements. The simplest method of
feeding dry or solid chemicals is by hand. Solid chemicals may be pre-weighed and added
or poured by the bagful into a dissolving tank. This method generally applies only to small
plants where dry chemical-feed equipment is used.
5405 Most dry feeders are of the belt, grooved-disk, screw, or oscillating-plate type. The feeding
device (belt, screw, disk, etc.) is typically driven by an electric motor. Many belt feeders,
Final Draft 5-20

particularly the gravimetric type, also contain a material flow-control device such as a
movable gate or rotary inlet for metering or controlling flow of the chemical to the feed
belt.
5410 5.4.1.3 Operation
Many metering pump systems handle chemicals that coat or build a layer of residue or slurries
that can settle out solids during operation. Strainers are helpful in removing large particulates,
but the operator must keep these cleaned. Periodic flushing to remove residues and deposits is
often required. Piping and valve arrangements should allow the system to be isolated so that a
5415 clear liquid, such as water, can be used to pressurize the system for flushing the residue or solid
buildup. Such flushing systems can be operated manually using hand-operated valves or can be
automatically operated using solenoid valves with a timer control system. Systems where the
metering pumps and piping are periodically shut down will require flushing connections to
remove solids.
5420 Most feeders, regardless of type, discharge their material to a small dissolving tank equipped
with a nozzle system or mechanical agitator, depending on the solubility of the chemical being
fed. The surface of each particle needs to be completely wet before it enters the feed tank to
ensure thorough dispersal and avoid clumping, settling, or floating. When feeding some
chemicals, such as polymers, into dissolvers, care must be taken to keep moisture inside the
5425 dissolver from backing up into the feeder.
5.4.1.4 Maintenance
Systems where the metering pumps and piping are periodically shut down will require flushing
connections to remove solids. In addition, an allowance for T- and Y-cleanouts should be
included
for the piping system where longer horizontal piping runs cannot be adequately
5430 flushed.
A metering pump will lose capacity and become erratic when the suction or discharge valves
become worn or when poor hydraulic conditions exist. These conditions will be indicated by the
cylinder test. Also, debris in the chemicals being fed may obstruct or block the check valves,
thus impeding their operation and decreasing the pumps performance.
5435 Check dust filters periodically.
Periodically clean and calibrate level measurement and indication instrumentation in
liquid and dry storage tanks.
Check the level and condition of the oil in the gear reducer.
Check the condition of all painted surfaces.
5440 Clean dirt, dust, or oil from equipment surfaces.
Check all electrical connections.
Stop and start equipment, checking for voltage and amp draw and any movement
restrictions because of failed bearings, improper lubrication, or other causes.
Check the drive motor for any unusual heat, noise, or vibration.
5445 Check the packing for leakage and wear.
5.4.2 Sludge Feed Pump
5.4.2.1 Operation
The following operations directly affect sludge pump performance.
Positive-displacement pumps need a drive system that can operate the pump at the speed needed
Final Draft 5-21
5450 to perform adequately under all operating conditions. Sometimes, this involves manually and
automatically timed starts and stops, as well as variable pump discharge rates. This
variable-speed arrangement can be provided via mechanical vari-drives; variable pitch pulleys;
direct-current, variable-speed drives; alternating-current, variable-frequency drives;
eddy-current magnetic clutches; or hydraulic speed-adjustment systems. Each has various
5455 advantages and disadvantages with respect to cost, amount and ease of maintenance required,
efficiency, turndown ratio, and accuracy. Because positive-displacement pumps are constant
torque machines, operators should ensure that the output torque of variable-speed drive exceeds
the pumps torque requirement at all operating points. Although variable-speed drives are often
either a necessity or an enhancement to proper plant operation, the challenge is providing the
5460 continued maintenance and servicing required.
Operators should check the following items:
Inlet and outlet flow rate
Noise or vibration
Bearing housing temperature
5465 Running amperage
Pump speed
Pressure
5.4.2.2 Maintenance
Following is the maintenance checklist for sludge pumps:
5470 Check the level and condition of the oil in the gear reducer.
Check the shaft alignment.
Check the condition of all painted surfaces.
Visually inspect mounting fasteners for tightness.
Clean dirt, dust, or oil from equipment surfaces.
5475 Check all electrical connections.
Stop and start equipment, checking for voltage and amp draw and any movement
restrictions because of failed bearings, improper lubrication, or other causes.
Check the drive motor for any unusual heat, noise, or vibration.
Check mechanical seals and packing for leakage or wear.
5480 5.4.3 Mechanical Dewatering
5.4.3.1 Centrifugal Dewatering
Centrifugation is the process of separating solids from liquids by the process of sedimentation,
enhanced by centrifugal force.
5.4.3.1.1 Operation
5485 A centrifuge can thicken or dewater the sludge with only a minor change in the weir setting
(also called pond setting). Likewise, it can dewater sludge to a moderate consistence at low
polymer dose or produce very dry solids using higher polymer dosages.
a. Sludge Type and Quality
The operation of the wet end of the plant determines the quality of the sludge, which, in
Final Draft 5-22
5490 turn, greatly affects the dry end.

b. Polymer Activity and Mixing with the Sludge
If the polymer does not react well with the sludge, performance suffers. Also, adding the
polymer closer to or further from the centrifuge will affect performance.
c. Polymer Type and Dosage
5495 Some polymers are designed to obtain drier cakes than others.
Likewise, the dosage will increase and decrease with cake dryness. Some polymers become
less effective at higher dosages. This will be apparent from a quick jar test or observing that
adding more polymer results in either poorer operation or the same operation.
Hydraulic Loading
5500 Centrifuges are less limited by the volume of water that passes through the centrifuge
than filtration devices. As a result, thinner feed sludges will have less effect on
performance than in filtration devices.
Solids Loading
The solids residence time is important. If there is more sludge to dewater, there will be
5505 less solids residence time and therefore wetter solids, all else being equal.
Capture
The solids capture is generally fixed by the plant management, and is not an operating
variable.
d. Torque Control
5510 In recent years, nearly all centrifuges have a controller that allows the operator to choose a
scroll drive load or torque set point, and the controller then adjusts the differential speed to
maintain that set point. In this manner, the torque and therefore the cake dryness is fixed.
One way of looking at the centrifuge is that it is a very expensive viscometer. The conveyor
is turning at a controlled speed immersed in the sludge. The effort or torque needed to turn
5515 the conveyor is measured by the scroll drive device.
As the cake becomes drier, its viscosity increases, which, in turn, increases the torque or
load on the scroll drive. When operating in load control, the controller automatically
adjusts the differential revolutions per minute to maintain a constant torque level, and the
operators only task is to observe the centrate quality from time to time and adjust the
5520 polymer rate to maintain the desired centrate quality.
This is a really simple control; one of its virtues is that the major operating cost - cake
-dryness is fixed, and any operator error shows up in the centrate, which is easy to see and
is not so costly if it is off slightly.
Consult the manufacturer of the centrifuge for a recommendation on operating speed
5525 changes.
e. Process Control
The following shutdown procedures are suggested:
Stop sludge and polymer feed to the centrifuge.
Add flush with water (effluent water is acceptable) until the centrate is clear and
5530 the torque level begins to drop.
Turn the centrifuge off.
Final Draft 5-23

Continue flushing at 25% of normal feed flow until the centrifuge reaches 7 to
800 r/min.
Turn off the lubrication system and cooling water when the unit is completely
5535 stopped.
5.4.3.1.2 Maintenance
During operation, the operator should check for the following:
The oil level and the flow of oil to the bearings in circulating oil systems
Flow of cooling water and oil temperature, to ensure it is operating in the proper
5540 range
Machine vibratione
Ammeter reading on the bowl motor
Bearing temperatures, by touching them
System for leaks
5545 Centrate quality
Scroll drive torque
Because the centrifuge will shut itself down in the event of a fault, the operator typically only
looks at the mechanical parameters once per shift.
5.4.3.2 Belt Filter Press Dewatering Equipment
5550 The operation of a Belt Filter Press (BFP) is based on the principles of filtration and comprises
the following zones (Figure 5.5):
Gravity drainage zone, where the feed is thickened
Pressure zonee
Shear zone
5555
Figure 5.5 Belt filter press
Final Draft 5-24

5.4.3.2.1 Operation
a. Process Variables
There are several process variables that affect the performance of all dewatering systems.
5560 In general, dewatering devices must run at 95% capture or better, so capture really is not an
operating variable. Of the remaining parameterscake dryness, loading, and polymer
dosagewithin limits, the operator can take from one to give to another. For drier cake,
one can reduce the loading and/or increase the polymer dosage.
Cake Dryness
5565 Increased cake dryness comes at the price of lower capacity and/or higher polymer
dosage. The ability to obtain higher cake dryness is, to a great extent, a function of the
design of the press. Presses with extended gravity zones to better pre-concentrate the
feed and additional pressure rollers give longer sludge residence times and drier cake.
Polymer Type and Dosage
5570 Some polymers are designed to obtain drier cakes than others. Likewise, the dosage
will increase and decrease with the cake dryness. Some polymers become less
effective at higher dosages. This will be apparent from a quick jar test or observing
that adding more polymer results in either poorer operation or same operation.
Hydraulic Loading
5575 Belt filter presses are limited by the volume of water that can go through the belts. As
a result, thinner feed sludges will result in less quantity of dry solids produced, all else
being equal.
Solids Loading
Likewise, more solids will result in less solids residence time inside the press and
5580 therefore wetter sludge, all else being equal.
Capture
The solids capture is typically fixed by the plant management and is not an operating
variable.
Belt composition and condition, speed, and tension
5585 Size and number of rollers
Wash water flow, pressure, and suspended solids concentration
b. Sequence of Operation
The sequence of operation for a BFP typically is set up in the following order:
Open wash water valve.
5590 Start wash water pump.
Start pneumatic/hydraulic belt tension system.
Start belt drive and dewatered cake conveyor.
Start polymer solution feed pump.
Start sludge feed pump.
5595 Modern presses typically have a one-button start system, so the operator only has to
manually start the feed and polymer pumps. In any event, one benefit of filling out the
Final Draft 5-25

operating log is that the operating conditions the last operator used are known, as are
the conditions of the previous week and month.
5600 Rollers and bearings require frequent lubrication. Follow the manufacturers operations and
maintenance manual for lubrication schedule. This extends the life of the roller bearings and
belt drive motor.
Replacement of filter belts is a common maintenance requirement.
The following procedures will extend the life of the BFP and reduce its operating cost:
5605 Wash down the BFP every day after finishing the dewatering shift. This
prevents cake from drying and accumulating in different sections of the BFP.
Confirm that all rollers are turning freely.
Check the press weekly for damaged bearings.
Check the grinder that prevents large particles from entering the press twice per
5610 year.
Clean the wash water nozzles as frequently as necessary (this depends on the
quality of the wash water). This ensures proper cleaning of the belts.
Inspect and change sludge containment and washbox seals, as necessary.
Inspect and clean doctor blades from any accumulated debris, hair, or any other
5615 foreign materials.
Clean the chicanes (plows) in the gravity section after shutting down the press.
For any other maintenance of complex mechanical parts of the BFP, contact the
manufacturer for advice.
5.4.3.3 Filter Press
5620 Filter presses for dewatering are generally either recessed plate filters or diaphragm filter
presses. With the advent of better organic polymers, belt filters and centrifuges have largely
displaced filter presses in the market. Filter presses can be attractive in unusual circumstances.
The fixed-volume recessed plate filter press consists of a series of plates, each with a recessed
section that forms the volume into which the feed enters for dewatering. Filter media or cloth,
5625 placed against each plate wall, retains the cake solids while permitting passage of the filtrate.
The plate surface under the filter media is specifically designed with grooves between raised
bumps to facilitate passage of the filtrate while holding the filter cloth. Before pumping into the
press, the feed must be chemically conditioned to flocculate the solids and release the water held
within the solid mass. Most typical conditioning systems use inorganic chemicals and organic
5630 polymers.
High-pressure pumps force the feed into the space between the two plates. The filtrate passes
through the cake and the filter media and out of the press through special ports drilled in the
plate.
Pumping continues up to a given pressure and is stopped when solids and water fill the void
5635 volume between the filter cloths and filtrate flow slows to a minimal rate. The press then opens
mechanically and the cake is removed, one chamber at a time.
5.4.3.3.1 Operation
a. Process Variables -Chemical Conditioning
Final Draft 5-26

Polymers have a narrow range of effective dosage. A dose that is too low or too high will
5640 result in a wet cake. Lime and ferric chloride have a broader range of effective dosage.
While it is desirable for an operator to reduce the chemical usage to reduce costs, if erratic
equipment operation or erratic feed qualities occur, a higher lime dose typically will protect
against a wet cake. Polymer conditioning requires much less chemical per unit mass of
solids dewatered, which results in more room in the press for organic sludges, and
5645 increased capacities.
A torn cloth immediately results in a filtrate flow that is very dirty and heavy with
solids.
Feed sludge concentration. A very thin feed may blow out through the plate surfaces
during the initial high-volume fill of the press because there would be too much
5650 filtrate flow for the drain capacity. A thin feed will at least require a longer filtration
time and produce a wetter cake. A thick feed typically will produce a drier cake with
a much shorter filtration time.
For a conventional filter press, the operator can control the following machine variables:
Feed application rate by pacing the flow to the filter press.
5655 Overall filtration time, including such variables as the time at each pressure level in
multiple pressure level operations.
Use and amounts of pre-coat or body feed. Typically, pre-coat is unnecessary when
inorganic chemicals, such as lime and ferric chloride, are applied. Pre-coat may be
needed if particle sizes are extremely small, filterability varies considerably, or a
5660 substantial loss of fine solids to and through the filter media is anticipated.
Conditioning chemicals, type, dosage, location, and mixing efficiency. Polymer
addition versus lime and ferric chloride conditioning typically are not
interchangeable, as each chemical requires special mixing and flocculation energies
and reaction times. Polymers only need a quick mix before injection to the press.
5665 Modifications to the piping and mixing systems are typically needed if a change in
the type of chemical for conditioning is desired.
Flocculation efficiency and energy vary with the type of chemical being used.
Polymer floc shears easily and remains stable for only a few minutes. Lime floc is
more durable and remains stable for a few hours.
5670 Filter media. Filter cloth media vary widely, with different filament composition,
weave pattern, and weave tightness.
b. Operational Considerations
Many presses are very noisy when in operation. Hearing protection may be needed.
Never insert objects between the press plates as they are being discharged without
5675 first shutting the unit down by tripping the light curtain or flipping the emergency
shutdown switch.
Lime treatment results in considerable ammonia fumes being released during cake
discharge. Make sure that adequate ventilation pulls these fumes away from the
operator, preferably with a high-capacity, down-draft blower system. If an adequate
5680 ventilation system is not operational, short term exposure may be allowed, if
approved, and if an approved ammonia respirator is worn by all operators assisting
with the cake discharge.
Hydrochloric acid washing of the press releases volatile acid fumes, which should
Final Draft 5-27

not be inhaled or exposed to moist body tissues, such as eyes and lungs. A
5685 high-capacity ventilation system, as previously noted, is essential. If approved,
short-term exposure may be allowed with an approved respirator and complete
coverage of all exposed skin.
Lime powder is very caustic when it comes into contact with moist body tissues.
Therefore, an approved respirator and complete coverage of all exposed skin is
5690 necessary when working around lime.
Follow all equipment manufacturers recommendations. Some typical areas that need special
attention are as follows:
The plate handles and the frame rails require frequent grease application to prevent
5695 binding and excessive wear.
The plate shifter chain or other plate shifting devices require frequent lubrication.
Even if a shredder is used before the conditioning step, rags will quickly accumulate
on all mechanical mixer blades. These need to be removed frequently to prevent
damaging the mixer gears and shaft bearings from operating out of balance.
5700 Lime systems scale up and plug over time and are unpleasant and potentially
hazardous for operators to clean. When lime is used, cloth and plate washing may
require both an acid and a water wash because lime causes scaling.
Ferric chloride, hydrochloric acid, lime, and ammonia cause considerable corrosion
to metal surfaces, such as the plate handles with their retaining bolts, the shifter
5705 chain, and even steel plates under a hard rubber cover. Frequent cleaning and
lubrication are necessary to reduce corrosion. Powder-coated steel handles,
polypropylene plates, and polytetrafluoroethylene-coated frame rails have been used
by some facilities to reduce corrosion problems. Also, adding an inhibitor to
hydrochloric acid will reduce its metal corrosion properties.
5710 From time to time, the cloths and gaskets should be removed, the plates should be
pressure cleaned, and new cloths and gaskets cut and installed.
5.4.3.4 Screw Press
Screw presses dewater sludges first by gravity drainage at the inlet section of the screw and then
by squeezing free water out of the sludges as they are conveyed to the discharge end of the
5715 screw under gradually increasing pressure and friction (Figure 5.6). The increased pressure to
compress the sludges is generated by progressively reducing the available cross-sectional area
for the sludges. The released water is allowed to escape through perforated screens surrounding
the screw while the sludges are retained inside the press. The liquid forced out through the
screens is collected and conveyed from the press, and the dewatered sludges are dropped
5720 through the screws discharge outlet at the end of the press.
Screw speed and configuration, as well as screen size and orientation, can be tailored for each
dewatering application.
Solids are combined with polymer and pumped into the flocculation vessel. After flocculation,
sludges are transferred to the screw press. In the horizontal screw press configuration, sludges
5725 are fed by gravity from the flocculation tank into the screw press headbox. If a rotary screen
thickener is used, sludges flow from the flocculation tank to the rotary screen thickener and then
to the screw press headbox. Sludges then flow from the headbox into the inlet of the screw
press.
Final Draft 5-28

5730 Figure 5.6 Screw press

5.4.3.4.1 Operation
Screw presses run continuously at low speeds and do not require close operator supervision;
therefore, they are easy to maintain and have low power consumption. The manual cleaning
schedule ranges from once per week to once every 30 days.
5735 a. Chemical Conditioning
Polymer addition promotes particle flocculation and increases the dewatering and
solids-capture rates. Jar testing and pilot testing can be used to estimate the type and
quantity of polymer necessary for each application, because it may vary significantly
depending on sludge characteristics. Polymer consumption is affected by multiple
5740 parameters (e.g., grit content of the sludge, the presence or absence of primary clarifiers,
the type of biological treatment, and the type and duration of sludge digestion).
b. Cleaning System
Screw press systems have automatic cleaning systems which involve plant water and spray
nozzles. During automated wash cycles, washwater from solenoid valves sprays onto the
5745 screw press screen to remove built-up sludge.
The brushes are made of nylon with stainless steel mounting hardware. This mainly cleans
the screen to allow water to drain by gravity (especially in the lower part of the screen) and
minimize resistance to water filtration. Clean screens require less dewatering pressure,
which improves the solid capture rate.
5750 The second cleaning process is an automatic spray wash system, which cleans the screen
from the outside. It is comprised of a rotating spray-bar washing system and spray nozzles
fed by solenoid valves.
c. Rotation Speed
Typical rotation speeds range from 0.1 to 2.0 rpm for horizontal screw presses and from 0.5
5755 to 2.0 rpm for inclined screw presses. In general, an increase in screw rotation speed
increases production capacity but decreases cake solids concentration. In a full-scale
application, increasing rotational speed from 1 to 1.25 rpm reduced the cake concentration
from 23 to 20%
Final Draft 5-29

5760 Maintenance checkpoints are as follows:
Check the drive of the screw for abnormal sound and vibration during operation.
Check the screen for any damage or clogging.
Check the cleaning nozzle for clogging.
Check the amount and the leakage of lubricating oil.
5765 Check the reading of the ammeter and indicator lamps.
5.4.3.5 Rotary Press
Rotary presses are a relatively new technology that can achieve cake solids and solid capture
performance similar to belt presses and centrifuges. Rotary press and rotary fan press
dewatering technology relies on gravity, friction, and pressure differential to dewater sludge.
5770 The major elements of a rotary press are the polymer feed and mixing system, parallel filtering
screens, a circular channel between the screens, the rotation shaft, and a pressure- controlled
outlet (Figure 5.7).
The press screens of rotary fan consist of fabricated wedgewire with small openings and linear
gaps. The rotary press drive configuration allows up to six rotary press channels to be operated
5775 on a single drive. Each channel has bearings, and the combined unit has an outboard bearing
cantilevered on one end. The rotary fan press drive configuration uses a maximum of two rotary
press channels on a single drive with isolated bearings in a sealed gearbox.
A key feature of both rotary press and rotary fan press dewatering technology is their slow
rotational speed. Typical installations use speeds of 1 to 3 rpm. This provides low vibration, low
5780 shear, and low noise.
5.4.3.5.1 Operation
a. Operational Control
Operators can control the performance of the rotary press or rotary fan press by changing
polymer type and dosage, feed rate, feed pressure, wheel speed, and outlet pressure.
5785 Both types of rotary press require minimal supervision and can be unattended between
startup and shutdown.
Hydraulic Loading Rate
The hydraulic loading rate is a function of the equipments size and number of channels.
The technology is modular, and the hydraulic loading rate of single-drive units ranges from
5790 0.5 to 15 L/s, although a maximum hydraulic loading rate of 3 L/s per channel is typical.
Rotary presses provide better performance on residuals with higher fiber content (e.g.,
primary sludges).
Chemical Conditioning Requirements
Chemical conditioning is mandatory to attain design performance in rotary press or rotary
5795 fan press dewatering. Polymer feed systems can be supplied by the manufacturer or can
be procured independently. In both cases, the feed systems typically include a polymer
storage tank and metering pump, which feeds the polymer into the mixing or flocculation
tank, where it is blended with the sludge. Dry or emulsion polymers can be used.
Solids Loading Rate
5800 Because solids capture is a function of the adjustable back pressure, the solids loading rate
Final Draft 5-30

varies with the hydraulic loading rate. At higher solids concentrations, residuals will
accumulate in the outlet zone, form cake, and extrude more quickly.
b. Cleaning System
Rotary presses and rotary fan presses include a self-cleaning system that must run for 5
5805 minutes per day at the end of use to flush all lines and equipment. The system does not
require high-pressure water for flushing. Typically, the normal in-plant water source has
sufficient pressure, but in some cases, high-pressure booster pumps may be required.
Figure 5.7 Schematic of a rotary press system

5810 5.4.3.5.2 Maintenance
Maintenance checkpoints are as follows:
Check the drive of the rotary for abnormal sound and vibration during operation.
Check the rotary for any damage or clogging.
Check the amount and the leakage of lubricating oil.
5815 Check the reading of the ammeter and indicator lamps.
5.4.3.6 Vacuum Filter
The vacuum filter consists of a cylindrical drum over which is laid a filtering medium of wool,
cloth or felt, synthetic fibre or plastic or stainless steel mesh or coil springs.
The drum is suspended horizontally so that one quarter of its diameter is submerged in a tank
5820 containing sludge.
5.4.3.6.1 Operation
a. Process Variables
The principal variables that affect vacuum filter operation are as follows:
Chemical conditioning
Final Draft 5-31

5825 Filter media type and condition

Drum submergence
Drum speed
Vacuum level
Chemical conditioning most significantly influences dewaterability, because it changes the
5830 physical and chemical nature of the feed. Conditioning agents produce a feed that releases
water more freely, thereby producing a drier cake. Conditioning agents also add to the
sludges to be discarded.
b. Sludge Conditioning
Sludge conditioning is accomplished by the addition of various coagulants or flocculating
5835 agents such as ferric chloride, alum, lime, and polymers. The amount of chemical solution
added to the conditioning tank is normally established by laboratory testing of sludge grab
samples.
The installation of a blanket may require several days' work.
5840 A blanket will usually last from 200 to 20,000 hours, but this depends greatly on the blanket
material, conditioning chemical, backwash frequency, and acid bath frequency. An improper
adjustment of the scraper blade, or accidental tear in the blanket, will usually require its
replacement.
Both cloth blankets and coil springs filters require a high pressure wash after 12 to 24 hours of
5845 operation and, in some instances, an acid bath after 1,000 to 5,000 operating hours.
5.5 Sludge Drying Bed
These are the age old practices in India and are still preferred in arid parts where land is
available and affords employment opportunities to unskilled labour. Other areas where rainfall
is frequent are not suited for drying beds.
5850 5.5.1 Applicability
This. method can be used at all locations where adequate land is available and dried sludge can
be used for soil conditioning. When digested sludge is deposited on well drained bed of sand
and gravel, the dissolved gases tend to buoy up and float the solids leaving a clear liquid at the
bottom which drains through the sand rapidly. The major portion of the liquid drains off in a few
5855 hours after which drying commences by evaporation. The sludge cake shrinks producing cracks
which accelerates evaporation from the sludge surface. In areas having greater sunshine, lower
rainfall and lesser relative humidity, the drying time may be about two weeks while in other
areas, it could be four weeks or more. Covered beds are not generally necessary.
5.5.2 Unit Sizing
5860 The sludge drying process is affected by weather, sludge characteristics, system design
(including depth of bed) and length of time between scraping and lifting of sludge material.
High temperature and high wind velocity improve drying while high relative humidity and
precipitation retard drying.
5.5.3 Area of Beds
5865 The area needed for dewatering and drying the sludge is dependent on the volume of the sludge,
cycle time required to retain sludge for dewatering, drying and removal of sludge and making
the sand bed ready for next cycle of application and depth of application of sludge on drying
Final Draft 5-32

bed. The cycle time between two dryings of sludge on drying beds primarily depends on the
characteristics of sludge including factors affecting its ability to allow drainage and evaporation
5870 of water, the climatic parameters that influence evaporation of water from sludges and the
moisture content allowed in dried sludge. The cycle time may vary widely, lesser time required
for aerobically stabilized sludges than for anaerobically digested sludge and for hot and dry
weather conditions than for cold and/or wet weather conditions.
5.5.4 Percolation Type Bed Components
5875 A sludge drying bed usually consists of a bottom layer of gravel of uniform size over which is
laid a bed of clean sand. Open jointed tile under drains are laid in the gravel layer to provide
positive drainage as the liquid passes through the sand and gravel.
Sludge that is drawn to the beds contains 4-10% solids depending upon the type of sludge. Wet
5880 sludge should be applied to the beds to a depth of 20 to 30 cm. After each layer of dried sludge
has been removed, the bed should be raked and levelled. Sludge should never be discharged on
a bed containing dried or partially dried sludge. It is preferable to apply the sludge at least a day
or two after the sludge cakes are removed.
Removal of dried sludge from bed surfaces should be done with shovel, taking care that as little
5885 as possible of the sand is removed. When the sand layer is reduced to as low as 10 to 15 cm, it
should be examined for clogging by organic matter and if found, the entire sand should be
removed and the bed re-sanded to the original depth of 20 to 30 cm.
The dried sludge cakes may be sold as fertiliser. Some part of the sludge should be used in the
plant itself for gardening, lawns, etc to demonstrate its fertiliser value and to develop a market
5890 value for the digested and dried sludge. Suitable storage facilities may be provided for the dried
sludge.
Records of operation of sludge drying beds should show the time and quantity of sludge drawn
to each bed, the depth of loading, the depth of sludge after drying time and the quantity of dried
sludge removed. The solids content of wet digested sludge, its volatile portion and pH should be
5895 determined and recorded. Likewise, the moisture content and fertiliser value in terms of NPK of
dried sludge should also be analysed and recorded. A typical operation sheet of sludge drying
bed is as follows (Table 5.3).
Table 5.3 Typical Operation Sheet of Sludge Drying Beds
Date and Time Check List
Cleaning of weeds
Quantity of sludge to respective SDB
Depth of the wet sludge
Depth of dried sludge
Quantity of sludge removed
Cleaning and scrubbing of splash plate, pipes etc
Volume of sand added
Cleanup-washing scrubbing of filtrate sump
Source: JICA, 2011

All preventive maintenance of equipment is to be done as per the equipment manufacturer only.
Preventive maintenance of process control resides only in digestion process and has been
discussed above.
Final Draft 5-33

5.7 Troubleshooting
5905 Refer to Appendix 5.1.
5.8 Record Keeping
There is no standard format for record keeping. Each STP has to have its own format. The
crucial parameters to be recorded are the pH and temperature of the digesters on a daily basis.
The gas analysis can be recorded once a week.
5910 5.9 Summary
Treatment of sludge, which is converted from removed organic matter in sewage, as well as
quality and quantity of sewage inflow, and quality of treated water, are quite important in STPs.
Problems encountered in the course of operation are gathered in Appendices as troubleshooting.
Operators can make use of the troubleshooting chart to take appropriate measures against each
5915 trouble.
Final Draft 5-34

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 6: ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION FACILITIES
CHAPTER 6 ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUMENTATION

FACIITIES
6.1 Introduction
Electrical systems which are to supply electrical power for an entire STP consist of power
5920 receiving and transforming equipment, power distributing equipment, cables, drives and standby
generators.
Instrumentation facilities are also installed for the purpose of measuring and collecting process
data such as flow rate, pressure, water qualities, and so on, at all times. These are utilized to
monitor and control treatment processes at optimal conditions for a stable treatment. The
5925 instrumentation facilities consist of sensors for processes, signal converters, operating devices
(actuators), controllers (PLC: Programmable Logic Controller), monitoring devices (PC:
personal computer), etc.
This chapter describes the following electrical and instrumentation facilities:
a. Power receiving and transforming equipment (Substation & transformers),
5930 b. Standby power supply system (Generators, Engines, UPS: Uninterruptible Power
Supply),
c. Prime movers and motor controllers (Motors, Starters, Cabling),
d. Instrumentation system, and
e. Supervisory control and data acquisition system (SCADA).
5935 A typical single line diagram depicts the entire electrical power flow system of an STP. The
single line diagram not only presents the type and number of equipment but also the electrical
specifications. This is an important document for an O&M person who would like to refer it in
case of any operational or maintenance need. Every STP should have:
A single line diagram kept for record and displayed properly in the STP facility
5940 particularly near the electrical sub-station.
Single line diagram periodically reviewed and updated suitably in case of any
change.
All people involved in the electrical and instrumentation work understand the single
line diagram.
5945 Typical electrical single line diagram is shown in Figure 6.1.
Final Draft 6-1

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 6: ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUMENTATION FACILITIES
Figure 6.1 Electrical single line diagram
Final Draft 6-2

6.2 Power Supply System

Power supply systems have the following three major functions:
5950 Transfer power from the transmission system to the distribution system;
Reduce the voltage to the specified level (Typical voltage level is 415 volt for STPs)
suitable for connection to local loads; and
Protect the entire network by identifying and isolating electrical faults selectively.
6.2.1 Power Receiving and Transforming Equipment
5955 If the STP facility receives the electrical supply at high voltage i.e. 11KV, 6.6 KV or 3.3 KV, it
has to be reduced to the low voltage level. A substation which is used to step-down high voltage
to low voltage, consists of the following equipment or devices:
6.2.1.1 High Tension (HT) Panel
The HT panel is composed of the following equipment and devices.
5960 6.2.1.1.1 Disconnecting Switch
Disconnecting switches are devices to open/close a high voltage circuit when high-voltage
equipment are inspected, measured, tested, or cleaned.
The devices are capable of safely breaking no load current but not load current.
For safe O&M work, be sure to open/close the disconnecting switch only after opening a circuit
5965 breaker which is located on the secondary side, just downstream of the disconnecting switch.
6.2.1.1.2 Circuit Breaker
Circuit breakers are switches that open/close electric circuits in normal and abnormal conditions
(especially in short circuit). Therefore, the circuit breakers must be capable of tripping the
circuits in conjunction with protective relays and by cutting off the short-circuit current
5970 definitely and safely, avoiding accidents due to high current.
Circuit breakers for high voltage are categorised into the following types according to their
techniques of eliminating arcs:
a. Air Break Circuit Breakers (ACB)
b. Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)
5975 c. Inert Gas Method (SF6)
6.2.1.1.3 Power Fuses
The function of a power fuse is to sense and prevent flow of excess current in electrical devices
and electrical wire from by melting the fuse element and thereby breaking the electric circuit
when subjected to a short-circuit. Power fuses are typically used for smaller electrical systems
5980 because they have the capability and speed for breaking circuit as compared with circuit
breakers.
A proper O&M, practice is that even if only one fuse melts due to an accident such as a
short-circuit in a three phase switch, all power fuses including the melted one should be
replaced.
5985 6.2.1.1.4 Voltage Transformer (VT) or Potential Transformer (PT)
Voltage transformers are used mainly in high-voltage distribution equipment to step down
voltage in measurement circuit for safe measurement. Single-phase and three-phase types are
manufactured. The typical secondary voltage of the voltage transformer is 110 volt
Final Draft 6-3

(Phase-to-Phase). They are also applied to protective relays.

5990 O&M issues to be observed in case of a PT are as follows:
If once short circuit occurs on the secondary side of a VT, over current flows into the
primary side and that may cause the fuse on the primary side to blow. The primary
fuse has also to be checked when there is a fault trip or metering mismatch.
6.2.1.1.5 Current Transformer (CT)
5995 Current transformers are used for stepping down current to be measured safely. It is also applied
to protective relays. The typical secondary current of the current transformer is 5 Amp or 1
Amp.
O&M issues to be checked are as follows:
If the secondary side of CT is open-circuited, all the current flowing to primary side
6000 is excited by magnetic saturation and causes damages to the CT by over-heating.
Therefore the secondary side should never be left open-circuited. Even when the
downstream instrument is removed for any repair, the secondary should be shorted.
6.2.1.1.6 Protective Relay
Protective relays should detect electrical faults promptly, isolate the faults from system, and
6005 activate alarms when there is a faulty condition sensed in the electrical supply to the circuits or
electrical equipment (short circuit, earth fault, single-phase, reverse power flow etc.)
The protective relays should have the following three characteristics:
a. Certainty: The relay should always be sensing the parameters for action when there
is a fault or specified abnormality.
6010 b. Selectivity: The relay should be able to obey a selection of the limits beyond which a
fault will be judged.
c. Promptness. The relay should sense and operate within the shortest possible time.
Categories according to protective functions are as follows:
a. Over current relay (OCR): Monitor and protect against over load and short-circuit;
6015 b. Under voltage relay (UVR) and over voltage relay(OVR): Detect and protect under
voltage (power failure) or over voltage; and
c. Earth fault relay: Protect by detecting current leakage to earth.
Protective relay is shown in Figure 6.2.
6020 Figure 6.2 Protective relay
Final Draft 6-4

6.2.1.2 Transformer
A transformer is the most important component in substations. Transformers receive electrical
power at high voltage and transform it to lower service voltage. They also provide isolation
between high voltage and low voltage supply.
6025 Cooling system for oil-immersed transformer: Oil serves as direct cooling medium to disperse
the heat that is generated from windings and core. The oil is in turn cooled by indirect cooling
medium such as air at the oil radiator.
Cooling system for dry transformer: Utilize surrounding air or SF6 as cooling medium.
Transformer Efficiency: The efficiency of a transformer varies between 96% and 99%. The
6030 efficiency of transformer not only depends on design, but also on operating load. The
transformer losses are mainly attributed to:
Constant Loss: This is also called iron loss or core loss, which mainly depends upon
the material of the core and magnetic circuit of the flux path. Hysteresis and eddy
current loss are two components of constant loss.
6035 Variable Loss: This is also called load loss or copper loss, which varies with the
square of the load current.
The best efficiency of a transformer occurs at a load when constant loss and variable loss are
equal. For distribution transformers, installed in an STP, the best efficiency would occur around
50% load.
6040 O&M checks to be made are as follows:
Check connections of cables for looseness and overheating.
Check the transformer for abnormal vibration and noise.
Check oil and winding temperature regularly with respect to manufacturers manual.
Check for moisture ingress by observing the colour of the silica gel.
6045 Check for level of oil in the conservator.
Transformer is shown Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 Transformer

6.2.1.3 Low Tension (LT) Panel
6050 LT panels or LT switchboards are designed to distribute stepped-down voltage to power
equipment and control panels. They typically consist of moulded case circuit breakers (MCCBs),
power contactors (PCs), protective relays (PRs), meters, indication lamps, control switches, etc.
a. Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
Final Draft 6-5

An MCCB is designed to open/close low voltage feeder circuit or branch circuit

6055 at normal condition. It also breaks the circuit automatically in case of abnormal
condition such as overload, short circuit, etc.
b. Power Contactor
A power contactor is typically used for on / off control of motors. A relay can be
installed on the circuit for overload protection. Electromagnetic force works to
6060 open /close the contacts.
O&M checks to be made:
Check for abnormal noise or overheating of exciting coils, abnormal noise and
discolouration of contacts (carbonized or worn contact surfaces by arcing).
Check for the proper working of all display indicators like voltmeters, ammeters,
6065 energy meters, indicator lamps.
Check whether the name of the panel is written on it and it is correct as per the
single line diagram.
Check for the proper earthing of the panels.
6.2.1.4 Bus-bar
6070 Bus-bars are conductors to carry power among the various components in the power circuit in
an outdoor station or distribution board. They are to be rated to carry the maximum rated current
continuously and also short-circuit current for a short time without damage.
O&M issues to be cared for:
Check connections for looseness and overheating, and check the bus bar for
6075 discolouration.
Check that the bus bars are properly colour coded (Red, Yellow or Blue) to
represent the phases.
Check that the bus bars are properly enclosed within panels.
6.2.2 Power Control
6080 Correcting power factor is a typical power control technique. Power factor correction is
described in this section.
6.2.2.1 Power Factor Correction
Active power, measured in kilowatt (kW), is the real power (shaft power, true power) used by a
load to perform a certain task. However, there are certain loads like motors, which require
6085 another form of power called reactive power (kVAR) to establish the magnetic field. Although
reactive power is virtual, it actually determines the load (demand) on an electrical system.
Electrical capacity required for some electrical equipment is referred to as apparent power
(KVA), that is, the vector sum of active power and reactive power (lagging/leading).
Most of the power machineries in STPs are driven by three-phase induction motors, which are
6090 inductive loads. When an inductive load is driven, the sine wave of the load current flows at the
same frequency as the sine wave of the voltage, but lags the voltage wave cycle slightly. When
both current and voltage source waves cross zero and maximum value at the same time, the
power factor is said to be unity, and the entire power can be utilised as real power. The
Apparent Power-KVA is equal to the real Power-KW. When the current wave is slightly
6095 lagging the voltage wave the power factor is said to be lagging and is less than unity. The real
power is less than the apparent power due to this lag. A lagging power factor is not beneficial to
a power consumer as the billing is made based on the KVA used, while the actual utilisation is
Final Draft 6-6
less. It is also not beneficial for the power supplier whose system power factor is also affected.
Equipment used in most industries such as drives, controllers, etc., are inductive loads which
6100 lower the power factor.
The power factor is the ratio between active power (kW) and total power (kVA), or the cosine of
the angle between active and total power. A high reactive power, will increase this angle and as
a result the power factor will be lower.
Active power
Power Factor
Total power
kW
(6.1)
kVA
cos
Active Power (kW)

Reactive Power (kVAR)
Total or Real Power
(kVA)
6105
Figure 6.4 Vector diagram of power factor

In a typical STP since a large number of Induction Motors are used, the Power factor will be
low and needs to be improved or corrected. The power factor can be improved by installing
6110 power factor correction capacitors to the plants power distribution system. They act as reactive
power generators and therefore reduce the amount of reactive power, and thus the total power,
generated by the utilities. To improve or correct the power factor, apparent electrical capacity
required for the electrical equipment should be decreased by cancelling the lagging reactive
power by the use of leading reactive power unit. That can also reduce energy loss in cables,
6115 transformers, etc., before reaching to load equipment.
Rating of capacitor to be required for power factor correction (Figure 6.5) can be calculated by
the following vector equation.
Qc P tan 2 tan 1
1 - cos 2 1 - cos 2 2 (6.2)

kVA
1
P -
cos 1 cos 2
Where, Qc : Capacitor rating in kVAR
Final Draft 6-7

6120
Where, S1 : Apparent power (kVA) = P jQ1 (Before correction)
S2 : Apparent power (kVA) = P jQ2 (After correction)
P : Active power (kW)
Q1 : Lagging reactive power (kvar) (Before correction)
6125 Q2 : Lagging reactive power (kvar) (After correction)
Qc : Capacity of condenser (Advancing reactive power) (kVA)
cos1 : Power factor before correction
cos2 : Power factor after correction
Figure 6.5 Vector diagram of power factor control
6130 6.2.2.2 Capacitor Panel
Capacitor panels consist of some equipment such as condensers for power factor correction,
series reactors meters, relays, etc.
6.2.2.2.1 Condenser (Capacitor)
Induction motors which are inductive loads generate lagged-phase reactive power.
6135 Phase-advanced condensers (capacitor) have the function of compensating the lagged-phase
reactive power to improve power factor.
The effects gained from the condensers vary according to the points to be installed. For example,
it is effective to install a condenser on the secondary side of a transformer if reduction in load
and loss of the transformer is targeted.
6140 With regard to operation and maintenance, the capacitors reactive power acts during light load
(when power equipment has stopped), and when the current leads the voltage in the circuit so
that leading power factor occurs, and the terminal voltage of the load increases causing adverse
effects on the equipment. To prevent this phenomenon, the capacitor may need to be isolated, or
an automatic power factor regulator may need to be installed.
6145 Normally a capacitor unit comprises of individual capacitor elements arranged in parallel/ series
connected groups within a steel enclosure. An internal discharge device is a resistor that reduces
the unit residual voltage to 50V or less in 5 minutes. Capacitor units are available in a variety of
voltage ratings from 240 V to 66,000 volts and sizes (2.5 kvar to about 1,000 kvar).
The capacitors can be with external fuses or internal fuses, or both. An internal fuse is a small
Final Draft 6-8

6150 fuse wire connected to each capacitor element, encapsulated in a wrapper. When a fault occurs
in a particular element, the particular fuse melts, disconnecting the affected element only, and
permitting the other elements to function without interruption. An external fuse unit typically
protects each capacitor unit in a bank. In an oil-impregnated capacitor, the internal pressure may
increase resulting in expansion due to excessive current because of the failure of internal
6155 elements. This leads to leakage of oil from the capacitor unit and failure of the capacitor. Care
should be taken to select capacitors with sufficient cooling volume.
When a capacitor circuit is switched on, there is an inrush current which is likely to damage the
capacitor. A choke or series reactor is used to control the inrush current.
6.2.2.2.2 Series Reactor
6160 The major functions of a series reactor are to protect capacitor by means of the following:
Limiting inrush current during switching
Limiting resonance and protection of capacitor banks
Harmonic filtration
Lower loss and noise level
6165 6.2.2.3 Power Factor Correction at Motor Panel
Power factor can be increased by installing low voltage capacitor in parallel with the motor.
This enables the current to be reduced. Moreover, distortion waveform can also be stabilized by
connecting a series reactor.
6.2.3 Supply and Interruption (Operation of Electrical Equipment)
6170 Power interruption is classified into two types: a scheduled power interruption and an
unscheduled power interruption.
The former requires specific operational procedure before interrupting the power supply, which
is to open the switches from the load side (power distribution panel) to the power source
(power receiving panel) sequentially. To restart power supply, close the switches from the
6175 power source (power receiving panel) to the load side (power distribution panel) one by one.
Make sure that the personnel in charge of the interruption/ restart operation know thoroughly the
configuration of the machinery, the operational characteristics, the operational procedures, the
place or position of switches installed, the electrical scheme diagram, and the load circuit
diagram to avoid incorrect procedures.
6180 During the work of starting, operating and stopping the load equipment, pay attention to meter
readings, vibration, heat, and sound of equipment. If some abnormal state is found, report to the
related person in charge immediately, investigate the causes and take appropriate measures.
In the latter case, investigate the cause of the power failure first of all. Power failures can be
caused by the following: some failure attributed to the power company (outside power
6185 suppliers) and some local fault in the STP. To identify the causes, read indicated values or signs
on the incoming supply voltmeter, under-voltage relay, earth fault relay, over current relay, etc.
Judgement by incoming supply voltmeter or under-voltage meter
If the receiving voltmeter indicates 0 and the under voltage relay is tripped,
it implies that power is interrupted on the power source side (attributed to power
6190 company). After confirming that the receiving circuit breaker is opened, the
contact person or authority prescribed by the power company should be asked
about the causes and the estimated recovery time. However, the related
substation should try to restore power at the earliest.
Final Draft 6-9

If the reading of the receiving voltmeter is within a specified range, the under
6195 voltage relay is untripped and the earth fault relay or the over current relay is
tripped, that implies some failure (overload, short, earth fault, etc, in
equipment or lines) has occurred in the STP and the circuit breaker for receiving
power is opened. By studying the protective relay, circuit breakers, etc.,
which were tripped or opened, identify the line with fault and isolate the broken
6200 down point immediately before recovering from the failure.
6.2.4 Gas Engines
Generally, digester gas is used as fuel in boilers for heating sludge digestion tanks; surplus gas
is incinerated in biogas combustion units and discharged to the atmosphere. (Figure 6.6)
A sewage gas generator uses the sewage gas as fuel to a gas engine and generates electricity,
6205 which is supplied to equipment within a STP.
The digester gas engine consumes gas as fuel and employs spark-ignition method, which is the
same as one used in car engines.
Figure 6.6 Example of flow of power generated from digester gas

6210 O&M issues to be noted for are as follows:
Typical concentration of NOx in exhausted gas from digestion gas engines is about
2,000 ppm. NOx should be reduced to prevent air pollution.
Replace the ignition plugs in the spark-ignition system periodically.
Periodic opening up, cleaning and inspection of a digestion gas engine is extremely
6215 important because siloxane compound gets deposited in the combustion chamber of
such an engine, which causes faults in engine parts.
6.2.5 Dual Fuel Engine
Dual-fuel (gas-diesel) engines are compression-ignition, not spark-ignition engines. To ignite,
they simultaneously burn gas and a small amount of diesel fuel as pilot fuel. Their controls also
6220 allow automatic switchover to 100% diesel fuel operation without changing load if the digestion
gas supply is inadequate or is interrupted. This capability is a beneficial feature for standby units
because they can start and operate even during power failures.
Dual-fuel engines typically use 1 to 5% diesel fuel oil, but many can, if necessary, operate on 1
to 100% diesel fuel. Such fuel flexibility is an excellent advantage, especially if the digestion
6225 gas supply is disrupted. This option includes storage and handling equipment for diesel fuel,
Final Draft 6-10

along with gas compressors to supply digester gas to these engines.

The same O&M checks should be made for the diesel engine and the gas engine. Please refer to
6.3.2 and 6.2.4.
6.3 Standby Power Supply System (Generator)
6230 Standby or emergency power can be supplied through AC generator and diesel engine.
Most generators of STPs are installed for the purpose of standby power supply. Therefore, they
should be highly reliable because the STPs have to keep functioning without hindrance even in
the event of unexpected power cut from the power company.
6.3.1 AC Generator
6235 A generator is machinery that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy by
electromagnetic action to generate electrical power.
Synchronous generator, the principle of which is reverse as that of an electric motor, is an AC
generator which generates electric power synchronizing to rotating rate of magnetic field
passing through armature windings.
6240 Frequency of the synchronous generator is determined according to the rate of rotation, and
accordingly, the frequency decreases as the rate of rotation becomes lower than the synchronous
rate. Therefore, the rate of the engine for the synchronous generator should be regulated to
maintain the level of synchronous rate.
O&M issues to be taken care of are as follows:
6245 Winding
Oil or dust on windings or air vent sleeves obstructs air ventilation and leads to
overheating of the generator and deterioration of insulators which may cause
short circuit and ground fault. The dust should be blown off by a compressed air
and the oil and grease should be removed with cloth, cleansing oil, etc.
6250 In the case of severe accumulation of oil and dust, it is recommended to have the
winding cleaned and varnished with insulation paint after drying thoroughly, by a
professional cleaning company.
Inspect insulation coating over terminals should be checked for overheat or
discolouration due to cracks or slacks.
6255 Bearing
Pay full attention to any abnormal noise from bearings during running to detect
any defect at early stage. It is the simplest way to check bearing conditions.
Grease should be supplied periodically while the generator is running through the
openings for grease. If a drain valve is provided to the grease chamber, always
6260 open the valve during filling grease to purge out old grease.
Brush (Static excitation system)
Worn brush reduces brush pressure and causes sparks that may make the surface
of a slip ring rough. To prevent it, always check for abrasion, unsymmetrical wear
or damage to brush, and pressure of the brush holder. The brush lifting device
6265 should be inspected to ensure that it works properly.
Brushes should be replaced with new ones when the wear level reaches the
designated value. The newly installed brushes should preferably be of the same
material and shape as the currently used ones.
Final Draft 6-11
Exciter (brushless)
6270 Exciters hate moisture and dust. Dust should be blown off by low pressure
compressor and wiped with dry cloth.
Check bolts and nuts on terminal area and terminal block for looseness, wires for
discolouration, and conditions of earthing and installation.
6.3.2 Diesel Engine
6275 Diesel engines are generally used as drives for back-up power generators. .
The diesel engine works by the action of high-speed diesel combustion which pushes out
pistons by the expansion based on self-ignition. The compressed air is hot enough to self ignite
when diesel fuel is injected. Piston action caused by the energy is converted in the crank shaft to
rotating energy, which drives the generator. High speed diesel is typically used as fuel.
6280 O&M issues to be handled as follows:
For details of maintenance and inspections, follow the manufacturers manual.
Regularly check the fault alarm to ensure it works properly.
During inspection and maintenance, take care not to allow dust contamination
especially into fuel or lubrication system.
6285 Check wiring for loose connection and check piping for leakage.
Do not place anything around an inlet port that obstructs suction.
Pay attention to abnormal noise and overheat.
Where it is necessary to store diesel for such engines, mandatory precautions
regarding storage area fire protection, clearances, etc., should be followed.
6290 Appropriate clearance from the jurisdictional authorities on pollution control and
inflammable fuel storage should be obtained.
6.3.3 UPS
UPS stands for Uninterruptible Power Supply and is a power supply device which works when
the usual power source is interrupted. Typical UPS circuit is shown below. (Figure 6.7 )
Final Draft 6-12

6295
Figure 6.7 UPS circuit
In the normal condition, commercial AC (alternating current) power is sourced and converted to
DC (direct current), which is then supplied to an inverter, and charges a battery.
When the commercial power source is interrupted, power charged in the battery is converted to
6300 AC and supplied to the load.
The UPS has a rectifier to convert AC supply to DC for charging the battery, a DC to AC
inverter to convert the battery output to AC voltage, and a battery to act as a source of power
during normal power interruption. Other components like protection, fuses, indication, surge
controlling circuit etc., are also built into the unit.
6305 The following points should be checked as maintenance tasks:
Check for abnormal noise, smell, and heat in UPS.
Check for looseness in each connection.
Check appropriate time for battery replacement.
Check for clogged ventilation opening.
6310 Ensure spare fuses are kept in stock.
6.4 Prime Movers
6.4.1 Induction Motor
Three-phase induction motor is widely used as a general-purpose motor due to high reliability
and low price among driving forces for general industrial machinery. Most prime movers used
6315 for pumps or blowers in STPs are three-phase induction motors.
A three-phase induction motor rotates the rotor by a rotating electromagnetic field, which is
generated in the stator core by AC current flowing in the stator winding.
Rotating speed of the revolving magnetic field is referred to as synchronous speed and
expressed as Ns (rpm). The speed of the rotor itself is slightly lower which is expressed as N
6320 (rpm). The ratio of Ns to the differential speed (Ns/N) is referred to slip.
Final Draft 6-13

N s 120f / p (rpm)
N 1 s N (rpm) (6.3)
s N s N / N s
Where, f : Frequency (Hz)
p : Number of magnetic poles
s : Slip
6325 6.4.2 Starters
An extremely large current of about five to eight times the rated current flows when a motor is
started. The power factor is at an extremely low value of about 0.2 at the start. The duration of
the starting current is short, but the motor winding coil is subjected to thermal stress load as
Joule heat. Voltage fluctuation occurs in the power system and its effect becomes more
6330 pronounced.
The starting method of three-phase induction motor includes a method of restricting current at
start as mentioned above, and other methods described below.
a. Direct-on-line Starter
Power supply voltage is applied as-is, and a starting current which is several times
6335 the rated current flows. This starter is used in motors requiring comparatively small
starting currents.
b. Star Delta Starter
1/3 of power supply voltage is applied on the Y (star) connection winding at start,
while (delta) connection is used during operation. Compared to the full voltage
6340 starter, the starting current is one third and the starting torque is also one third.
c. Reactor Starter
The voltage to be applied to the motor at start is reduced by the reactor and full
voltage is applied after the motor picks up speed, and is operated. The starting
current can be restricted to a smaller value compared to the Y- starting method.
6345 Another starting method is to use a starting compensator.
Figure 6.8 shows the circuit diagram of some of the starting methods.
Final Draft 6-14

Figure 6.8 Starters

6.4.3 Characteristics of Induction Motor
6350 Theoretical analysis should be carried out to study torque characteristics and overheating of
three-phase induction motor due to fluctuation in frequency and variation in voltage of the
motor.
Equation for induced electromotive force:
E K n m f (6.4)
6355 Where, E : Induced electromotive force (V)
n : Number of active coils
m : Maximum magnetic flux (wb)
f : Frequency (Hz)
K : Factor of proportionality ( 2 4.44)
6360 Torque equation:
T K' V 2 / f (6.5)
Where, T : Torque (Nm)
V : Voltage of power source (V)
f : Frequency (Hz)
6365 K` : Factor of proportionality
a. When power supply voltage is greater than the rated voltage
According to the equation for induced electromotive force, the frequency is
constant, therefore the maximum magnetic flux m increases, and the
over-excitation phenomenon occurs. Heat is generated because of this excitation
Final Draft 6-15
6370 current. In a submersible pump, when a thermal protector is built-in in the internal
coil for protection, it may activate.
b. When power supply voltage is smaller than the rated voltage
According to the torque equation, when the frequency is constant, the power supply
voltage V reduces, so the torque reduces.
6375 c. When the power supply voltage is unbalanced
When the power supply voltage is unbalanced, reverse phase current flows, and the
temperature increases because of load loss in the coil resistance.
d. When the frequency f is higher than the rated frequency
According to the torque equation, when the power supply voltage is constant, the
6380 torque reduces.
e. When the frequency f is lower than the rated frequency
When the power supply voltage is constant, the maximum magnetic flux m
increases, and heat is generated because of the excitation current. According to the
torque equation, when the power supply voltage is constant, the torque increases.
6385 6.4.4 Performance Assessment of Motors
6.4.4.1 Efficiency of Motors
The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that can be reduced only by changes
in motor design and operating condition. Losses can vary from approximately two percent to 20
percent. The following shows the types of losses and their typical shares for an induction motor.
6390 Table 6.1 Type of losses and shares for induction motors
Type of loss Percentage of total loss (100%)
Fixed loss or core loss 25
Variable loss: stator I2R loss 34
Variable loss: rotor I2R loss 21
Friction & rewinding loss 15
Stray load loss 5
The efficiency of a motor can be defined as the ratio of a motors useful power output to its
total power output.Factors that influence motor efficiency include:
Age - New motors are more efficient
Capacity - As with most equipment, motor efficiency increases with the rated
6395 capacity
Speed - Higher speed motors are usually more efficient
Type - For example, squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring
motors
Temperature - Totally-enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient than
6400 screen protected drip-proof (SPDP) motors
Rewinding of motors can result in reduced efficiency
Load, as described below
There is a clear link between the motors efficiency and the load. Manufacturers
design motors to operate at a 50-100% load and to be most efficient at a 75% load.
6405 But once the load drops below 50% the efficiency decreases rapidly as shown in
Final Draft 6-16
Figure 6.9. Operating motors below 50% of rated loads has a similar, but less
significant, impact on the power factor. High motor efficiencies and power factor
close to 1 are desirable for efficient operation and for reducing costs down of the
entire plant and not just the motor.
6410
Figure 6.9 Motor part load efficiency
6.4.4.2 Motor Load
Because the efficiency of a motor is difficult to assess under normal operating conditions, the
motor load can be measured as an indicator of the motors efficiency. As loading increases, the
6415 power factor and the motor efficiency increase to an optimum value at around full load. It is
necessary to see the %loading of the motor. If the motor runs at more than 70% load, then the
power factor and efficiency will be good.
6.4.4.3 Energy Efficiency Opportunities
Apart from operational point of view, the motors should be seen from energy efficiency
6420 opportunities also. The following points may be considered :
a. Replace standard motors with energy efficient motors.
b. Reduce under-loading.
c. Avoid over-sized motors.
d. Improve power quality.
6425 e. Dont go for multiple time rewinding.
f. Improving maintenance practices.
6.4.5 Condition Monitoring Techniques
6.4.5.1 Vibration Monitoring
Vibration in rotating machinery is caused by many reasons like unbalance, misalignment, loose
Final Draft 6-17

6430 foundation, mechanical looseness, bearing damage etc. Vibration monitoring is the most
common, versatile and powerful condition monitoring technique adopted in rotating machinery
to idetify problem areas. The severity of the vibration is specified by IS 2372 which is measured
with reference to class of machine. The criteria for class of machine are given below:
Table 6.2 Criteria for class of machine
Class- I Individual parts of engines and machines integrally connected with the
complete machine in its normal operating condition. (Electrical drives up to
15 KW are typical examples of machines in this category)
Class- II Medium sized machines (typically electrical motors with 15 to 75 KW
output) without special foundation, rigidly mounted engines or machines
(up to 300 KW) on special foundations.
Class- III Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating mass mounted
on rigid and heavy foundations which are relatively stiff in the direction of
vibration measurement.
Class- IV Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating masses mounted
on foundations which are relatively soft in the direction of vibration
measurement (such as turbo-generator sets, especially those with
light-weight structures)
Class- V Machines and mechanical drive systems with un-balanceable inertia efforts
(due to reciprocating parts), mounted on foundations which are relatively
stiff in the direction of vibration measurement.
6435 With above class of machine, the vibration severity can be judged by the following guidelines:
Table 6.3 Vibration severity chart for machine vibration limits
Range for Example of Quality Judgment for Separate Classes of Machines
Vibration
Severity in
Velocity
(mm/sec)
Peak RMS Class -I Class -II Class -III Class -IV
0.40 0.28
0.64 0.45 Good
1.0 0.71 Good
1.58 1.12 Normal Good
2.5 1.8 Good
Normal
4.0 2.8 Still Acceptable Normal
6.4 4.5 Still Acceptable
10.0 7.1 Still Acceptable Normal
15.8 11.2 Unacceptable Still
25.0 18.0 Unacceptable Unacceptable Acceptable
40.0 28.0 Unacceptable
64.0 45.0
6.4.5.2 Vibration Analysis
If the measured vibration level is more than the acceptable level, then it calls for vibration
analysis which is a captured time waveform plotted as amplitude versus time, or data can be
6440 transformed using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) and expressed as amplitude versus frequency.
Any random vibration signal can be represented by a series (a Fourier series) of individual sine
and cosine functions that can be summed to yield an overall vibration level. The amplitude of
this vibration signal defines the severity of the problem. Plotting the amplitude versus the
frequency (the Fourier spectrum) allows for identification of discrete frequencies contributing
6445 most to the overall vibration signal, commonly referred to as a signature analysis or a
frequency spectrum. Machine looseness, misalignment, imbalance, and soft foot conditions
are all fairly easily identified in the frequency spectrum generated by an analyzer.
Final Draft 6-18
The guidelines for vibration frequency and its likely cause are shown below.
Table 6.4 Vibration frequencies and likely causes
Frequency in
Most Likely Causes Other Possible Causes & Remarks
terms of RPM
1xRPM Unbalance Misalignment (if high axial vibration)
Bad belts if RPM of belt
Resonance
Reciprocating Forces
Electrical Problem
2xRPM Mechanical Looseness Misalignment (if high axial vibration)
Bad belts if 2 x RPM of belt
Resonance
Reciprocating Forces
Electrical Problem
3xRPM Misalignment
Usually a combination of misalignment and
excessive axial clearance (Looseness)
Less Than Oil Whirl (Less than of Bad drive belts
RPM) Background vibration
Sub-harmonic resonance
AC Line Freq. Electrical Problem Common Electrical Problems
Many Times Bad Gears Gear teeth times RPM of bad Gear
RPM Aerodynamic Forces No. of fan blades time RPM
(Harmonically Hydraulic Forces No. of impeller vane times RPM
related) Mechanical Looseness May occur at 2,3,4 and sometimes higher
Reciprocating Forces harmonics if severe looseness
High Frequency Bad antifriction Bearings Bearing vibration may be unsteady amplitude
(Not and frequency
Harmonically Cavitation, recirculation and flow turbulence
related) cause random and high frequency vibration
Rubbing
6450 The vibration monitoring and analysis should be done periodically, typically once in 6 months
for all rotating equipment.
6.4.5.3 Thermographic Analysis
Commonly identified with electrical equipment monitoring, thermography is also a useful tool
for monitoring plant machinery. Thermography measures infrared radiation energy emissions
6455 (surface temperatures) to detect anomalies. Infrared cameras have resolution to within 0.1 C
and digitally store captured images. Both the absolute and relative temperatures can be obtained
on virtually all types of electrical equipment, including switchgear, connections, distribution
lines, transformers motors, generators, and buswork.
This technique is very popular because of the following reasons:
6460 It is a non-contact type technique.
Fast, reliable & accurate output.
A large surface area can be scanned in no time.
It can be easily scanned from a distance up to 50 meter.
Presented in visual & digital form.
6465 Software back-up for image processing and analysis.
Requires very little skill for monitoring.
Final Draft 6-19
This technique can be very well used for seeing the loose contact, corrosive contact of all types
of electrical joints, body temperature of motor and transformers, panels, etc. The following
criteria may be used to know the severity of the problem.
6470 Table 6.5 Criteria for differential temperature of electrical equipment
Criteria
SL Criticality Recommended Action
(Differential temperature Condition
above ambient)
1 Up to 10 C Non-critical No action is needed.
2 Between 10C to 20C Less critical Regular monitoring is needed.
3 Between 20C to 40C Semi critical Close monitoring needed.
Should be attended in the next opportunity.
4 Above 40C Critical Should be attended immediately as per the
severity.
Few typical thermal images captured in thermography analysis (Figure 6.10):
Hot-spot in a Transformer Hot-spots in a 11KV cable

Hot-spot in LT cable joints
Bushing terminal
Choked fins of a Transformer

Overheating of a Bearing Loose Contact of a MCC Panel
Radiator
Figure 6.10 Thermographic measurement
6.4.6 Speed Control Equipment
The following five types of ASDs (Adjustable Speed Device) are available.
6475 VFD: Electronic devices to control the speed of the motor by controlling the
frequency of the voltage at the motor.
Direct current ASDs: Electronic devices to control direct-current motors by
changing the voltage applied to the motor.
Eddy-current drives: Electrical devices that use an electro-magnetic coil on one side
6480 of coupling to induce a magnetic field across a gap, creating an adjustable coupling.
Hydraulic Drives: Devices that operate much like an automotive hydraulic
transmission.
Final Draft 6-20
Mechanical speed-control products including gearing, mechanical transmissions,

and belt drivers with variable-pitch pulleys can be used.
6485 6.4.6.1 Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
VFD varies the revolving speed of an induction motor freely by changing the power supply
frequency and the power supply voltage. Although a power transistor is used for the main circuit
and IC, and a microcomputer is for the control circuit of VFD, further advanced controlling
technology has been applied due to improved semiconductor devices in recent years. Moreover,
6490 generally, VFD is also called inverter control equipment or variable voltage variable frequency
(VVVF) equipment.
The fundamental configuration is shown in the following Figure 6.11.
Figure 6.11 VFD

6495 After changing an alternating power source into direct current in a converter part and making it
smooth, transform the direct current inversely to variable frequency alternating current at an
inverter part.
6.4.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of VFD
(Advantage)
6500 Variable speed continuous operation over a wide range is possible.
Energy-saving possibility exists.
Brush, slip ring and so on, used in induction motor are not required.
Soft start and soft stop are enabled, extending the motor life.
Settings for acceleration timing and deceleration timing can be adjusted.
6505 Starting current can be reduced.
(Disadvantage)
Harmonic protection measures are necessary since high frequency current is
generated.
Generation of leakage current and noise due to high frequencies need to be
6510 restricted.
Noise prevention for other equipment (especially measuring instruments) is
necessary.
Final Draft 6-21

(Energy conservation effects)

One of the pump characteristics is that its load torque is proportional to the square of its
6515 revolving speed, and this torque is called square reduction torque load.
Relationship between speed of revolution N (rpm) and flow rate Q (m3/sec.)
Flow rate is proportional to the speed of revolution. QN
Relationship between speed of revolution N (rpm) and head H (m)
Head is proportional to the square of speed of revolution. HN2
6520 Relationship between speed of revolution N (rpm) and power P (kW)
Power is proportional to the cube of speed of revolution. PN3
Relationship between speed of revolution N (rpm) and torque T (N-m)
Torque is proportional to the square of speed of revolution. TN2
6.4.7 Motor Protection Equipment
6525 Protection equipment for three-phase induction motors includes the following:
Circuit breaker
It has overload and short circuit protection functions. The former is a thermal
function and has on-delay characteristics, while the latter is an electromagnetic
function and has instantaneous characteristics.
6530 Thermal relay
Changes bimetal with Joule heat of overload current, opens or closes the contact,
and performs on-delay operation.
Comprehensive motor protection relay
This unit measures the current from all the three phases and checks for single
6535 phase, unbalance, overload. The measurement and comparison of these three
factors provide short circuit, single-phase, earth fault, phase sequence and thermal
protection to the motors.
Dry-run protection
In addition dry-run protection is also provided by water level sensors in the sump
6540 which sense any low level of water and prevent dry running, thereby protecting the
pump and motor.
6.5 Instrumentation Facilities
6.5.1 Flow Measuring Equipment
Please refer to Chapter 3 for flow measuring equipment.
6545 6.5.2 Level Measuring Equipment
6.5.2.1 Float
A float device measures a liquid level from above. Floats, one of the oldest and simplest
methods of level measurement, are used extensively in wet wells or sludge vaults that require a
discrete high- or low-level indication. They are also used for local indication of level in tanks
6550 and open channels. (Figure 6.12 and Figure 6.13)
Final Draft 6-22

Source: WEF, 2010
Figure 6.12 Counterweighted float-level indicator
Figure 6.13 Float switches

A float level meter shown in Figure 6.12 senses water level through a slide rheostat as resistance
and converts the changed resistance into current. It transmits analog output signal (DC 4 mA to
20 mA) proportional to the water level and sends the signal representing the water level
6560 continuously to the monitoring room.
O&M issues to be cared for are as follows:
Clean inside the stilling well regularly and keep it free from floating matter or scum
to prevent malfunctions.
Check moving parts such as a counter weight, pulley and wires for corrosion or
6565 damage.
A level switch shown in Figure 6.13 is used to control pump and to issue alarms according to
water level. The signals from the level switch are on/off digital signals, which compromise a
sequence circuit. Float switches should be located away from the tank walls to prevent the floats
from banging against the concrete wall and internal contacts from failures.
6570 6.5.2.2 Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic level measuring device installed above the liquid surface measures the level by
generating a pulse of ultrasonic waves that bounce off the liquid surface. The instrument detects
the echo, calculates the echos travel time, and converts it to a level measurement (Figure 6.14)
Final Draft 6-23

Figure 6.14 Acoustic level-sensor installation

Specifically, the relation between distance from sonic transmitter/ receiver to the liquid surface
and the reaching time is expressed in the following formula:
1
H c t (6.6)
2
6580 Where, H : Distance from transmitter/ receiver to liquid surface (m)
c : Sonic velocity in air= 331.5 + 0.61 temperature in Celsius (m/s)
t : Time from transmission to receiving (sec)
O&M issues to be taken care of are as follows:
Ultrasonic level meters require little daily maintenance because they have no
6585 moving parts and work without contacting measuring objects. However the junction
boxes have to be regularly checked for any water ingress.
Keep clear the area around transmitter / receiver.
Keep liquid surface without scum, foam, wave, etc. Normally a perforated guard
pipe protects the sensor from any turbulence and floating matter in the water. This
6590 may need to be checked regularly.
6.5.2.3 Head-Pressure
Head pressure level measuring devices, bubbler tubes and diaphragm bulbs measure the head
pressure at the liquid level and are often used in open-channels or non-pressurized tank
applications.
6595 6.5.2.3.1 Bubbler Tube System
The bubbler tube system uses a small, regulated airflow that constantly bubbles into the liquid.
Because the airflow is small, the system produces a back pressure equal to the static head of the
liquid. A conventional pressure gauge or transmitter measures this back pressure as the height of
an equivalent water column. (Figure 6.15)
6600 Corrections are required when the liquid's specific gravity differs significantly from water.
Because air is constantly bubbling out of the bubbler tube, the system is typically self-purging.
Valves may be arranged to isolate the pressure-measuring device while providing high purge
flow through the tube for preventive maintenance blow-down if fouling occurs. Stilling wells
are often used to protect the bubbler tube from turbulence and damage. To protect pneumatic
Final Draft 6-24

6605 instruments and regulators, operators should clean the air supply of excessive moisture and oils.
Source: WEF, 2010
Figure 6.15 Schematic of bubbler-level system

When bubbles are discharged into the liquid from the front end of pipe, the pressure within the
6610 pipe becomes equal to the static pressure of liquid at the front end of the pipe. This pressure is
proportional to the liquid height h. The calculation is expressed as given below.
h P / ( m) (6.7)
Where, h : Water level from tube end (m)
P : Internal pressure of tube (Pa)
6615 : Specific gravity of liquid (kg/m3)
Precautions for operation and maintenance are as given below.
The bubble type liquid level gauge does not have moving parts or mechanisms, so it has
comparatively high accuracy. Moreover, it is suited to level gauges for corrosive liquids.
However, daily maintenance of air sources such as compressor, purging set, and air piping is
6620 very important.
6.5.2.3.2 Diaphragm Bulb System
The diaphragm bulb system operates on the principle that air sealed between the dry side of the
diaphragm (in the capillary tube) and the receiver compresses or expands with the movement of
the diaphragm. A change in the static head of the liquid being measured moves the diaphragm,
6625 so the pressure of the trapped air is the same as the head pressure. Temperature changes because
of sunlight or heat build-up, particularly along the capillary tube, can cause measurement errors
as a result of expansion of the trapped air. To reduce the effect of temperature, the capillary can
be filled with a fluid unaffected by operating temperature; however, this often affects the
measurement response time.
6630 The differential pressure from the diaphragm is detected by piezoelectric semiconductor
element. The output signal (4 mA to 20 mA DC) generated by the converter is changed to
analog data in the central monitor and transmitted.
Final Draft 6-25

The calculation equation for level is expressed as below.

H P/ (6.8)
6635 Where, H : Distance from transmitter/ receiver to liquid surface (m)
P : Differential pressure (Pa)
: Density (kg/m3)
The following precautions should be taken related to the use of differential pressure type level
gauge:
6640 The installed position of differential pressure transmitter should be lower than the
minimum liquid level.
When the density of the liquid changes, correction is necessary. (Span adjustment on
the converter side is required.)
If the liquid has pulsing motion, the output of the differential pressure transmitter
6645 may become unstable.
6.5.3 pH and ORP Measuring Equipment
6.5.3.1 pH
pH is a measure of the acidity of a process liquid. Continuous measurements of pH of incoming
sewage are frequently made, particularly in plants where drastic changes in pH (as a result of
6650 industrial discharges) cause treatment problems.
A glass electrode, which is sensitive to hydrogen ion activity, measures the pH of an aqueous
solution (Figure 6.16). The electrode produces a voltage related to hydrogen ion activity and to
pH. The pH is determined by measuring the voltage against a reference electrode. While it is
generally assumed that no other ions seriously affect the pH electrode in an aqueous system,
6655 sodium ions can have an effect. Temperature corrections are also necessary but are typically
done automatically by the meter.
Precautions for operation and maintenance are as given below.
Dirt on the electrode surface should be periodically removed and the surface
cleaned.
6660 Since the electrodes of the pH meter are made of glass, care is necessary to ensure
that they do not break.
Due to long period use of glass electrodes, dirt sticks on them gradually, the zero
point changes, and the electromotive force by pH reduces, and it stops responding to
changes in pH, making replacement necessary.
6665 Standard liquid should be used in the pH meter and it should be calibrated.
Calibration should include zero adjustment (standard liquid with pH7) and span
adjustment (standard liquid of pH4 or pH9).
Final Draft 6-26

Source: WEF, 2010
6670 Figure 6.16 Typical pH sensor

6.5.3.2 ORP (Oxidation-Reduction Potential)
Oxidation-reduction potential is a measure of easily oxidizable or reducible substances in a
sewage sample. An operator can control the process better by knowing if there is a large
quantity of reducing substances (e.g., sulphide and sulphite) that may have an immediate, high
6675 oxygen demand and may result in an inadequate supply of oxygen for the microorganisms in the
secondary process. Although not specific, the ORP measurement is instantaneous (an electrode
is used) and can be used to help maintain dissolved oxygen in the aeration tank. Another
application is to evaluate the progress of digestion and process stability in anaerobic digesters.
6680 Regular cleansing of electrode surface,
Precautions against breaking an ORP electrode, which is made of glass and is fragile,
and
Replacement of the electrode if it is insensitive to changes of potential difference,
because of stains accumulated over a long time usage.
6685 6.5.3.3 DO (Dissolved Oxygen)
A dissolved oxygen meter is an electronic device that converts signals from a probe placed in
the water into units of DO in milligrams per litre. Most meters and probes also measure
temperature. The probe is filled with a salt solution and has a selectively permeable membrane
that allows DO to pass from the stream water into the salt solution. The DO that has diffused
6690 into the salt solution changes the electric potential of the salt solution. T this change is sent by
electric cable to the meter, which converts the signal to milligrams per litre on a scale that
anyone can read.
If DO is a critical analytical parameter, it is recommended to calibrate at 100 percent saturated
air, or use a known dissolved oxygen concentration (determined by the iodometric method) for
6695 the upper limit, and use a zero DO solution (even if it is not explicitly stated in a particular
manufacturers manual) for the lower limit. If the DO meter does not allow for a second
calibration point, the zero DO solution can be used as a check standard when the DO meter is
Final Draft 6-27

set to the measurement mode. The DO meter should read less than 0.5 mg/L (or to the accuracy
of the DO meter). If the DO meter does not read less than 0.5 mg/L, then there may be a
6700 problem with the DO membrane.
If it is determined that the DO membrane needs to be replaced, consult the manufacturers
manual on conditioning the new membrane before use. It is also possible that other maintenance
may need to be performed on the DO meter or the zero DO solution may need to be replaced.
Other factors that affect the accuracy of DO measurements include: improper calibration, not
6705 verifying calibration after use, not correcting for ambient barometric pressure/altitude, and
instrument drift. (Figure 6.17)
Source: M/S YSI. (There are other firms also)
Figure 6.17 Hand held DO meter with probe for field use
6710 Regular cleaning of diaphragms,
Zero calibration and span calibration,
Regular replacement of internal electrode solution, and
Regular cleaning of an electrode and replacement if broken.
6.5.3.4 Temperature
6715 Even though most of the major sewage treatment processes are not temperature-controlled,
many temperature measurements are required. Obvious applications for temperature
measurement are anaerobic digesters, chlorine evaporators, incinerators, and equipment
protection. Less obvious are temperature controls for analyzers and flow meters. Temperature
measurement devices include liquid thermometers, bimetal thermometers, pressure on liquid or
6720 gas expansion bulbs, thermistors, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), infrared detectors,
and crystal window tapes. The RTD is typically used on lower, ambient-range temperatures,
while thermocouples provide better reliability in higher ranges. Also, gas- and liquid-filled
temperature sensors and thermistors are frequently used for equipment-protection and cooling
systems.
6725 For continued accurate service, operators should periodically calibrate the instruments using a
standard temperature measurement device with high accuracy.
6.5.3.4.1 Thermocouple
The thermocouple operates on the principle that current flows in a circuit made of two different
metals when the two electrical junctions between the metals are at different temperatures. The
6730 various combinations of metals used are tabulated in most engineering handbooks, and the
Final Draft 6-28

selection of metals is based on the maximum temperature to be measured. Thermocouples

measure as high as 980C, with an accuracy of 1% of the full scale.
6.5.3.4.2 Resistance Temperature
A resistance temperature detector has a temperature-sensitive element in which electrical
6735 resistance increases repeatedly and predictably with increasing temperature. The sensing
element is typically made of small-diameter platinum, nickel, or copper wire wound on a special
bobbin or otherwise supported in a virtually strain-free configuration. The detector is typically
selected for high accuracy and stability. A common RTD application is the measurement of
bearing and winding temperatures in electrical machinery.
6740 6.5.3.5 MLSS (Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid)
All solids concentration meters use indirect methods (such as optical, ultrasonic, and nuclear).
Indirect methods correlate the solids concentration with a measurable factor. The limitation of
not relating perfectly to the quantity of suspended matter does not seriously affect the analyzers'
ability to produce a repeatable signal of great value in process control.
6745 When a light beam is directed on to liquid containing suspended particulates, the suspended
particulates scatter some of the light. The nephelometer helps observers measure the amount of
light that the particulate matter scatters (Figure 6.18). The amount of scattered light relates
approximately to the amount of particulate matter, particle size, and surface optical properties.
The nephelometer is a photoelectric device that uses an incandescent light source (lamp), which
6750 produces light in wavelengths from blue to red. The light is directed to a liquid and if the liquid
contains particles, some of the light strikes the particles and scatters. By placing a photocell or
light detector at an angle to the light beam rather than directly in front of it, the detector receives
only light scattered by the suspended particulate matter. Most nephelometers have the photo
detector placed at a 90-degree angle to the incandescent light source.
6755
Source: WEF, 2010
Figure 6.18 Nephlometer

6.6 SCADA System
SCADA is an acronym for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. This presents the data as a
6760 viewable and controllable system on the screen of a computer. The data thus collected can be
stored and also analyzed for optimization of the process and for better real time process control.
It assists plant operating personnel by monitoring and announcing abnormal conditions and
failures of equipment. It allows the operators to perform calculations based on the sensor inputs.
Daily, weekly, monthly reports can be prepared using the stored data. It also allows the operator
6765 to know the state of a process and an alarm associated with it. A typical SCADA communication
overview is shown in Figure 6.19.
Final Draft 6-29

Source: Kruger, (there are other makes also available)
Figure 6.19 Typical SCADA communication overview

6770 6.6.1 Monitoring and Control Equipment
For maximum use and effectiveness, signals generated by various sensors and instruments are
transmitted from the sensor to a receiver installed at another location. Often, the sensor output is
transmitted to a control panel or computer system, which allows operators to inspect many
process variables simultaneously.
6775 The three components of a signal-transmission system are the transmitter, receiver, and
transmission medium (the connection between the transmitter and receiver). The transmitter
converts a mechanical or electrical signal from the sensor into a form that the transmission
medium can use. The transmission medium contains the signal and transfers it to the receiver.
The receiver subsequently converts it into a form that the receiving system can use.
6780 6.6.1.1 Signal
6.6.1.1.1 Analog Input Signal
Analog input signal means continuous signal such as process data which is transmitted from a
local transmitter to a central control unit (CCU).
For instance, process variables expressed in physical amount such as opening degree of a sluice
6785 gate (0-100%), sewage flow rate (0- ***m3/hr), and water level in tanks (0-***m) are converted
into electrical quantities. The electrical signals are transmitted to CCU. Standard electronic
transmission systems use 4 to 20 mA DC.
There are several transmission systems. One is to connect directly with the CCU I / O
(Input/Output) device via shielded cables. Another is the so-called a link system with PLC, in
6790 which analog signal is converted to digital signal and is transmitted via coaxial cables or optical
fibres.
6.6.1.1.2 Analog Output Signal
Analog output signal means signals continuously transmitted from CUU to local control
panels or equipment to direct operational amount.
Final Draft 6-30

6795 Electric operated valves and regulating valves for controlling pressure of pipe, and VFD for
controlling frequency of aerators or pumps, etc., are typical examples which are controlled by
analog output signals. More specifically, there are electromagnetic valves and regulating valves
used to control pressure in the piping; there are also aeration blowers or VFD (inverter)
equipment used to control pump rpm.
6800 Standard electronic transmission systems use 4 to 20 mA DC. One of the transmission systems
for analog output signal connects directly to the I/O device of CCU via shielded cables.
6.6.1.1.3 Digital Input Signal
Digital input signal refers to a contact output signal generated and transmitted from local
equipment. For example, answerback signal to express equipment conditions, alarm signal for
6805 abnormal conditions and remote / local switch signal of local control panels are examples of
digital input signal.
Contact signals are electronically converted to an appropriate series of zeros and ones. Link
systems with PLC are widely used for transmitting the signal, with which analog signal is
converted to digital signal and is transmitted via coaxial cables or optical fibres.
6810 6.6.1.1.4 Digital Output Signal
Digital output signal means contact output signal expressed 1 / 0 transmitted from CCU to an
auxiliary relay on the control centre panel. For example, on/off signal for equipment is
regarded as digital output signal. Link systems with PLC are widely applied for transmitting the
signal, with which analog signal is converted to digital signal and is transmitted via coaxial
6815 cables or optical fibres.
6.6.1.2 HMI (Human Machine Interface)
Basically the PLC is a blind device. It does not have any provision of displaying the plant status
to the operator or to enter certain data like set points or manual mode operation. An additional
device is needed for these provisions, to communicate with PLC, which will have a display to
6820 show the status and also the means to enter set points. Such a unit is called Human Machine
Interface (HMI).
There are two basic types of HMI:
Industrial panel mounted type HMI (Figure 6.20)
PC based system in which the computer acts as HMI (Figure 6.21)
6825
Source: JICA, 2011
Figure 6.20 Industrial panel-mounted type HMI
Final Draft 6-31

Figure 6.21 PC based system in which the computer acts as HMI

6830 6.6.1.3 PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
PLC is electronic equipment that senses inputs and takes the decision to change outputs
according to the set rules stored in the memory.
It is primarily an electronic controller, housed in industrial housing, which has logic
programming function and can be an interface to industrial devices.
6835 6.6.2 Automatic Control
Automatic control systems can be categorized according to their control techniques as follows:
Figure 6.22 shows the control system.
Compare process variables with their set-points and
Feedback control
repeat corrective actions until the variables becomes as
desired.
Automatic By predicting influences caused by disturbances, take
Feedforward control actions to reduce the effects. Always combine with
control
feedback control.
Control proceeds according to pre-programmed
Sequence control
sequences.
Figure 6.22 Automatic control system

6840 Instrumentation facilities are established mainly based on feedback control in combination with
feed forward control in most STPs for controlling process variables such as temperature, water
level, pressure, flow rate, etc.
6.7 Cables
The flow of power from transformer to switchgear and from there to starter and to motor and
6845 other related equipment like capacitors are through power cables. Table 6.6 gives information on
various types of cables.
Table 6.6 Types of cables for different voltages
No. Range of voltage Type of cable to be used IS Ref.
1 1-230 v / 3-415 v PVC insulated, PVC Sheathed IS 1554
2 Up to 6.6 kv PVC insulated, PVC Sheathed IS 1554
Final Draft 6-32

No. Range of voltage Type of cable to be used IS Ref.

Paper insulated, lead Sheathed IS 692
11kv XLPE- Cross Linked, Polyethylene insulated, PVC sheathed IS 7098
3
Paper insulated, lead sheathed IS 692
The size of the cable should be so selected that the total drop in voltage, when calculated as the
6850 product of current and the resistance of the cable should not exceed 3%. Values of the resistance
of the cable are available from cable-manufacturers.
The following points should be considered when selecting the size of the cable:
The current carrying capacity should be appropriate for the lowest voltage, the
lowest power factor and the worst condition of installation, that is, duct-condition.
6855 The cable should also be suitable for carrying the short circuit current for the
duration of the fault. The duration of the fault should preferably be restricted to 0.1
sec. by proper relay setting.
Appropriate rating factors should be applied when cables are laid in group (parallel)
and/or laid below ground.
6860 Suitable trenches or racks should be provided for laying cables.
The following O&M tasks should be implemented:
Measure insulation resistance between cables and the earth.
Visually observe deterioration, corrosion, and discolouration.
6.8 Energy Audit
6865 Among all the power consuming components, pumping installations consume a large amount of
energy in STPs. Need for conservation of energy, therefore cannot be over emphasized. All
possible steps need to be identified and adopted to conserve energy and reduce energy cost so
that sewage charges can be kept as low as possible and gap between high cost of sewage
treatment and affordable charge to users can be reduced.
6870 Some adverse scenarios in energy aspects given below are quite common in pumping
installations:
Energy consumption is higher than optimum value due to reduction in efficiency of
pumps.
Operating point of the pump is away from best efficiency point (b.e.p.).
6875 Energy is wasted due to increase in head loss in pumping system, for instance,
clogging of strainer, encrustation in column pipes, and encrustation in pumping
main.
Selection of uneconomical diameter of sluice valve, butterfly valve, reflux valve,
column pipe, and drop pipe, etc., in pumping installations.
6880 Energy wastage due to operation of electrical equipments at low voltage and/or low
power factor.
Such inefficient operation and wastage of energy should be avoided to cut down energy cost. It
is therefore, necessary to identify all such shortcomings and causes which can be achieved by
conducting methodical energy audit.
6885 Strategies as given below should be adopted for the management of energy.
Final Draft 6-33

Conduct thorough and in-depth energy audit covering analysis and evaluation of all
equipment, operations and system components which have bearing on energy
consumption, and identify the scope for reduction in energy cost.
Implement measures for conservation of energy. Energy audit as implied is auditing
6890 of billed energy consumption and how the energy is consumed by various units, and
sub-units in the installation and whether there is any wastage due to poor efficiency,
higher hydraulic or power losses etc., and identification of actions for remedy and
correction.
6.8.1 Frequency of Energy Audit
6895 Frequency of energy audit recommended is as follows.
Large installations: Every year
Medium installations: Every two years
Small installations: Every three years
6.8.2 Scope of Energy Audit
6900 Scope of energy audit and suggested methodology includes following actions, steps and
processes:
a. Conducting in-depth energy audit by systematic process of accounting and
reconciliation between the following:
Actual energy consumption, and
6905 Calculated energy consumption taking into account rated efficiency and power
losses in all energy utilising equipment and power transmission system, such as
conductor, cable, panels, etc.
b. Conducting performance tests of pumps and electrical equipment if the difference
between actual energy consumption and calculated energy consumption is
6910 significant and taking follow up action on conclusions drawn from the tests.
c. Taking up discharge test at rated head if test in b. above is not being taken.
d. Identifying the equipment, operational aspects and characteristics of power supply
causing inefficient operation, wastage of energy, increase in hydraulic or power
losses etc., and evaluating the increase in energy cost or wastage of energy.
6915 e. Identifying solutions and actions necessary to correct shortcomings and lacunas in d.
above and evaluating cost of the solutions.
f. Carrying out economic analysis of costs involved in d. and e. above and drawing
conclusions on whether rectification is economical or otherwise.
g. Checking whether operating point is near the best efficiency point and whether any
6920 improvement is possible.
h. Verification of penalties if any, levied by power supply authorities, such as penalty
for poor power factor, penalty for exceeding contract demand, and so on.
i. Broad review of the following points for future guidance or long term measure:
C-value or f-value of transmission main.
6925 Diameter of transmission main provided
Specified duty point for pump and operating range
Final Draft 6-34

Suitability of pump for the duty conditions and situation in general and
specifically from efficiency aspects.
Suitability of ratings and sizes of motor, cable, transformer and other electrical
6930 appliances for the load.
6.9 Management of Records
Records are the key to an effective maintenance program. Records can remind the operator
when routine operation or maintenance is necessary. They help ensure that schedules are
maintained and needed operation or maintenance are not overlooked or forgotten.
6935 6.9.1 Record of Operation and Maintenance
Records must be permanent, complete, and accurate. Write entries clearly and neatly on data
sheets in ink. A pencil should never be used because notations can smudge or they can be altered
or erased.
Minimum recordkeeping that may be required for operations is listed below and shown in
6940 Appendix 6.1:
a. Operational record: Power receiving and transforming equipment
b. Monthly report: Electric power receiving
c. Ledger: Electrical equipment
6.9.2 Record of Operation and Maintenance and its Utilization
6945 Records are utilized like the following:
Review of operating records can indicate the efficiency of the plant, performance of its
treatment units, past problems, and potential problems.
Records can be used to determine the financial health of the utility, provide the basic data on the
systems property, and prepare monthly and annual reports.
Generally, preventive maintenance can be described as maintenance of equipment or system
before faults occurs. It can be divided into two subgroups:
Planned / Scheduled Maintenance (PM)
Scheduled activities to ensure that an item of equipment is operating correctly and
6955 to therefore avoid any unscheduled breakdown and downtime.
Condition Based Maintenance (CBM)
Activities performed after one or more indicators show that equipment is going to
fail or that equipment performance is deteriorating.
The vast majority of electrical maintenance should be predictive or preventive. This section
6960 focuses exclusively on these activities. There are four cardinal rules to follow in any
maintenance program:
Keep it clean
Dirt build-up on moving parts will cause slow operation, arcing, and subsequent
burning. Moreover, coils can short-circuit. Dirt will always impede airflow and
6965 result in elevated operating temperatures.
Keep it dry
Final Draft 6-35

Electrical equipment always operates best in a dry atmosphere, where corrosion is

eliminated. Moisture-related grounds and short circuits are also eliminated
Keep it tight
6970 Most electrical equipment operate at a high speed or is subjected to vibration.
Keep it frictionless
Any piece of equipment or machinery is designed to operate with minimum friction.
Dirt, corrosion, or excessive torque will often cause excessive friction.
Of the four cardinal rules, none is essentially electrical in nature. The failure of a bearing in a
6975 motor can lead to an ultimate motor winding failure that is electrical, but the root cause of the
failure could have been mechanical.
The goal of any electrical preventive maintenance program is to minimize electrical outages and
ensure continuity of operation.
6.10.1 Types of Planned Maintenance
6980 Maintenance works can be classified as follows according to their inspection intervals. The
results of maintenance can be utilized for preventing possible faults or breakdowns of
equipment in future.
Routine maintenance
Routine maintenance consists of observation for signs of overheating, dirt, loose
6985 parts, noise and any other signs of abnormalities. It will help grasping the state of
electrical equipment.
Periodic maintenance
Regular maintenance includes inspections of electrical conditions such as electric
current, voltage, insulation resistance, ground resistance, etc.
6990 Detailed examination
Examinations should be preprogrammed according to manufacturers
recommendation or legislation. Recommended maintenance tasks for typical
electrical equipment are listed in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7 Recommended maintenance on electrical equipment
Frequency
Equipment
Monthly Quarterly Semi-annual Annual
Panel, Circuit-Breaker, Starter* GI,CL AJ CB,GRT
Transformer Substation* GI GI,RE TO,MR GRT,CL
Motors* GI,CL AL,MR PG
Standby power generator GI CL,AL
Gas engine GI CL,AL
Dual fuel engine GI CL,AL
UPS GI CL
Flow Measuring equipment CB,MR
Level Measuring equipment CL CB,MR
Other Instrumentation CL CB ADL MR
Cables MR
6995 * Details of the maintenance tasks of the marked equipment above are given in Appendix 6.2.
(Legend)
Final Draft 6-36

CL Clean GRT Ground resistance test

MR Megger and record TO Test oil
PG Pressure grease GI General inspection
SG Surface grease AL Add lubricant
RC Remove condensate AJ Adjustment
CB Calibration RE Replenish / Replacement
ADL Add liquid
6.10.2 Inspection Tools

A wide variety of instruments are used to maintain electrical systems. These instruments
measure current, voltage, and resistance. They are used not only for troubleshooting, but for
7000 preventive maintenance as well. These instruments may have either an analog readout, which
uses a pointer and scale, or a digital readout, which gives a numerical reading of the measured
value.
6.10.2.1 Multimeter
A multimeter is used to measure voltage and low levels of current in a live system and
7005 continuity in a switched-off system. There are several types available in the market. They are
designed to be used on energized circuits and care must be exercised when testing. By holding
one lead on ground and the other on a power lead, a user can determine if power is available,
and also can tell if it is AC or DC, the intensity or voltage (1, 10, 220, 480, and so on) by testing
the different leads. A Clamp-on Multimeter can measure larger current typical in a motor.
7010 A digital multimeter and an analog multimeter are shown in Figure 6.23.
Source: HIOKI E.E. CORPORATION
Figure 6.23 Digital multimeter (Left) and Analog multimeter (Right)

Only qualified and authorized persons should work on electric circuits.
7015 Use a multimeter or other circuit tester to determine if the circuit is energized, or if
voltage is off. This should be done after the main switch is turned off to ensure that it
is safe to work inside the electrical panel. Always be aware of the possibility that
even if the unit the users are working on is off, the control circuit may still be
energized if the circuit originates at a different distribution panel.
7020 Check with a multimeter before and during the time the main switch is turned off as
a double check. This procedure ensures that the multimeter is working and that the
users have good continuity to the tester.
Use a circuit tester to measure voltage or current characteristics to a given piece of
equipment for checking whether the circuit is alive or not. Switches can fail and
7025 the only way to ensure that a circuit is dead is to test the circuit.
Final Draft 6-37

In addition to checking for power, a multimeter can be used to test for open circuits,
blown fuses, single phasing of motors, grounds, and has many other uses.
6.10.2.2 Clamp-on Meter
The clamp-on meter measures the current or amps in the circuit (Figure 6.24). It is used by
7030 clamping the meter over only one of the power leads to the motor or other apparatus and taking
a direct reading. Therefore the measurement by the clamp-on meter is safe method in a
high-current circuit.
Each lead in a three-phase motor must be checked.
7035 Source: HIOKI E.E. CORPORATION
Figure 6.24 Clamp-on meter

6.10.2.3 Megger / Megohmmeter
A megger or megohmmeter is used for checking the insulation resistance of motors, generators,
feeders, bus bar systems, grounds, and branch circuit wiring. This device actually applies a DC
7040 test voltage, which can be as high as 5,000 volts, depending on the megohmmeter selected.
The one shown in Figure 6.25 is a hand-held that applies 500 volts DC and is particularly useful
for testing low-tension motor insulation. Battery-operated and instrument style meggers are also
available in both analog and digital models.
Figure 6.25 Hand-cranked megohmmeter

If a low reading is obtained, disconnect motor leads from power or line leads. A low reading in
the megger for motor generally indicates that the motor winding insulation has broken down. If
a good reading is obtained, meg the circuit or branch wiring. If this reading is low, the wiring to
7050 the motor is defective.
Motors and wiring should be subjected to megger test at least once a year, and if possible, twice
a year. The readings taken should be recorded and plotted to determine the deterioration of
insulation and predict its breakdown.
Final Draft 6-38

6.10.2.4 Ground Resistance Testers (Earth Meggers)

7055 When electrical equipment is installed in housings, they may be charged against the ground.
Therefore, they should be connected with earth (referred to as earth) to reduce the potential
difference between the terminal and the earth to as low a value as possible (ideally 0 volt).
The purposes of the earth are as follows:
a. Prevent electric shock: Discharge any electricity charged in equipment housing due
7060 to electrical insulation failure or a transformer breakdown to prevent shock; and
b. Prevent breakdown of loaded equipment: Connect a neutral line on the load side of
transformer with earth and prevent high voltage on the power source side from
intruding into the load side in case of transformer fails so as to protect the loaded
equipment.
7065 Value of ground resistance is depends considerably on the soil to be earthed, and the smaller the
resistance, the better.
Ground resistance testers are devices to measure the stated resistance when the circuit is earthed.
Testers with measurable range from 0 to 1,000 ohms are widely used. (Figure 6.26)
Figure 6.26 Ground resistance tester

6.10.3 General Precautions for Electrical Maintenance
The following should be ensured for safe electrical maintenance:
Do not touch any energized parts directly.
7075 Fully understand configurations and operational characteristics of related electrical
facilities and equipment.
When operating electrical equipment, follow the operational procedures, confirm the
purposes of the operation, and predict the result of the operation.
When overheat, abnormal noise, or vibration, etc, is detected during inspection,
7080 report the condition to the person in charge of electrical work.
When overheat, abnormal noise, or vibration, etc, is detected during inspection, stop
the equipment and investigate the causes if necessary.
Always keep the surrounding of electrical equipment tidy and clean. Never allow
outsiders to enter the electrical equipment site.
7085 6.10.4 Rehabilitation
If the equipment in the electrical facility is old, frequent outages and high maintenance and
repair costs are likely to occur. If some of the equipment is beyond repair, breakdowns lead to
long and extensive power outages in the STP.
Final Draft 6-39

To prevent such occurrences, functional degradation of electric equipment and causes for
7090 breakdown and stoppages should be tracked at an early stage and repaired. Causes of fault also
follow a certain trend. Training should be imparted on predicting faults beforehand, so that
measures and repairs can be implemented.
Spare parts and tools should be kept ready on site so that repairs can be carried out. Inventory of
spare parts and tools should be confirmed, and the required number should be stored.
7095 6.10.5 Planned Reconstruction
For reconstruction of electric facilities, plans should be formulated; therefore, scheduled O&M
should have been implemented.
Items to be studied for planned reconstruction include:
Find whether abnormalities exist from routine inspection records, data, periodic
7100 inspections and repair records, and judge the condition of equipment.
Analyze collected and accumulated data, and understand the long-term deterioration
trend of equipment.
6.11 Troubleshooting
Refer to Appendix 6.3.
7105 6.12 Summary
The primary function of electrical system is to receive power from STP, transform it, and
distribute it stably to each facility within the plant. Instrumentation system also plays an
important role indicating operating conditions.
For realizing these functions properly, the electrical system requires periodic inspection and
7110 maintenance for early detection of abnormal conditions. The instrumentation system should be
inspected and adjusted regularly so that it can provide correct readings at all times.
Final Draft 6-40

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 7: MONITORING
OF WATER QUALITY
CHAPTER 7 MONITORING OF WATER QUALITY

7.1 Introduction
Sampling and analysis is a tool to forewarn against possible and potential dangers in the areas
7115 bordering on human health and which can lead to water borne epidemics and endemics. It aims
at a quick method of estimating the deterioration of the desired quality of the treated sewage not
only at the outfall but also at each incremental stage of treatment so that the dysfunction of a
particular unit operation can be detected and set right quickly before it has a cascading effect on
downstream unit operations.
7120 7.2 Need for Sampling and Analysis
Effective operation and control of a sewage treatment plant requires that the operator possess
thorough knowledge of the composition of the influent, effluent, and internal process streams.
To acquire such knowledge, the sample should be collected and analysed representative samples
of the raw sewage and streams throughout the plant and determines their characteristics.
7125 7.3 Sampling
In general, the two major categories of sample collections are for (a) physical and chemical tests
and (b) microbiological tests. In both cases, care should be taken to avoid entry of extraneous
materials such as silt, scum and floating matters into sampling bottles.
7.3.1 Overview
7130 Understanding the principles and practices of sampling to obtain a representative sample is
important to get at a truly representative sample instead of randomly collection leading to
misleading results. Laboratory analyses will have little value if representative sampling is not
done. Sampling points must be located where homogeneity of the sewage or waste water with
good mixing of the materials is available. Careless collections of samples give data which may
7135 lead to wrong conclusions.
7.3.2 Grab Sample
Grab samples are collected when frequent changes in character and concentrations are likely to
occur and influence the treatment, undesirable constituents are suspected, the quality is not
expected to vary or when samples require on the spot analysis for parameters such as DO, pH
7140 and residual chlorine. For example, the testing of the suspended solids in the clarifier overflow
is an independent sample and it needs to be correlated to the time of sampling because the SS
can vary between low flows, average flows and peak flows. Invariably the SS at peak flows of a
few hours in the early forenoon may be higher. If the timing is not given, this will give the
wrong impression that the entire performance over the 24 hours is having higher SS.
7145 Representative samples should be taken with good judgment and should be analyzed within 2 to
3 hours of sampling, A well washed clean PVC or plastic bucket connected to a sturdy long
handle may be suitable for grab sampling.
7.3.3 Composite Sample
Since the sewage quality changes from moment to moment and hour to hour, the best results
7150 would be obtained by using some sort of continuous sampler-analyser. However, since operators
are usually the sampler-analysers, continuous analysis would leave little time for anything but
sampling and testing. Except for tests which cannot wait due to rapid chemical and biological
change of the sample, such as tests for dissolved oxygen and sulphide, a fair compromise may
be reached by taking samples throughout the day at hourly or two-hourly intervals.
7155 When the samples are taken, they should be refrigerated immediately to preserve them from
Final Draft 7-1

OF WATER QUALITY
continued bacterial decomposition. When all the samples have been collected for a 24-hour
period, the sample from specific location should be combined or composited together according
to flow to form a single 24-hour composite sample.
To prepare a composite sample:
7160 The rate of sewage flow must be known, and
Each grab sample must be taken and measured out in direct proportion to the volume
of flow at that time.
Table 7.1 illustrates the hourly flow and sample volume to be measured for a 12-hour
proportional composite sample. Large sewage solids should be excluded from a sample,
7165 particularly those greater than 6 mm diameter. A sample composited according to the following
table would be total 1,140 ml.
Table 7.1 Hourly flow pattern during composite sampling
Sample Sample
Flow Flow
Time Factor Volume Time Factor Volume
(MLd) (MLd)
(ml) (ml)
6 AM 0.2 100 20 12 N 1.5 100 150

7 AM 0.4 100 40 1 PM 1.2 100 120
8 AM 0.6 100 60 2 PM 1.0 100 100
9 AM 1.0 100 100 3 PM 1.0 100 100
10 AM 1.2 100 120 4 PM 1.0 100 100
11 AM 1.4 100 140 5 PM 0.9 100 90
Source: JICA, 2011
Points to be noted
7170 During compositing and at the exact moment of testing, the samples must be vigorously
remixed so that they are of the same composition and as well mixed as they were when
originally sampled. Sometimes such remixing may become lax, so that all the solids are not
uniformly suspended. Lack of mixing can cause low results in samples of solids that settle out
rapidly, such as those in activated sludge or raw sewage. Samples must therefore be mixed
7175 thoroughly and poured quickly before settling occurs. If this is not done, errors of 25-50 per cent
may easily occur. For example, on the same mixed liquor sample, one person may find 3,000
mg/L suspended solids while another may determine that there are only 2,000 mg/L due to poor
mixing. When such a composite sample is tested, a reasonably accurate measurement of the
quality of flow can be made.
7180 7.3.4 Sampling Method and Precautions in Sampling
In all cases of sampling, procedures described in 'Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater (APHA)' or 'Manual of Methods for the Examination of Water, Sewage
and Industrial Wastes (ICMR)' or other standard manuals should be followed.
The sampling procedure is very important and is based on the purpose of sampling and tests to
7185 be performed. In general, sewage samples shall not be aerated during collection. Some of the
manually operated sampling apparatuses are shown in Figure 7.1. Each has its preference, but
the syphonic bellow at A is the easiest to use anywhere.
Final Draft 7-2

OF WATER QUALITY
A B C D
7190 Figure 7.1 Typical sampling apparatuses used in sampling of sewage in STPs
A-Syphonic tube with bellows; B- Electrically operated peristaltic pump, C- Hand operated
rotary with positive displacement, D- Hand operated rotary with circular movement
The use of the syphonic bellows tube involves the dipping of the free end of the tube into the
liquid surface and keeping the pump end below the liquid level outside the structure and
7195 pumping the bellow which sets off a siphon action. Initially some portion of the effluent is to be
discharged freely. If the sample is meant for determining the dissolved oxygen, the free end after
bellows shall be extended by rubber tubing with a standard laboratory pinch cock and the free
end of the tubing dipped into the BOD bottle to effect a submerged discharge very slowly by
using the pinch cock. A timing of 10 seconds to fill the BOD bottle is considered as optimum.
7200 The sample shall be allowed to overflow for 5 seconds before the tube is withdrawn and the
bottle is corked with the ground glass cork. This is possible only in the case of tanks with water
surfaces above ground level. If the water level is below ground level, a long handle connected
scoop can be easily used. In this case, the scoop shall have a minimum of 1000 ml volume and
the above procedure can be done. The electrically operated peristaltic pumps (B) and other hand
7205 operated devices (C), (D) are fit only for the final treated sewage samples. In all cases, the
discharge end shall be submerged in the sampling bottle and overflow of samples shall be
allowed for about 5 seconds.
7.3.5 Sample Volumes, Quantity and Storage of Samples
1 to 2 litres of grab sample would be enough to perform all the tests and repeat some tests if
7210 required. For composite samples, a total quantity of 1 to 2 litres collected over a 24 hour period
is adequate, Fractional sample at intervals of 1, 2 to 3 hours should be collected in suitable
containers, each sample being well mixed and a measured portion proportional to the flow
transferred by means of a pipette, measuring cylinder or flask and integrated to form a 1 to 2
litre sample. Hourly records of flow normally available with the Plant Superintendent would
7215 facilitate taking representative samples. All samples should be immediately transported to the
laboratory for analysis. In case there is any delay in transportation,the preservation time is to be
as short as possible and in any case not exceeding 24 hours and the ice shall not be found melted
on receipt of the sample.
7.3.6 Selection of Sampling Location
7220 Theoretically there is no end to the number of sampling stations that can be used in a STP. But
then, it should be remembered that the best monitoring can be possible only when the barest
minimum and objectively oriented sampling locations and tests are carried out instead of
accumulating all and sundry data that will only confuse the situation. This is because the sewage
passes through the STP on a time deferred scale and if samples are taken all at the same time
7225 from inlet to outfall, the chances are it is not representative of the true performance. A suggested
set of sampling points is shown below.
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a. Raw sewage samples should be collected after screens or grit chambers.

b. Samples of effluent from primary clarifier or secondary clarifier tanks should be
taken from the effluent trough or pipe or ahead of discharge weirs.
7230 c. Influent to top feed media units should be collected below the distribution arm and
the effluent from the filter from the outlet chamber or at the inlet to secondary
sedimentation tank.
d. A point where there is good mixing should be selected for sampling of mixed liquor
in aeration tanks in the activated sludge process.
7235 e. Influent samples of septic tanks, Imhoff tanks, and other sole treatment units such as
waste stabilization ponds, oxidation ditches and aerated lagoons should he collected
ahead of these tanks in their inlet chambers or channels leading to these units.
Effluent samples should be collected outside the units in receiving weirs or channels
or chambers.
7240 f. Sampling within these tanks should be specified in terms of depth or distance or
both.
g. Samples of raw sludge should be taken from sludge sumps or from the delivery side
of the sludge pumps through sampling cocks.
h. Return sludge sample in activated sludge plant is collected at the point of discharge
7245 into primary units or aeration tank.
i. Samples from mixed primary and secondary sludge should be collected at the point
of delivery to the digester.
j. Digested sludge samples may be drawn from the sampling points in the digester or
from the discharge end of the delivery pipe leading to drying beds.
7250 k. Digester supernatant may be drawn from sampling cocks provided for this purpose
or through sampling wells on digester dome.
The flow chart indicating the various treatment units and the sampling points may be exhibited
prominently in the laboratory. A list of tests to be carried out daily on the samples may also be
displayed as a wall chart.
7255 7.4 Relevance of Parameters
In general, the parameters can be classified as broadly into statutory need and plant control need.
The plant control needs are mainly to understand whether the STP is responding as per the
design and to inform whether corrective measures are needed. Two separate records shall be
kept; one for public consumption in respect of statutory discharge standards and the other for
7260 in-house plant control. These parameters are not for public consumption as they will be
continually changing and the public may not be able to comprehend its nuances.
7.5 Analysis Parameters and Frequency (Liquid and Sludge)
7.5.1 Items and Frequency for ASP
For day to day plant control, various sundry data need not be accumulated. Recommended tests
7265 to becarried out in typical STPs on a daily, weekly, and monthly to biannual basis are shown in
Table 7.2, Table 7.3, and Table 7.4, respectively.
Table 7.2 Recommended plant control tests on a daily basis in a typical STP
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Primary clarifier
Digested sludge
Secondary clarifier
Primary sludge
Return sludge
Aeration tank
Raw sewage
Sludge cake
underflow
Thickener
No. Tests
Outfall
outlet
outlet
1. Temperature
2. pH
3. Alkalinity
4. BOD (Total)
5. COD (Total)
6. TSS
7. VSS
8. Residual Chlorine
9. Moisture Content
10. MLSS
11. MLVSS
12. DO
13. SV30
14. SVI
15. Ammonia, Nessler
16. Ortho P, Nessler
17. Sulphide
Table 7.3 Recommended plant control tests on a weekly basis in a typical STP
Digested sludge
Primary sludge
clarifier outlet
clarifier outlet
Return sludge
Aeration tank
Raw sewage
Sludge cake
Secondary
underflow
No. Tests Thickener
Primary
Outfall
1. BOD (Filtered)
2. COD (Filtered)
3. Microscopy*
4. Faecal Coliform
5. Total Coliform
6. Oil and grease
Total residual
7.
chlorin
Ammonical
8.
Nitrogen
Total Kjeldahl
9.
Nitrogen
10. Nitrate Nitrogen
11. Free ammonia
Dissolved
12.
Phosphates (P)
13. Sulphate
14. Chloride
15. Silica
16. Ca
17. Mg
18. TDS
19. Conductivity
*Identify the following by microscopy.
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7270 Rotifers, Crustaceans, Protozoa, Ciliates, Ciliates, Nocardia, Ceronthirix, Nematodes
Table 7.4 Recommended plant control tests on a monthly to biannual basis in a typical STP
Primary clarifier
Digested sludge
Primary sludge
clarifier outlet
Return sludge
Aeration tank
Raw sewage
Sludge cake
No. Tests
Secondary
underflow
Thickener
Outfall
outlet
1. Mercury (Hg)
2. Lead (Pb)
3. Cadmium (Cd)
Hexavalent
4.
Chromium (Cr+6)
Total chromium
5.
(Cr)
6. Copper (Cu)
7. Zinc (Zn)
8. Nickel (Ni)
9. Manganese (Mn)
10. Iron (Fe)
11. Vanadium (V)
12. Cyanide (CN)
13. Fluoride (F)
Phenolic
14.
compounds
15. Arsenic (As)
16. Selenium (Se)
17. Bio-assay test
Radioactive
materials:
18.
(a)Alpha emitter
(b)Beta emitter
Above tables may undergo changes based on the properties of the treatment process used.
In respect of BOD test, a graph of BOD versus COD for the raw, primary treated, secondary
treated and outfall sewage should be prepared every week and the daily COD readings used to
7275 interpret the BOD values.
7.5.2 Items and Frequency for WSP
In general parameters of testing for diurnal examinations arise only when the treatment process
is dependent on solar energy like in the case of ponds. In such cases, the tests will be as follows.
Table 7.5 Recommended plant control tests on a monthly basis in a typical WSP
Sample
Parameter Remarks
Type a
Flow - Measure both raw sewage and finel effluent flows
BOD C Unfiltered samples b
COD C Unfiltered samples b
Susupendid solids C
Ammonia C
pH G Take two samples,
Temperature G one at 8:00-10:00 h and the other at 14:00-16:00 h
Fecal coliforms G Take sample between 08:00 and 10:00 h
Total nitrogen C Only when effluent being used (or being assessed for use)
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Sample
Parameter Remarks
Type a
Total phosphorus C for crop irrigation. Ca, Mg and Na are required to calculate
Chloride C the sodium absorption ratio d
Electrical conductivity C
Ca, Mg, Na C
Boron C
Helminth eggs c C
7280 a
C=24-hour flow-weighted composite sample; G=grab sample.
b
Also on filtered samples if the discharge requirements are so expressed.
c
Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus.
d
SAR=(0.044Na)/[0.5(0.050Ca+0.082Mg)]0.5 where Na, Ca and Mg are the concentrations in mg/L.
Source: Duncn Mara, 1997
7285 Care, safety and wisdom are paramount in taking samples from ponds especially diurnal
samples as chances of vermin and reptiles straying around in wet climates and high summer
cannot be ruled out. Proper clothing, safety wear, etc., and the presence of a qualified
ambulance person with tool kit is mandatory in the diurnal sampling. A better way of managing
this will be to leave a floating or other pump set erected in the daytime and operate it by remote
7290 switch in the night and collect the sample from the outlet hose of the pump set sufficiently far
away at a well lighted and safe and secure location.
7.6 Microbiology Sampling and Testing of Treated Sewage
7.6.1 Need for Microbiological Testing
Many water borne pathogenic organisms which can cause diseases as in Table 7.6 and can even
7295 cause an epidemic, are transmitted through the water route when infected with sewage which is
not fully treated. This is because these organisms enter the water from the faeces of individuals
suffering from these diseases or carriers of these organisms even after they are supposed to be
fully cured.
Table 7.6 Diseases attributable to sewage pollution of drinking water
Causative Source of
No Diseases Symptoms
Organism Organisms
Animal or
1 Gastroenteritis Salmonella Diarrhoea, Vomiting
Human faeces
Salmonella Inflamed Intestine, Enlarged
2 Typhoid Human faeces
typhosa Spleen, Step ladder temperature
3 Dysentery Shigella species Human faeces Diarrhoea
Sever
4 Cholera Vibrio cholera Human faeces
Diarrhoea, Dehydration
Human faeces, Yellowed Skin,
5 Infectious hepatitis Virus
Shell fish Abdominal Pain
Entamoeba
6 Amoebic dysentery Human faeces Diarrhoea, Dysentery
histolitca
Animal or Diarrhoea, Cramps, Nausea,
7 Giardiasis Giardia lambia
Human faeces Weakness
7300 It is both difficult and time consuming to check the treated sewage for each of these organisms.
A sterile laboratory system is required, which is admittedly not easy in many parts of India
especially outside the metro cuties. Extensive research has shown that if the coliform group of
bacteria is present, there is a probability that one or more pathogens may also be present.
Therefore, coliforms have been chosen to be the bacterial group routinely tested when there is
7305 need or assessing the bacteriological safety of water. Presence of any of the coliform group of
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bacteria (total coliforms) indicates general contamination, while the presence of faecal coliforms
indicates contamination of human or animal origin. These can be differentiated from other
coliforms by incubating on selective media at 44.5C.
7.6.2 Testing Method
7310 7.6.2.1 Multiple Tube Fermentation Method
7.6.2.1.1 Total Coliform Test
The oldest test is the multiple tube fermentation test. In this test, three sequential steps are
performed as presumptive, confirmed and completed tests. A moderately selective lactose broth
medium (Lactose Lauryl Tryptose Broth), containing a Durham tube is firstly used in the
7315 presumptive test to encourage the recovery and growth of potentially stressed coliforms in the
sample. If harsher selective conditions are used, a deceptively low count may result. A tube
containing both growth and gas is recorded as a positive result. It is possible for non-coliforms
(Clostridium or Bacillus) to cause false positives in this medium, and therefore, all positive
tubes are then inoculated into a more selective medium (Brilliant Green Lactose Broth or EC
7320 Broth) to begin the confirmed test. The confirmed test medium effectively eliminates all
organisms except true coliforms or faecal coliforms, depending on the medium and incubation
conditions. If a positive result is recorded in these tubes, the completed test is begun by first
streaking a loopful of the highest dilution tube which gave a positive result onto highly selective
Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) agar. After incubation, subsequent colonies are evaluated for
7325 typical coliform reactions. A schematic illustration is presented in Figure 7.2. Sample of the
tubes tested being either yielding gas or otherwise are shown in Figure 7.3.
7.6.2.1.2 Fecal Coliform Test
This test more reliably indicates the potential presence of pathogenic organisms than do tests for
total coliform group of organisms. After presumptive test, which is the same as for the total
7330 coliform test, test the sample with water bath set at 44.5C0.2C in EC broth media. A
schematic illustration is presented in Figure 7.2.
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Total Coliform
1. Presumptive Test
Inoculate in lactose or lauryl tryptose; incubate 242hrs
at 37C0.5C
No gas
Incubate for 24 hrs more
No gas Gas produced;

No coliform present continue with confirmed test
Discard tubes (and / or faecal test)
2. Confirmed Test
Inoculate (with loop or applicator stick) brilliant green
bile broth, incubate 483hrs at 37 C0.5C
No gas Gas produced

Coliform absent Coliform group confirmed
Calculate confirmed MPN
Fecal Coliform
1. Presumptive Test
2. Fecal Coliform Test
Inoculate (with loop or applicator stick) EC broth.
Incubate 242hrs at 44.5C0.2C
No gas Gas produced;

Fecal Coliform absent Fecal Coliform confirmed
Calculate fecal MPN
Source: EPA, 2008
Figure 7.2 The Progress of the multiple tube testing for coliforms
7335
Figure 7.3 The fermentation as seen from the gas in the inverted vials inside the tubes
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Based on the dilutions used, the number of tubes adopted and the identified number of tubes
with gasification, a statistical formulation is made out called the Most Probable Number (MPN)
in 100 ml of sample. It should be noted that a confirmed test may require anywhere up to 72
7340 hours.
7.6.2.2 Membrane Filter Test
In this procedure, a given size sample, generally 100 millilitres, is filtered through a membrane,
small-pore filter, which is then incubated in contact with a selective culture agar at 37C. A
coliform bacteria colony will develop at each point on the membrane where a viable coliform
7345 was left on the membrane during filtration. After the incubation period of 24 hours, the number
of colonies per plate is counted. They represent the actual number of coliforms that were present
in the volume of samples filtered. The procedure is illustrated in Figure 7.4. The incubated
plates may appear as in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.4 The progress of the filter technique for coliforms
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Figure 7.5 Illustrative appearance of cultured plates showing the growth of colonies
The number of colonies in a dish can be counted using a colony counter which can be manual or
7355 automatic counter or hand held digital type as shown in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 Colony counters: automatic integrating pen type and grid plate for manual use
7.6.2.3 Colilert Test
Recently, it has been reported upon the Colilert technique which is relatively new and is a
7360 method has been accepted by the U.S. EPA for coliform testing. This is a presence/absence test
and it does not indicate the extent of contamination. But it is reported as having been proven to
be just as accurate as the membrane filtration method. In this method, the Colilert reagent
contains a formulation of salts, nitrogen, and carbon sources that are specific to total coliform. It
contains specific indicator nutrients that create a yellow colour when total coliforms are present
7365 and fluorescence when E. coil is present. The reagent is added to a 100-milliliter water sample
in a sterile, non-fluorescent borosilicate glass container. The vessel is capped and shaken
vigorously by repeated inversion to aid in mixing of the reagent. It is incubated at 35C for 24
hours. After 24 hours, the technician compares the reaction vessels to the colour in a comparator
supplied with the test kit. If the inoculated reagent has a yellow colour equal to or greater than
7370 the comparator, the presence of total coliform bacteria is confirmed. The sequence of testing is
illustrated in Figure 7.7.
A rapid 7-hour faecal coliform (FC) test for the detection of FC in water has been developed.
This membrane filter test utilizes a lightly buffered lactose-based medium (m-7-hour FC
medium) combined with a sensitive pH indicator system. The 7-hour FC test was found to be
7375 suitable for the examination of surface waters and unchlorinated sewage and could serve as an
emergency test for detection of sewage or faecal contamination of potable water. It is
particularly useful for rapid detection of recreational water quality changes related to storm
water runoff, sanitary waste spills or bypasses, and for effluent monitoring for treatment
malfunction.
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7380 7.6.2.4 Recommended Testing for Treated Sewage

Whatever be the advancements occurring elsewhere in the world, while recommending a
specific testing procedure for Indian situation, the following must be considered:
a. The fact that maintaining a sterile microbiological laboratory in a STP is still a far
cry for many local urban bodies once it migrates outside the metropolitan cities.
7385 b. The testing skills are specialty oriented and employing such microbiologists for full
time by these local urban bodies will be impractical especially as such personnel will
not have promotional avenues as compared to their employment in many R&D
institutions.
c. These tests are not mandatory testing on a daily basis and can be carried out once a
7390 fortnight by the staff of the metropolitan laboratories by collecting and preserving
the samples in suitable ice boxes for transiting overnight to their laboratories.
24-hour Detection of
Total Coliform and E.coli
Collect Sample
Add Sample to
Pre-scored Fill-to Line
Shake Vessel
to Dissolve Reagent
Incubate
24hrs at 35C0.5C
YELLOW COLOUR?
NO YES
Record as coliform Record as coliform

Negative Positive
FLUORESCENCE?
Discard
NO YES
Record as E. Coli Record as E. Coli

Negative Positive
Discard Discard
Figure 7.7 The progress of the Colilert technique for coliforms

Considering all the above points, the multiple tube method of MPN / 100 ml should be
7395 continued for some more time for total coliforms and faecal coliforms. The tests can be cross
verified by plate count if felt necessary. The sampling procedures and analytical procedures
shall be according to the Standard Methods (or) as in force by the concerned State Public Health
Authority, as the case may be.
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7.7 Quick and Approximate Measurement Methods

7400 7.7.1 Test Paper Method
Tests which can be done with this method are pH and sulphide. These are mainly qualitative and
are of only incidental value.
7.7.2 Detector Tube Method (Transparency Tube, BOD Tube (UK))
Refer to Chapter 4 (4.7.4.1 Process Control,Figure 4.13).
7405 7.7.3 Cylinder Test
(Including simplified colorimetric determination and simplified absorption spectrophotometry)
The colorimetric tests depend on the two hypotheses namely, the Beers law and Lamberts law
which in simple terms correlate the concentration of a solute in a solvent to the absorbance of
monochromatic light when passed through the solution and the path length through which such
7410 a passage has taken place. This is the principle behind estimations using a calorimeter or
spectrophotometer. There is also a possibility that these can be estimated by using Nessler tubes
in the laboratory without depending on these electrically operated meters. Standard solutions are
prepared with known concentrations of the solutes and these are stored in tightly corked Nessler
tubes of 50 ml. When a new sample is to be tested, it is put through the sample preparation and
7415 thereafter is compared by looking down through a Nessler tube filled with the prepared sample
and comparing with already prepared reference tubes. Thus, an idea of the concentration is
obtained. This test is very useful on a day to day basis.
The presence of DO in aeration tank requires the elaborate procedure of using a meter operated
electronically and keeping the probes well cleaned at all times. This is not always possible.
7420 Moreover, typical plant control requires an answer to the question of whether residual DO is
present or absent in the secondary clarifier overflow. This can be easily carried out in the field
as follows:
a. Take a 10 ml well washed test tube.
b. Hold it gently against the weir overflow sideways.
7425 c. Allow the sewage to fill the tube and overflow for a few minutes.
d. Gently take the tube and pour out about 2 ml.
e. Add few drops of manganous sulphate solution.
f. Add a few drops of potassium iodide solution.
g. Close the top with the thumb and invert a few times.
7430 h. Allow to stand for a few minutes.
i. If there is a yellow precipitate, DO is present.
j. If there is a white precipitate, there is no DO.
7.8 Data Analysis (Accuracy and Precision)
All analyses carried out should be properly recorded. Routine daily analysis, periodic analysis
7435 and special analysis should be recorded separately. Copies of these reports should be sent to the
Plant Superintendent immediately after the analysis is done with explanatory notes to indicate
any unsatisfactory conditions or abnormalities. The Superintendent should study the reports and
direct the operating staff for proper corrective measures in the operation schedule. Such
measures taken should be reported to the laboratory scientists who should check the efficiency
7440 of corrective measures by re-sampling and analysis. Corrective measures followed by sampling
and analysis should be repeated till such time as satisfactory results are obtained,
Final Draft 7-13
OF WATER QUALITY
Data collected over a period of time on various parameters of plant control should be analyzed
and represented on charts and graphs and displayed in the laboratory for ready reference by the
supervisory staff and visitors. These should be included in the weekly, monthly and annual
7445 reports of the laboratory.
7.8.1 Processing Water Quality Test Data
The analysis of results must be done judiciously. One should not jump to conclusions. Logic of
the results should be first verified instead of blindly taking it for granted. Some of the
fundamentals to be followed are listed below:
7450 a. The outlet BOD of any unit cannot be higher than the outlet BOD of the upstream
unit.
b. The ammonia of final treated sewage cannot be the same or higher than that in raw
sewage.
c. The ortho P of final treated sewage cannot be the same or higher than that in raw
7455 sewage.
d. The SS of final treated sewage cannot be higher than that of raw sewage.
e. Rotifers, Crustaceans, Protozoans cannot be absent if BOD reduction is at least
75 %.
f. Follow the final BOD and SS on a graph which will show any sudden lapses.
7460 g. Once a while refer the sample discretely to another lab to keep a check on the results.
h. Whenever visiting the STP, verify DO qualitatively by the Winkler method.
i. Whenever in the STP, take time to see through the oil immersion microscope for
motility.
j. It is most important that you do not hold analysts alone responsible for plant failures.
7465 7.8.2 Accuracy of Measured Values
a. If ammonia is reported as nitrified, bicarbonate alkalinity must be reduced 7 times.
b. If this is not the case, carry out a repeat test before deriving conclusions.
c. Make out an audit for BOD removed versus kWh spent on aeration system.
d. Hypothetical ionic equilibrium may not tally in all the lab results.
7470 e. This may be a genuine case as precise chloride estimation is very difficult.
f. In such case, it is better to adjust the chloride value to bring the ionic equilibrium.
g. The COD reduction in treated sewage versus raw sewage cannot be less than BOD
reduction.
h. If this is the case, the results are suspect.
7475 With the availability of personal computers and software at reasonable cost, the advantages of
electronic data processing for storage, retrieval and processing of laboratory test results are
obvious. To start with, the analysis results may be entered from the daily records into computer
storage. Simple programme can be written tot retrieval and presentation of data relating to any
particular parameter. This can be in the form of display of data for a fixed period or weekly or
7480 monthly averages or the results of analysis carried out on samples collected at a particular time
of the day for the period to be studied etc. A slightly more detailed programming can be
prepared for the computer to go through the results of specified parameters entered daily and
display or print out any figures which exceed a present value. This can be immediately passed
Final Draft 7-14

OF WATER QUALITY
onto the treatment plant staff for investigation and rectification. The computer can also be
7485 programmed to display and print out graphs showing the variation in any specified parameters
over a period of time.
Analytical instruments are also available for carrying out tests automatically on a large number
of samples simultaneously and electronically feed the data directly into the computer using a
data logger module.
7490 7.9 Frequency Management
Laboratory results must stop at the Plant Incharge level and should not go all the way to the
official in charge of the total O&M of the sewerage infrastructure in the head office on a daily
basis . This will only set in motion a parallel organization in detecting reporting matters and
replying to higher ups and the staff will lose interest. On the other hand, a fortnightly concise
7495 physical reporting illustrating any specific changes in raw sewage or treated sewage and
suggesting ways and means and asking for specific funds / assistance alone should be sent to the
official in charge of the total O&M of the sewerage infrastructure in the head office.
7.10 Planning of laboratory facilities
This is being explained in detail in Part A manual section 5.5.5 and also Appendix 5.9, 5.10 and
7500 5.11.
7.11 Upkeep of Plant Laboratory
A well designed and adequately equipped laboratory under a competent analyst is essential in all
sewage treatment plants. Very small size plants such as stabilization ponds need not have their
own laboratories if the facilities of a nearby laboratory are available. The results of the
7505 laboratory analysis will aid in the characterization of any wastewater, pinpoint difficulties in the
operation and indicate improvement measures, evaluate the composition of effluents and thus
estimate the efficiency of operation and also measure the probable pollution effects of the
discharge of such effluents on the receiving water bodies. The analytical data accumulated ever
a period to time is an important document for safeguarding the treatment plant from allegations
7510 of faulty operation. The laboratory should also engage in research and special studies for
evolving improvements and innovations in plant operation. The laboratory therefore must form
an integral part of the treatment plant.
7.12 Disposal of Laboratory Wastes
Any office or other place where a number of people work, requires a proper waste disposal
7515 system. In the case of a laboratory in a sewage treatment plant, special care has to be taken since
the laboratory handles harmful chemicals and the samples themselves are capable for
transmitting pathogens.
7.12.1 Solid Waste
Solid waste may include filter residues, used cotton plugs, etc. These should be collected and
7520 disposed scientifically in an eco-friendly way.
7.12.2 Liquid Wastes
Since the laboratory is attached to a sewage treatment plant, it will be possible in most cases to
drain the laboratory wastes to the inlet chamber of the treatment plant, if necessary, by pumping.
However, since the laboratory wastes may also contain concentrated acids and alkalis, it may be
7525 necessary to provide a small holding tank where the concentrated chemicals will be diluted and
neutralized to avoid the possibility of affecting the biological activity of the treatment plant,
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7.12.3 Radioactive Wastes

If radioactive materials are suspected to be present in the waste samples, special precautions
will have to be taken to protect the laboratory staff. Advice on this aspect may be obtained from
7530 the Atomic Energy Department.
7.13 Personnel
Laboratories of large plants should be under the charge of a qualified and experienced analyst
supported by junior technical staff having background in the field of chemistry, biology and
bacteriology. The analyst should assimilate the details for functioning of the plants by
7535 experience and acquire the necessary preparedness for receiving further specialised training
including performance interpretation and application of advanced techniques which enable the
analyst to participate in the efficient operation of the treatment unit.
7.14 Summary
Water quality analysis in STPs provides useful parameters for judging appropriateness of
7540 process control and quality of the treated water. Water quality analysts should have through
understanding of analysis items and frequencies prescribed for their own STPs and provide the
results of analysis to the O&M engineers.
Final Draft 7-16

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 8: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
CHAPTER 8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

8.1 Introduction
7545 A sewerage system including both offsite and onsite treatment is an infrastructure which
contributes to the improvement and conservation of the environment by reducing pollutants
discharged to the water environment. A sewerage system is considered to have overall positive
effects on environmental conservation. However, on the other hand, since the system handles
insanitary objects, physical, mental and aesthetically negative impacts on the surrounding
7550 environment through both construction and operation stages are unavoidable.
Therefore, operational measures are required to minimize odour, epidemiological pollution, soil
contamination, and water pollution. Plant beautification and landscaping would be also required
to maximize the aesthetics.
In addition, since the sewerage system is an essential urban infrastructure which supports urban
7555 domestic, industrial and business activities, the operation of the sewerage system is also
required to withstand disasters. The concept of the global warming gas regulations is also
introduced in this chapter.
8.2 Odour
8.2.1 Odour from the Sewerage System
7560 Odours from treatment plants are a complex combination of a wide variety of compounds;
however, there are certain compounds and groups of compounds that contribute significantly to
sewage odours and also significantly affect the selection of the control technology. These
include the following:
Hydrogen sulphide, and
7565 Ammonia.
8.2.2 Odour Control Methods and Technologies
8.2.2.1 Odour Control Procedure
Odour control is a complex and time-consuming challenge, often requiring a combination of
methods for treating odorous gases and for removing or reducing the potential causes of the
7570 doors. If an odour problem is severe enough to affect the community, an emergency response
and solution to the problems must be carried out quickly.
The approach for selecting an odour control method or technology includes the following steps:
a. Identify the odour source and characteristics through sampling and analysis.
b. List and assign priorities to controlling a specific odour problem, recognizing
7575 considerations such as cost, plant location, future upgrading of various sewage
processes, severity of the odour problem, and the nature of the affected area.
c. Select one or more odour control method or technology for implementation to meet
the objectives of steps a and b, taking into consideration the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
7580 d. Monitor odour emissions from the treated air for process adjustments and for
feedback to evaluate the solutions effectiveness.
8.2.2.2 Sampling Methods
Solving any odour problem begins with sampling and analyzing gases to identify and
Final Draft 8-1

characterize the odours. The principal tools for diagnosing an odour problem are the techniques
7585 used for odour quantification and characterization. Chemical analysis of odour constituents
could be performed. This is an indirect method, because the results of a chemical analysis still
need to be related to odour concentration and intensity in some way.
8.2.2.3 Quantitative Testing-Analytical Methods
Gas chromatography can be used on many odorous organic compounds, but the analysis is
7590 complex and expensive. Portable gas-monitoring devices are described below;
The concentrations of individual compounds can be measured via standard analytical methods
(Figure 8.1). For example, a simple apparatus consisting of a gas detector tube can be used in
the field. Tubes are available for a number of compounds. For more accurate and complete
results, samples should be collected in bags, stainless steel vacuum canisters, or tubes filled with
7595 adsorbent and analyzed by gas chromatography in a laboratory.
Figure 8.1 Gas sampling pump (left side) and detector tubes (right side)
Gas detector tubes are sealed glass tubes filled with an appropriate indicator chemical which
reacts with a particular gas and gives a colour reaction. To make a determination, the seals are
7600 broken at each end of the tube and a definite volume of the atmosphere for sampling is drawn
through by a hand-operated or mechanical pump. The tubes are marked off in scale divisions
and the concentration is determined according to the length of discolouration of the indicator for
a given volume of atmosphere.
Detector tubes are simple, easy to use devices that can provide reasonably reliable, on-the-spot
7605 measurement of gas concentrations. Their accuracy may be in the range of 70 to 90% of the
mean value if sampling is done carefully according to manufacturers' directions. For taking gas
samples from difficult locations, extension tubes are available from manufacturers so that the
detector tubes can be placed at the desired site.
In making use of detector tubes some precautions should be noted:
7610 Tubes will deteriorate with age - some types have a shelf life of two years when
stored at room temperature; above 30C, deterioration is more rapid.
Direct sunlight can affect the properties of the tubes.
At low temperatures, around freezing or below, tubes may not give reliable readings;
they should be warmed to room temperature for best performance.
7615 Tubes may have cross-sensitivity to gases other than those for which they are
designed. Information on cross-sensitivity should be obtained from the
manufacturer.
Final Draft 8-2

8.2.3 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is the most common odorous gas found in sewage collection and
7620 treatment systems. Its characteristic rotten-egg odour is well known. The gas is corrosive, toxic,
and soluble in sewage. Hydrogen sulphide results from the reduction of sulphate by bacteria
under anaerobic conditions.
8.2.3.1 Effects on Health
Hydrogen sulphide is considered a broad-spectrum poison, meaning it can poison several
7625 different systems in the body. Breathing very high levels of hydrogen sulphide can cause death
within just a few breaths. Loss of consciousness can result after fewer than three breaths.
Exposure to lower concentrations can result in eye irritation, a sore throat and cough, shortness
of breath, and fluid in the lungs. These symptoms usually go away within a few weeks.
Long-term, low-level exposure may result in fatigue, loss of appetite, headaches, irritability,
7630 poor memory, and dizziness. Refer also to 9.2.2.1.2 Risk of Hydrogen Sulphide Poisoning in
Confined Space of Chapter 9.
8.2.3.2 Locations of Sources
a. Onsite
Septic tank, anaerobic filters, and mini-package treatment plant
7635 b. Conveyance
Sewers, manholes, and closed drains (simplified sewers)
c. Pumping Station
Collection well
d. STP
7640 Collection well, primary settling tank, sludge thickener, sludge digester, digested
sludge sump, dewatering centrate/filtrate, sludge drying beds, UASB reactor,
anaerobic lagoons, sludge lagoons, and septage treatment facility
8.2.3.3 Measurement
Proper measurements should be performed in accordance with IS5182 Part 7.
7645 Short-term detector tubes, portable gas detector, etc., can be used for simplified
measurements.
When measuring concentration at a location where odour is generated (particularly
when the concentration level is not known), take care to perform the work after
wearing a gas protection mask. If the concentration is high, toxicity may be high; this
7650 is dangerous. Refer to Sec.9.3.1.1.1,a Measurerement method.
8.2.3.4 Preventive Measures
Hydrogen sulphide production can be controlled by maintaining conditions that prevent the
build up of sulphides in the sewage. The presence of oxygen at concentrations of more than 1.0
mg/l in the sewage prevents sulphide build-up because sulphide produced by anaerobic bacteria
7655 is aerobically oxidized. Maintaining an aerobic environment also inhibits the anaerobic
degradation process contributing to the generation of hydrogen sulphide. A checklist is given
below:
Prevent corrosion in the collection well of the facility by blowing air through the
facility.
7660 Avoid storing screenings and grit generated in the grit chamber for a long time.
Final Draft 8-3
Dispose of screenings and grit at appropriate intervals.

Retention time of sludge in the sludge treatment facilities should be appropriate. (Do
not retain sludge for a long time)
Maintain sewage at neutral pH range because most of the sulphide is present as
7665 odourless bisulphide ion at pH value of 7 to 8.
For septic tank
Impossible to prevent because we cannot expect fine quality water to be used for
ablution. Therefore, it is important to ventilate.
8.2.3.5 Control
7670 The operator can
Remove sand and grit deposited in house service connection or sewer immediately.
Properly shut doors and windows of building where substances that become sources
of foul odours are stored.
Dispose of scum and sludge in the sedimentation basin at appropriate intervals and
7675 do not store them for a long period.
Thoroughly clean each facility and the areas surrounding the facility.
Measures for septic tank are as follows:
Open ventilating shaft at the cowl to the atmosphere and provide mosquito-proof
netting. The height of the pipe should extend at least 2 m above the top of the highest
7680 building within a radius of 20 m. Refer to IS 2470 Part I and Part A 9.3.5
Conventional Septic Tank.
Operational precautions for deodorisation facilities are described below.
a. Soil (Bio) Deodorisation
This method makes use of oxidation and decomposition effects by
7685 micro-organisms to remove substances with foul odour. In actual practice in
treatment plants, the ventilated air is led to the reactor or soil bed and the odour is
removed.
In this method, substance with foul odour is delivered from the bottom part of the
fertile soil bed in highly moist condition, and the substance with foul odour is
7690 removed because of the oxidative ability of mainly heterotrophic bacteria.
The following are examples of soil deodorisation (Figure 8.2).
Final Draft 8-4

Figure 8.2 Soil (Bio) deodorisation configuration

Notes: Air for ventilation may concentrate in a certain part of the soil. In such cases, hole may have
7695 formed on the surface. Dig the soil so that air is vented uniformly.
b. ASP (Activated Sludge Process) -Deodorisation

This method makes use of decomposition effects by micro-organisms to remove
substances with foul odour. In actual practice in treatment plants, the ventilated air
is led to the reactor and the odour is removed.
7700 Ventilated air is delivered to the inlet side of the blower. The substance with foul
odour is oxidized and decomposed by aerobic micro-organisms in the reactor. The
mechanism of ASP-deodorisation is illustrated in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3 Mechanism of ASP-deodorization

7705 Caution: Pipes used underwater are likely to clog easily; so periodically clean such pipes and remove the
clogged material.
c. Activated Carbon Deodorisation

Foul odours are passed through the adsorption tower filled with activated carbon
(charcoal or coconut shell charcoal) and removed by physical adsorption. (Figure
7710 8.4 ) The effect is more pronounced when the substance with foul odour has large
molecular weight. Odours are selective and the method is more effective in case of
hydrogen sulphide and methyl mercaptan. However, it does not have any effect on
ammonias and amines. It is suitable for faint odours, and is used as a finishing
deodorising agent.
7715 The normal activated carbons are acid, chlorine-based or halogen-attached
activated carbons. These are effective in removing substances like hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia.
Final Draft 8-5

Figure 8.4 Activated-carbon deodorization

7720 A differential pressure gauge is installed between the inlet and outlet of gas in this
equipment. When the value indicated by this differential pressure gauge is large,
clogging has probably occurred. This is a sign that the activated carbon is to be
replaced or the pipe is to be cleaned.
Measure the concentration periodically near the outlet. When the value shows a
7725 sudden increase, it is time for replacement. (However, breakdown in the equipment
may have occurred; confirm the equipment carefully and then perform work.)
8.2.4 Ammonia (NH3)
Ammonia odour is most typically encountered at alkaline-stabilization facilities. Adding
alkaline materials raises the pH, which causes the dissolved ammonia in dewatered cake to
7730 volatilize. Although the odours tend to dissipate quickly, the ammonia levels in mixing and
drying areas can be high if the gas is not collected and treated.
8.2.4.1 Effects on Health
Ammonia is a colourless gas with specific irritant odour which when compressed liquefies at
room temperature. Effects on the human body include irritation of the mucous membrane and
7735 breathing organs.
8.2.4.2 Locations of Sources
Ammonia typically appears in the dewatering processes and in the solids created from
dewatering. This is especially true in digested solids. However, the small quantity of ammonia
in sewage off gas at neutral pH contributes little to odour emissions, because the odours
7740 typically are dominated by sulphur compounds. Therefore, it rarely is necessary to provide an
ammonia removal step in treating off gas from liquid sewage treatment processes, unless lime or
other alkaline material is used in the process to elevate the pH.
8.2.4.3 Measurement
Proper measurements should be performed in accordance with IS11255 Part 6.
7745 Short-term detector tubes, portable gas detector, etc., can be used for simplified
measurement.
8.2.4.4 Preventive Measures
In the dewatering process, do not increase the pH.
Final Draft 8-6

8.2.4.5 Control
7750 Generally, deodorisation equipment is effective in controlling ammonia, similar to H2S.
However, care is necessary since there is selectivity depending on the substance.
8.2.5 General Method of Prevention of Odour
Following is a short checklist of operational considerations for controlling odours of primary
treatment facilities: (May also apply in other facilities)
7755 Remove scum routinely, with increased frequency during warm weather.
Remove sludge before it can bubble or float.
Wash weirs and other points where floatable and slime collect. Some facilities use
submerged pipes with holes rather than effluent troughs. The submerged pipes do not
splash the primary effluent, thereby reducing the release of hydrogen sulphide.
7760 Wash down all spills and grease coatings.
When draining a tank, immediately flush it completely. If sludge does not drain
quickly, spray lime, calcium hypochlorite, or potassium permanganate on the sludge
surface to reduce odours. Because even a clean tank can produce odours, flushing the
tank with a chlorine solution or keeping the tank floor covered with a low
7765 concentration of chlorine solution will reduce odours.
If the sewage is septic, add chemicals in the collection system or at the plant, as
appropriate, to reduce sulphides.
If tanks are covered for odour control, keep plates and access hatches in place.
Routinely check any odour scrubbers or deodorizers for plugging, adequate supply
7770 of chemicals, proper pressures for misting, and/or effectiveness of carbon.
The splashing of primary effluent into weir troughs and effluent channels can result
in the release of hydrogen sulphide. If possible, try to minimize the splashing of
primary effluent into the channel or weirs. If it cannot be accomplished operationally,
then installing submerged effluent pipes may be necessary. This will require tank
7775 modifications to verify the plant hydraulics and provide proper control to avoid
fluctuations in the tank levels.
Minimize the stripping of hydrogen sulphide from the sewage when using channel
air diffuser systems.
Adoption of the following regular practices will not only increase removal efficiency, but will
7780 provide better working conditions for the operator:
Regularly remove accumulations from the inlet baffles and effluent weirs with a
hose or a broom with stiff bristles. Only experience will determine the necessary
frequency.
Clean scum removal equipment regularly; otherwise obnoxious odours and an
7785 unsightly appearance will result.
Keep cover plates in place except when operations or maintenance require their
removal.
Immediately flush and remove all sewage and sludge spills. Avoid hosing down
motors and enclosed control devices.
7790 Establish a housekeeping schedule for the primary treatment area, including
galleries, stairwells, control rooms, and related buildings, and assign responsibility
Final Draft 8-7
for each item to a specific employee.

Repaint surfaces as necessary for surface protection and appearance.
8.2.6 Chemical Addition
7795 Chemical addition can control odours in sewage treatment plant by preventing anaerobic
conditions or controlling the release of odorous substances. These chemicals fall into four basic
groups based on their mechanisms for odour control, shown in Table 8-1 to Table 8-4.
The effectiveness of chemical addition as an odour control technology depends on such
variables as cost, dosage, presence of odour-causing compounds, effects of chemical
7800 accumulations in sludge and process waters, equipment maintenance, space limitations, and
safety or toxic substance concerns. Typical odour-control applications include collection
systems, headworks, primary clarifiers, process sidestreams, aeration tanks, solids-handling
applications, and storage lagoons. In general, it is more cost-effective to treat odours in the
liquid phase than in the vapour phase. Common chemical agents used to control odours include
7805 iron salts, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite (chlorine), potassium permanganate, nitrates,
and ozone.
Table 8-1 Chemicals used for liquid-phase odour control
Chemical Effective against
Oxidizers
Ozone Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide only
Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen sulphide, also acts as an oxygen source
Chlorine Hydrogen sulphide and other reduced sulphur compounds
Sodium and calcium hypochlorite Hydrogen sulphide and other reduced sulphur compounds
Potassium permanganate Hydrogen sulphide and other reduced sulphur compounds
Raising the oxidationreduction potential
Oxygen
Higher temperatures increase microbial action of
Nitrate
anaerobic bacteria and increase the release of volatile
Hydrogen peroxide
organic compounds from the liquid to the gaseous phase.
Chlorine
Bactericides
Chlorine
Hydrogen peroxide
Potassium permanganate
Kill or inactivate anaerobic bacteria
Chlorine dioxide
Sodium hypochlorite
Oxygen
pH modifiers
Lime Prevent offgassing of hydrogen sulphide; at a very high
Sodium hydroxide pH acts as a bactericide on sewer wall slimes
Source: WEF, 2008
Table 8-2 Liquid process operational emissions control

Process Problems Control measures
Preliminary treatment
Upstream chemical addition. Recycle
Coarse bar screens Influent sulphide are stripped by return activated sludge (RAS) to
turbulence inherent to these headworks.
Fine bar screens processes. Containment and ventilation to a
vapour-phase control system.
Primary treatment
Sulphide formed in basins Remove unneeded basins from service.
Primary clarifiers
during holding. Sulphide and Raise water level in flume to decrease
Final Draft 8-8


stripped at weirs. Sulphide weir drop.
forms in settled solids. Pump sludge more often. Avoid
cosettling of sludge. Add iron salts
directly or upstream.
Containment and ventilation to a
vapour-phase control system.
Install collection and removal
Flow equalization Odour from residual solids in equipment and flush solids with
basins flow equalization basins. high-pressure hoses after
each basin dewatering.
Secondary treatment
Trickling filters Influent sulphides stripped at Add iron salts upstream. Limit loading.
distributors. Sulphide formed Provide power ventilation. Slow
Rotating biological
when overloaded or oxygen distributors or increase wetting rate to
contactors (RBCs)
deficient. maintain a thin aerobic film.
Decrease aeration at head of basin.
Influent sulphide stripped at
Fine-bubble diffusers cause less
Aeration basins head of basin. Sulphides form
stripping than coarse bubble. Pure
when oxygen deficient.
oxygen causes lowest odour emissions.
Table 8-3 Solids process operational emissions control

Thickening
Avoid co-thickening, if multiple basins
Co-thickening biological and
are available. Use direct chemical
primary sludge causes sulphide
treatment to reduce sulphide formed
Gravity thickeners generation.
during thickening.
Long detention under anaerobic
Provide containment and ventilation to
conditions is problematic.
a vapor-phase control system.
Use chemical pretreatment to remove
sulphide from sludge before
Dissolved air Aeration strips sulphide and
processing.
flotation odours from sludge.
Dewatering
Potassium permanganate or hydrogen
peroxide will treat sulphideand other
Pressing strips sulphide from
Belt presses odorous.
feed sludge into belt press room.
Stabilization
The H2S formed in the process
Maintain proper temperature and pH in
corrodes combustion equipment.
the process. Add iron salts directly to
Anaerobic digesters Air quality is a concern, because
the digester, at headworks, or at
H2S is converted to sulphur
primary clarifiers.
dioxide during combustion.
Odorous compounds form when Provide adequate aeration and mixing
Aerobic digesters process is overloaded or oxygen- to maintain aerobic conditions.
deficient Feed at uniform organic loadings.
Vent ammonia to outside unless
Ammonia is released due to high
Lime stabilization concentrations are very high or the site
pH.
is in a sensitive area.
Source: WEF, 2008
Table 8-4 Summary of odour control technology applications at sewage treatment facilities.
Final Draft 8-9
Methods Effects Problems

Operating practices
Industrial process changes
Lower waste temperature
Hydrogen sulphide evolution much
Pretreat to remove odorous
retarded
organics
Collection system
Mechanical cleaning

Aeration Hydrogen sulphide reduction
Ventilation
Grit chamber

Daily grit washing General odour reduction
Primary clarifiers
Increase frequency of solids and
General odour reduction
scum removal
Aeration tanks
Remove solids deposits

Increase aeration to maintain General odour reduction
dissolved oxygen at 2 mg/L
Trickling filters
Increase recirculation rate

Keep vents clear General odour reduction
Check underdrains for clogging
Anaerobic digesters
Check waste gas burner

Relief valves should close General odour reduction
tightly
Aerobic digesters
Maintain constant loading
General odour reduction
Maintain adequate aeration
Liquid-phase control alternativesChemical addition
Oxidizes water-insoluble odorants Requires onsite
Ozone
into water-soluble projects regeneration
Controls slime growth; precipitates
Iron Increases solids
sulphide; enhances settling
Nitrates Inhibits production of sulphides Costly
pH adjustment
pH 8 hinders bacterial growth in
Alkali: NaOH sewers and retards evolution of
hydrogen sulphide.
Acid combines with basic ammonia
Acid: HCl or H2SO4
and amines
Inhibits growth of sulphate-reducing
Chlorine (gas and hypochlorite) bacteria in sewers; oxidizes
hydrogen sulphide and ammonia
Reacts with sulphide and other
Potassium permanganate
organics to reduce odour
Source: WEF, 2008
7815 8.2.7 Monitoring

Regular monitoring of treatment processes can prevent many odour releases as well as provide
valuable information on operating procedures.
Final Draft 8-10

8.3 Epidemiological Pollution

Potentially pathogenic aerosols are generated as a result of the physical processes of aeration,
7820 trickling, and spraying sewage and sludge.
The density of microorganisms in aerosols is a function of the density of a specific organism in
the sewage, aeration basin, or sludge, the amount of material aerosolized, the effect of aerosol
shock (impact), and, finally, biological decay of the organisms with distance in the downwind
direction.
7825 In a sewage treatment plant, there are commonly either stagnant anaerobic conditions or an
aerated mass of heated microbial material. With the use of activated sludge as a standard
treatment process, the operators walk above and around a cauldron of airborne aerosols. They
are often exposed to low-level aerosolized versions of microbes, some of which may be
infectious.
7830 8.3.1 Effects on Health
These aerosols may contain bacterial and viral infectious agents, and infections may result from
contact with these aerosol mists. It is impossible to eliminate all sources of aerosol
contamination in a sewage treatment plant.
The immune systems of many operators build up antibodies to a variety of bacterial and viral
7835 infectious agents. They become what are nicknamed universal carriers because they are often
in contact with low levels of infectious agents that will not make them ill, but that they can build
immunity to, much like vaccination theory. However, if operators bodies do get run down or
they come into contact with a significant infectious agent, they can easily become ill.(Refer to
9.2.1 Diseases)
7840 8.3.2 Locations of Sources
Aeration tanks, Attached growth system (Figure 8.5)
Figure 8.5 Aeration tank (left) and Attached growth system (right)
8.3.3 Measurement
7845 Perform sampling using filter paper. Then, the samples can be collected on a petridish, and
grown in the laboratory. These samples can later be tested.
The following are the studies to be carried out in an STP:
The total microorganism content of air immediately over the aeration tank liquid surfaces:
a. Decreases exponentially with height at least within the first 100 cm above the
7850 aeration tank liquid surface;
b. Approaches background concentrations by extrapolation of current data within 2.5
Final Draft 8-11

to 4 m above the aeration tank liquid surface; and

c. Appears to be influenced by several factors, including the mixed liquor suspended
solids concentration of the aeration tanks, bacterial die-off, fallback of larger
7855 particles, and dispersion by wind currents.
In view of the above, one should bear in mind that aerosol increases closer to aeration tanks and
also increases as one goes downwind.
8.3.4 Preventive Measures
Cover the aeration tanks and attached growth systems. (To prevent diffusion of
7860 aerosols)
Plant tall trees around tanks to prevent diffusion of aerosols.
Stop using surface aerators and use diffused aerators.
8.3.5 Control
Controlling epidemic microbes in sewage is difficult. The above mentioned preventive measures
7865 are desirable.
8.4 Soil Contamination
Soil contamination has become an issue in recent years. A sewerage facility that plays an
important role in conserving the environment cannot become a source of contamination itself.
Sewage leaks sometimes become issues. To prevent leaks in an STP, the following are
7870 necessary:
a. Check for leaks in every facility. (High probability of leaks in pipe parts and
connections between facilities.)
b. Even if there are no leaks in the facility, there may be fissures or cracks. If so,
immediately repair the same on site. If this is not possible, discuss with the Plant
7875 Engineer and make arrangements to get the defects repaired.
c. Sometimes, sewage overflows. In such a case, check whether the flow rate to the
facility is greater than the design flow rate.
d. If the flow rate is below the design flow rate, there is a possibility of clogging in the
stage after the problem location. The cause of the clogging should be eliminated.
7880 e. Since sludge is thicker than sewage, it is likely to cause clogging in the sludge
treatment facilities. For this reason, care should be taken against leaks from the
sewage treatment facilities. Efforts should be made to eliminate leaks.
f. If the leak is identified clearly, and soil contamination is likely to occur, discuss with
the Plant Engineer to get accurate measurements to be made by an authorized
7885 laboratory of the Ministry of Environment and Forest.
g. It is good to maintain a record of the TDS of ground water in the well waters of
households surrounding the STP so that questions of sewage seeping into ground
water and polluting the well waters can be verified.
8.5 Water Pollution
7890 Surface water quality considerations include compliance with treated effluent standards at the
discharge point with respect to parameters like BOD, suspended and floating solids, oil and
grease, nutrients, coliforms, etc. Special consideration may be given to the presence of public
bathing ghats and intake points for water supply downstream.
Another environmental consideration is the potential for ground water pollution presented by
Final Draft 8-12
7895 the treatment units proposed to be built.

Necessary precautions should be taken to prevent water supply contamination due to leakage
from sewers. Appropriate distance between water supply pipes and sewer pipes shall be
maintained. On the other hand, early detection of sewage leakage and the repair is indispensable
by implementing sewer inspections described in 2.2 Inspection and examination for sewer of
7900 this manual.
8.6 Sewage Treatment Plant Beautification and Landscaping
A sewage treatment plant is a facility that handles sewage. The working environment in such a
plant is poor since foul odours are generated. It is therefore essential that a clean environment be
maintained within the sewage treatment plant through daily cleaning of the plant. Within the
7905 boundaries of the premises, open areas should be planted with trees and foul odours should be
dispersed.
Specific measures should preferably be adopted such as providing park-like spaces within the
premises to offer residents a place for relaxation and rest. The treated effluent should be reused
for watering plants and trees within the premises.
7910 Examples of plant beautification are shown in the figures below. Landscape should be
maintained in this way (Figure 8.6).
Source: BBSS Board
Figure 8.6 An example of plant beautification adopted in Bangalore

7915 8.7 Regulation of Greenhouse Gas
8.7.1 Greenhouse Gas
Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and greenhouse gases such as
Freon are released in large quantities to the atmosphere with the increasingly energetic activities
of human beings, and the average temperature of the entire earth has increased. This
7920 phenomenon is known as global warming. Global warming of the earth has a serious impact on
the global environment.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and methane (CH4) generated are issues in STP operation.
a. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide is formed from the complete combustion of any fuel that contains
7925 carbon (e.g., methane). Any boiler, flare, or power-generation technology that
combusts methane, will produce a corresponding predictable amount of carbon
dioxide.
b. Methane (CH4)
Final Draft 8-13

Methane is the principal component of both digester gas and natural gas. It is a
7930 light gas with a specific gravity of less than 1.0. Methane is an exceptionally
important greenhouse gas; its global warming potential is 21 to 23 times that of
carbon dioxide. From a greenhouse gas perspective, it is vital to completely burn
all methane without atmospheric release.
8.7.2 Control
7935 a. Reduction in the use of fossil fuels (fossil fuels are used even for generating electric
power; so use of power is linked to the use of fossil fuels)
Fuel for operating the sewerage facilities and reduced use of electricity are
essential. (For instance, change from continuous operation to intermittent operation,
if possible)
7940 b. Measures against generation of CH4 from the treatment plant (since generation of
this gas cannot be inhibited, conversion of the generated gas may be considered)
Since the generation of CH4 is linked to global warming, checks on the CH4 collection facility
and leaks in piping are very important.
If there is damage or signs of damage, repairs should be carried out quickly.
7945 8.7.3 Effective Use of Biogas
Biogas includes organic matter made of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, and so on, and is a potential
energy source of high value.
Presently, the main uses are as follows.
Used in dual fuel engines. A part of the power requirements of a sewage treatment
7950 plant can be satisfied by generating power using biogas explained in clause 6.5.15.3
and its sub clauses in Part A.
8.8 Carbon Credit Record
This is a term that qualifies the holder to emit one ton of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and
is awarded to institutions or countries that have reduced their greenhouse gases below their
7955 emission quota, which literally means emission standards. These carbon credits can be traded in
the international market at their current market price.
For details, refer to Sec. 5.15 CARBON CREDIT of Part A (Manual).
In sewage treatment plants to meet the requirements, the following are to be mainly performed:
An example of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project in sewerage
7960 facilities is biomass power generation. This project focuses on CH4 generated from
the facilities.
For the project, the baseline CO2 emissions must be studied. Based on this study, the
CO2 emissions in the base year and the reduction in CO2 emissions thereafter are
considered for approval of carbon credits.
7965 Accurate data during operation is required for specifying the baseline.
Data collection and retention of accuracy of measuring instruments are the necessary
items on site.
STP power and flow rate data are mainly collected through SCADA. (Refer to
Sec.6.6 SCADA system)
7970 Even after the project is approved, data collection and maintenance of measuring
Final Draft 8-14

equipment will continue.

8.9 Summary
STPs are intended primarily for improvement of water environment. They should be operated so
as not to affect surrounding area, and to avoid water pollution and odour problems. In addition
7975 to prevention of air pollution and soil contamination, improvement of the surrounding
environment such as planting or landscaping is also required.
Final Draft 8-15

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 9: OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
HAZARD AND SAFETY MEASURES
CHAPTER 9 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND

SAFETY MEASURES
9.1 Introduction
7980 The sanitation workers, who are engaged in operation and maintenance of sewerage system or
septic tanks, are exposed to different types of occupational hazards like injuries caused by
physical actions and chemicals contacts, infections caused by pathogenic organisms in sewage
and dangers inherent with oxygen deficiency, hydrogen sulphide, and combustible gases.
The Parliament of India is considering Sanitation Workers (Regulation of employment and
7985 conditions of service) Bill, 2012. This bill will be helpful in eliminating the risk to the health
and safety of sanitation workers.
As defined in the said bill, employers are obligated to provide their employees with safety
equipment or protective gears (See 9.2.1.2 for details) as well as cleaning devices and ensure
observance of safety precautions appropriate for each hazardous condition to reduce the
7990 employees risks to health and safety. Moreover to guard against human error and carelessness,
proper safety training and adequate effective supervision by safety personnel are most essential.
Although the Government of India enacted the Employment of Manual Scavengers and
Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, which declared the employment of
scavengers or the construction of dry latrines to be an offence, considering these, a new bill
7995 titled The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Bill,
2012 was prepared and introduced in the Parliament in September 2012. The Bill aims to
eliminate manual scavenging and insanitary latrine, and also provide for proper rehabilitation of
manual scavengers in alternative occupations so that they are able to lead a life of dignity.
In addition to the Acts mentioned above, employees shall follow to Contract Labour
8000 Regulation and Abolition Act, 1970 for secure operational health and safety at their sites.
Operation and maintenance of sewerage facilities, which should not be discontinued at any
moment, requires health and safety consciousness equal to or greater than one that is needed for
construction projects.
In India, health and safety policy is defined in construction project management by BIS
8005 (Refer to Appendix 9.1).
Therefore, the same health and safety policy for construction projects may be also adopted for
operation and maintenance of sewerage facilities.
STPs and PSs are subject to safety audits which confirm the status of safety and health
organizational setup, education / training, provision / inspection of personal protection, and
8010 records of safety, to ensure occupational safety and health at the work sites. The plant engineer
should rectify failures immediately, if any. The audit shall be implemented as per IS: 14489
(1998) Code of Practice on Occupational Safety and Health Audit. Standard safety audit
procedures of the inspectorate of factories shall be at a frequency of a month and compliance
reported to that agency.
8015 9.1.1 Diseases
Workers for sewerage systems and onsite systems face the risk of various health problems by
virtue of their occupation since they are exposed to a wide variety of chemicals,
micro-organisms and decaying organic matters that comprise sewage. Table 9.1 shows types of
diseases and their causes.
8020 Table 9.1 Types of diseases and their causes
Final Draft 9-1

Diseases Causes
Infections
- Leptospirosis
- Hepatitis
Pathogen present in sewers or sewage
- Helicobacter pylori
- Tetanus
- Diphtheria
Dermatitis Chemicals, mineral oil and tar
Respiratory symptoms Endotoxins, Bioaerosols
Source: IJOEM, 2008
9.1.2 Accidents
Workers for sewerage systems and onsite systems such as below are exposed to risk of accidents
during work. This chapter deals with oxygen deficiency, hydrogen sulphide poisoning, and
8025 dangers of combustible gas as confined space hazards*.
* Confined spaces are locations in an STP where fatal accidents frequently occur. A confined
space is defined as a space with: (1) Cramped entry and exit; (2) Absence of broad daylight and
ventilation; (3) Access is meant for very limited persons such as one or two persons. Possible
hazards such as below are considered to be common among onsite and sewerage works.
8030 Confined space hazards
Oxygen deficiency / Hydrogen sulphide poisoning /Combustible gas
Chlorine poisoning
Fall
Slip
8035 Electric shock
Fire
In this subsection, workplaces are categorized into the following five locations:
On-site
Sewer system
8040 Pumping station
Sewage treatment plant
Water and wastewater quality test laboratory
Possible hazards are listed for each workplace with subdivided locations in Table 9.2 by
locations.
8045
Table 9.2 Possible hazards by locations
Confined space
Chlorine
Hazards Hydrogen Electric
Oxygen Combustible gas Fall Slip Fire
Locations sulphide Shock
Deficiency gas poisoning
poisoning
On-site
Septic tanks
Anaerobic filters
Closed drains
Final Draft 9-2

Sewers
Sewers
Manholes
Closed drains
Pumping station and STP
Wet / dry wells
Settling tanks
Biological reactor
UASB reactors
Anaerobic lagoons
Sludge thickeners
Sludge digesters
Sludge dewatering

facility
Sludge drying beds
Disinfection devices
Electrical equipment
Electric room
Possible hazards at wastewater quality test laboratory include toxic substances, alkalis /acids
and glass appliances.
Details of the said accidents are described below.
8050 9.1.2.1 Confined Space Hazards
Possible hazards in confined space include oxygen deficiency, hydrogen sulphide poisoning,
and danger of combustible gases.
9.1.2.1.1 Risk of Oxygen Deficiency
When oxygen concentration (See 9.2.1.1 for details of measurement method) drops
8055 below 17%, shortness of breath may occur.
If the concentration reduces further, consciousness may be lost.
When the oxygen concentration drops below 10%, death may result.
Table 9.3 shows the change in symptoms of anoxia due to drop in oxygen concentration.
Table 9.3 Relationship between reduction in oxygen concentration and symptoms of anoxia
Oxygen
Symptoms of anoxia
Concentration (%)
Human begin to suffer adverse health effects when the oxygen level of their
19.5 breathing air drops below 19.5%.
Workers engaged in any form of exertion can rapidly become symptomatic as
their tissues fail to obtain the oxygen necessary to function properly.
Increased breathing rates, accelerated heartbeat, and impaired thinking or
16 to 19.5 coordination occur more quickly in an oxygen-deficient environment. Even a
momentary loss of coordination may be devastating to a worker if it occurs
while the worker is performing a potentially dangerous activity, such as
climbing a ladder.
Concentration of 12 to 16% oxygen causes increased breathing rate,
12 to 16 accelerated heartbeat, and impaired attention, thinking and coordination, even
in people who are resting.
At oxygen levels of 10 to 14 %, faulty judgement, intermittent respiration, and
10 to 14 exhaustion can be expected even with minimal exertion.
Final Draft 9-3

Oxygen
Symptoms of anoxia
Concentration (%)
Breathing air containing 6 to 10% oxygen results in nausea, vomiting,
6 to 10 lethargic movements, and perhaps unconsciousness.
Breathing air containing less than 6% oxygen produces convulsions, then
cessation of breathing, followed by cardiac arrest. These symptoms occur
Below 6 immediately. Even if a worker survives the oxygen deficiency, organs may
show evidence of oxygen-deficiency damage, which may be irreversible.
8060 Source: OHSA
9.1.2.1.2 Risk of Hydrogen Sulphide Poisoning in Confined Space

Hydrogen sulphide is extremely toxic. Sometimes it may be generated in high concentration in a
sewage treatment facility, which causes immediate death.
Hydrogen sulphide enters the body through eyes or mucous membrane of breathing
8065 organs.
Blood seeps out from the capillaries in cavities of the lungs, causes pulmonary
oedema, leading to breathing difficulties and death by suffocation.
In sewer facilities, it is generated in rising mains with no oxygen supply and in
inverted siphons, etc., where sludge is likely to accumulate easily.
8070 It is generated in grit chamber, pumping well, sedimentation basin, and sludge
thickening tank in sewage treatment plants.
Hydrogen sulphide generated in sewage and deposited sludge is sealed within and in
the static condition, so it does not disperse to the atmosphere easily. However, when
agitated, it disperses all at once to the atmosphere.
8075 The relationship between concentration of hydrogen sulphide gas and its toxic effect is shown in
Table 9.4.
Table 9.4 Relationship between concentration of hydrogen sulphide and its toxic effects
Conc. (ppm) Effects and reaction by organ
Sense of odour
0.025 Sensitive persons can
sense the odour (limit of
sense of odour)
0.3 Anybody can sense the
odour
3 to 5 Foul unpleasant odour of
medium strength
10 Permissible concentration (lower limit for irritation of
the mucous membrane of the eye)
20 to 30 Although bearable, after Breathing organs
getting accustomed to the Lowest limit for irritating
odour (olfactory fatigue), the lungs
any higher concentration
cannot be sensed.
50 Eyes
100 to 300 Olfactory nerve paralysis If exposed continuously for Conjunctivitis,
for 2 to 15 minutes; feels 8 to 48 hours, bronchitis, itchiness, pain in the
like unpleasant odour has pneumonia, and death by eyes, feeling of sand in
reduced. suffocation due to the eye, glare,
pulmonary oedema
Final Draft 9-4

Conc. (ppm) Effects and reaction by organ

170 to 300 Scorching pain in the bloodshot eyes and
mucous membrane of swelling, turbidity of
respiratory tract; if exposure cornea, corneal
is less than 1 hour (limit), damage and separation,
serious symptoms may not bending and haziness
occur of field of vision,
increase in pain due to
light
350 to 400 Exposure for 1 hour or more
may lead to loss of life
600 Exposure for 30 minutes

hour may lead to loss of life
700 Cerebral nerves

After excessive respiration for a short period, respiratory paralysis occurs
immediately thereafter
800 to 900 Loss of consciousness, respiratory arrest, death
1000 Swoon, respiratory arrest, death
5000 Instantaneous death
Source: JSWA, 2003
9.1.2.1.3 Risk of Combustible Gas in Confined Space

8080 Combustible gas includes methane, gasoline, thinner, and so on.
These gases become a mix of explosive gases in locations such as sewers.
The minimum limit of concentration for explosion to occur is 5% for methane and
1.3% for gasoline.
Combustible gasoline, thinner and so on, float on the surface of water and volatilise
8085 at room temperature, so they are dangerous.
If large quantity of gasoline flows into a sewer, there is a possibility of large
explosion to occur.
At locations where sewage is likely to accumulate such as in sewers, toxic or
explosive gases or vapours may be generated.
8090 9.1.2.2 Risk of Chlorine
30 ppm causes coughing; 40-60 ppm is dangerous in 30 minutes.
1,000 ppm is apt to be fatal in a few breaths.
Chlorine gas has specific weight that is 2.49 times heavier than air, is a yellowish
green gas and is a strong irritant.
8095 Although its disinfecting effect is high, its toxicity is also high.
9.1.2.3 Fall
Accidents frequently occur while climbing/descending ladders.
Accident often occurs while working at high places.
9.1.2.4 Slip
8100 Slippery surfaces are often encountered when working in an STP and sewers.
Final Draft 9-5

9.1.2.5 Electrical Shock

Electric shocks occur because of the following:
Exposure of live parts and defects such as damage to insulating sheath.
Inappropriate work such as forgetting to use insulated protective gear, touching live
8105 parts by mistake, etc.
Table 9.5 shows the effects on the human body subjected to an electric shock, while Table 9.6
shows the relationship between magnitude of shock current and duration.
The electric shock level when a person suffers an electric shock may be quantified by the
equation below.
8110 Electric shock level = Shock current (mA) x duration (s)
Table 9.5 Effects on the human body when subjected to electric shock
Effect
a Mild sensation, but not painful
b Painful shock but muscle still in control
c Muscle control affected
d Muscle contraction , breathing affected
Rapid, uncoordinated series of contractions of heart muscle causing irregular heart beat
e
(fibrillation) and possible death
f Severe burns, muscle contractions, stoppage of heart, death certain
Table 9.6 Relationship between shock current and duration
Magnitude of Current,
Duration
50 Hz rms value
Below 10 mA a 10s
10 mA to 15 mA b <1s c 1s-2s d 2s-10s
15 mA to 20 mA b <0.5s c 0.5s-2.0s d 2s-10s
20 mA to 40mA b <0.15s c 0.1s-2.0s d 2s-10s
40 mA to 80 mA b <0.05s c 0.05s-0.06s d 0.6s-1s e 1s-3s f 3s-
Above 100 mA b <0.04s c 0.04s-0.05s d 0.5s-0.8s e 0.8s-1.9s f 1.9s-
Source: Khanna Publishers
9.1.2.6 Fire
8115 Burns can be very serious and can cause painful injuries. Structural damage from fires can be
very costly.
The three essential ingredients of all ordinary fires are:
Fuel - paper, wood, oil, solvents and gas.
Heat - the degree necessary to vaporise fuel according to its nature.
8120 Oxygen - normally at least 15 percent of oxygen in the air is necessary to sustain a
fire. The greater the concentration, the brighter the blaze and more rapid the
combustion.
9.1.2.7 Risks in a Wastewater Quality Test Laboratory
9.1.2.7.1 Toxic Substances
8125 Persons working in the water quality test laboratory use various chemicals including toxic
substances. Inhalation of excessive steam, gas or dust, etc., in the course of their work, is
harmful to health so these persons should take adequate precautions.
Typical toxic substances used in a water quality test laboratory and their toxicity are given in
Final Draft 9-6

Table 9.7.
8130 Table 9.7 Toxicity of chemical used in water quality laboratory
Type Symptoms and poisons
Hydrogen cyanide, cyanogen compounds
Inactivation of haemoglobin in blood and oxygen associated with
Chemical asphyxia breathing leads to asphyxia.
Likely to occur easily during a reaction; permissible quantity is very
small so care is required.
Arsenic compounds
Caustic action Irritates mucous membrane of breathing organs, and at high
concentration, breathing is arrested.
Arsenic
Absorbed from an alimentary canal, the skin, and respiratory organs
Diarrhoea, vomiting, and shock in 30 minutes in serious cases
(Arsenious anhydride)
Inorganic mercury
Sharp pain in the stomach or the abdominal region, vomiting, and
Systemic poisoning bloody urine
Metal mercury
Easily evaporated and inhaled.
Trembling of hand and foot, and consciousness disorder
Organic phosphorus
Absorbed from the skin, alimentary canal, and respiratory organs
Diarrhoea, vomiting, spasm, and consciousness disorder.
Source: JSWA, 2003
9.1.2.7.2 Alkali / Acid

Acids and alkalis used in the water quality test laboratory include:
Hydrochloric acid
8135 Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Sodium hydroxide, etc.
9.1.2.7.3 Glass Appliances
Glass appliances can be broken if they are not handled carefully, and may lead to an injury.
8140 9.1.3 Instances of Accidents
An instance of accident related to anoxia (due to oxygen deficiency) is described below.
Type of work: Sewerage work
Number of casualties: 2 dead, 1 employee in serious condition
This casualty occurred when lifting the drain pump from the manhole during sewerage work.
8145 On the day of the occurrence, storm water pipes were being replaced.
Worker (A) and worker (B) opened the manhole cover to perform work in the
manhole, and entered the manhole through the trap.
After a while, when Worker (C) looked into the manhole, he found the workers (A)
Final Draft 9-7
and (B) had collapsed.

8150 He notified the other workers. Worker (C) rushed into the manhole for rescue and
called out but there was no response.
Soon after, worker (C) also collapsed on the spot.
Later, workers (A), (B) and (C) were rescued by the rescue team and taken to the
hospital.
8155 Workers (A) and (B) lost their lives, while the rescued worker (C) was admitted to
the hospital with hypoxic encephalopathy (brain damage from lack of oxygen).
Workers (A) and (B) were diagnosed with anoxia.
The probable causes of the accident were as follows:
Was not aware that the location had the risk of oxygen deficiency.
8160 Did not measure the oxygen concentration and did not ventilate the manhole before
entering it.
Did not impart education and implement rescue drills related to work at dangerous
locations with oxygen deficiency.
No safety guard was stationed.
8165 9.2 Safety Aspects and Measures
Measures to protect workers from accidents are mentioned in 9.2.1 Preventive measures are
taken to prevent accidents, and 9.3.2 Corrective measures are adopted when accidents occur.
Preventive measures and corrective measures against accidents are described below.
9.2.1 Preventive Measures
8170 9.2.1.1 Hazard-specific Preventive Measures
9.2.1.1.1 Confined Space Hazards
The potential for build-up of toxic or combustible gas mixture and/or oxygen deficiency exists
in all confined spaces. Characteristics of common gases causing hazards are shown in Appendix
9.2. Refer to Table 9.2 for possible confined spaces related to sewerage works.
8175 Follow the Confined space entry procedure shown in Figure 9.1 and Appendix 9.3. Entry into
confined space should not be permitted until the space is ensured to be safe as specified in Table
9.8.
Table 9.8 Acceptable entry condition
Substance Concentration
Oxygen 19.5% and more
Hydrogen sulphide Less than 10ppm
Combustible gases Less than 10%
Final Draft 9-8

Check atmosphere
Ventilation
Ventilation should be continued during the work.
Atmosphere should be monitored during the work.
Monitor atmosphere
Issue Permit should be issued for each entry by

Confined space entry permit the work supervisor.
Evacuation procedure should be prepared.
Enter the confined space
Entrants should be thoroughly trained.
Entrants should use proper wear and be
equipped with protective devices.
Safety guard should be stationed.
8180 Figure 9.1 Confined space entry procedure
a. Measurement Method
An example of a portable toxic gas detector that can measure oxygen, combustible gas,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide simultaneously is shown in Figure 9.2 and is given
here.
8185 Before measuring the confined space atmosphere, perform zero error correction of
the instrument at a location where there is fresh air (no gas in the vicinity).
Measure the atmosphere within the space to confirm if any hazard exists as given
below.
Oxygen : Less than 19.5%
8190 Hydrogen sulphide : 10 ppm or more
Combustible gases : 10% LEL(lower explosive limit) or more
Measurement should be done at three locations top, middle and bottom of the
confined space since the oxygen concentration differs according to the position.
Record the measured results on Confined space pre-entry checklist (Appendix 9.4)
Oxygen (%)
Combustible gas (%LEL)
Carbon dioxide (ppm)
Hydrogen sulphide (ppm)
8195
Source: PRISM GAS DETECTION PVT. LTD.
Figure 9.2 Portable toxic gas detector

b. Ventilation Method
Final Draft 9-9

If the measured results indicate one or more of the following hazards, be sure to ventilate
8200 the location before starting work.
Oxygen : Less than 19.5%
Hydrogen sulphide : 10 ppm or more
Combustible gases : 10% LEL or more
To ensure the atmosphere is safe during the work, operate the ventilation equipment
8205 continuously.
Bring the blower outlet end close to the workplace and continue to blow air at the rate of 10
m3/minute per person or greater.
c. Provisions for Evacuation
The work supervisor should make the following arrangements:
8210 Keep ready breathing apparatus, ladder, rope, safety belt and other equipment for use
in evacuating or rescuing workers in the event of an emergency.
Inspect protective gear before start of work and ensure that they are ready for use at
all times. Repair or replace gear and equipment that are defective.
Bear in mind that gas protection mask or dust protection mask is ineffective against
8215 anoxia.
Non-spark tools should be used in confined spaces.
d. Stationing of Safety Guard
The work supervisor should station a safety guard to detect abnormality at an early stage
and to take immediate and appropriate action.
8220 The safety guard should be stationed outside the opening if the situation inside the
confined space can be monitored from the outside.
The safety guard should check access to the workplace of the workers engaged in the
work.
9.2.1.1.2 Chlorine Poisoning
8225 Store chlorine containers in a cool and dry place away from direct sunlight or from
heating units.
Wear a face shield when changing chlorine containers.
As chlorine is approximately two and half times heavier than air, vents should be
provided at floor level.
8230 9.2.1.1.3 Fall
The work supervisor and worker should take the following precautions to prevent persons from
falling into manholes, etc.:
Ensure that nobody falls from ladders (including metal rungs) and that tools are not
dropped from ground level.
8235 Wear uniform suitable for the work and wear the necessary protective gear.
Check that the ladder to the manhole is not corroded or worn out.
Final Draft 9-10

9.2.1.1.4 Slip
Special anti-skid shoes with metal cladding over the fingers portion should be
provided by the employer for the workers. These shoes should be used by the
8240 workers only within the STP.
Keep floor of workplaces dry and free from grease or oil.
9.2.1.1.5 Electric Shock
Electric shocks occur because of the following:
Exposure of live parts and defects such as damage to insulating sheath
8245 Inappropriate work such as forgetting to use insulated protective gear, touching live
parts by mistake, etc.
Measures to prevent electric shock are as follows:
Methods for safe handling of electric equipment should be drilled into the workers
and inspection and maintenance methods for electric equipment should be
8250 established.
Special precautions should be taken to prevent electric shocks at locations where
water is likely to accumulate (grit chamber, pumping room and in pipe gallery).
Rubber-soled sports shoes may be used to prevent electric shocks.
a. Electric Room
8255 Access to the electric room should be prohibited to all except authorized personnel. Signs
should be put up indicating danger when current is flowing into the room.
The electric room should be managed by the procedure below:
Do not place combustible items near exposed wiring and electric equipment.
Install fire extinguishers at easily visible locations such that they can be used
8260 immediately in the event of a fire.
If there is excessive lightning, do not approach equipment wiring and lightning
arrester.
Periodically inspect and store disconnecting switches, operating rods, insulating
plates, etc., at their specified positions.
8265 Store electric torch at its specified position such that it can be used immediately
during an emergency such as power failure.
Place insulating mat on the floor in front of the MCC Panel to prevent electric
shocks.
b. Equipment Repair
8270 Before repairs of equipment or wiring, permission should be taken from the plant engineer
(Refer to 9.4.2) and the work supervisor should hold a meeting and decide the work
procedure. Repair work on electrical equipment should be prohibited to all except
authorized personnel.
Cut off circuits of equipment to be repaired before repairs.
8275 Put up sign indicating not to switch on power, assign a person to monitor the power
switch, and strictly enforce power ON/OFF controls.
Before starting the repair, always detect the voltage using a voltage detector or tester.
Final Draft 9-11
Electric shock due to fault in cable run may also be considered; always ground the
equipment before performing work.
8280 Operate switches such that you do not receive an electric shock.
If a power capacitor exists, thoroughly discharge the remaining charge before
starting work.
If equipment breaks down at night, and if there is no emergency generator at the
workplace, the worker should perform repairs during day time when there is daylight
8285 and not during night time.
9.2.1.1.6 Fire
Every facility should develop a fire prevention plan with input from the local fire marshal, fire
chief, and/or insurance company. The plan may be very simple or very complex, depending on
the specific facility needs. Some items which may be included in any plan are:
8290 Regulate the use, storage and disposal of all combustible materials/substances.
Provide periodic clean-up of weeds or other vegetation in and around the plant.
Develop written response procedures for reacting to a fire situation to include
evacuation.
Provide required service on all fire detection and response equipment (inspection,
8295 service, hydrostatic testing).
Routinely inspect fire doors to ensure proper operation and unobstructed access.
Immediately repair, remove or replace any defective wiring.
Restrict the use of any equipment which may provide a source of ignition in areas
where combustible gases may exist.
8300 Maintain clear access to fire prevention equipment at all times.
9.2.1.2 Personal Protection and Protective Devices
9.2.1.2.1 Head Protection
All personnel working in any areas where there may be danger from falling, flying
tools or other objects must wear approved hard hats. Such hats should be according
8305 to the relevant BIS. Specially insulated hard hats must be worn when working
around high voltage to protect from electrical shock.
It is advisable to have detachable cradle and sweat bands for two reasons (1) to
permit easy replacement of cradles and sweat bands and (2) to make possible
assignment of one helmet to several workers each with its own cradle and sweat
8310 band for sanitary reasons.
Once broken, the crown of a hard hat cannot be effectively repaired. It must be
replaced.
9.2.1.2.2 Face and Eye Protection
Impact Goggles must be worn to protect against flying objects. They can be spectacle or cup
8315 goggles.
Spectacle goggles must have rigid frame to hold lenses in proper position before the eyes.
Frames must be corrosion resistant and simple in design for cleaning and disinfection.
Cup goggles should have cups large enough to protect the eye socket and to distribute impact
Final Draft 9-12

over a wide area of facial bones.

8320 Chemical goggles and acid hoods should be used for protection against splashes of
corrosive chemicals. A hood treated with chemical-resistance material having a glass
or plastic window gives good protection. There should be a secure joint between the
window and the hood material.
Face shields can be used against light impact. Plastic shields should be
8325 non-inflammable, free from scratches or other flaws, which introduce distortions.
Welding masks must be used for protection from splashes and radiation produced by
welding.
Protective creams are used to protect the skin from contamination and penetration by
oils, greases, paints, dust etc.
8330 9.2.1.2.3 Hands and Lower Arms
Protective sleeves, gloves and finger pads are used for different types of hazards and
jobs.
Rubber and asbestos gloves should be long enough to come well above the wrist,
leaving no gap between the glove and coat or shirt sleeve.
8335 Gloves or mittens having metal parts for reinforcements should never be used
around electrical equipment.
Linemen and electricians working on energized or high voltage electrical equipment
require specially made and tested rubber gloves.
9.2.1.2.4 Body Protection
8340 A good quality diver suit should be provided to the diver whose services are very
necessary while plugging the sewer line or removal of some hard blockage due to
stone etc. at the mouth of the pipe in the manholes. Depending upon the site
condition, suit should have provision to connect an air line with compressor or
oxygen cylinder.
8345 Always use rubber aprons when working with chemicals.
9.2.1.2.5 Legs and Feet
Leggings are provided where leg protection is necessary and are in the same
category as coats, frocks and aprons. Kneepads made of cloth, padding, rubber, cork
are used on jobs where kneeling is required.
8350 Ordinary work shoes are acceptable for many jobs. They should have non-skid soles
to prevent slips.
Safety shoes are required where there is danger of dropping tools or materials on the
feet. Toe guards have been designed for the men to wear when operating machines as
air hammers, concrete breakers etc.
8355 For working on electrical equipment suitable safety shoes must be used.
9.2.1.2.6 Mask
a. Gas Mask
General purpose gas masks are used for respiratory protection from low and moderately
high concentrations of all types of toxic gases and vapours present in the atmosphere in
8360 which there is sufficient oxygen to support life (Figure 9.3). Masks afford necessary
Final Draft 9-13

respiratory protection under many circumstances but it is most important to know the
limitations of the various types available and to be familiar with their use. Even when
masks are used properly, other precautions such as never using open flames or creating
sparks in the presence of inflammable gases must be taken. The general purpose gas masks
8365 afford protection against organic vapours, acid gases, carbon monoxide up to 2 percent
concentration, toxic dusts, fumes and smoke. The gas mask consists of a face piece, a
canister containing purifying chemicals, a timer for showing duration of service and a
harness for support. Protection against specific contaminants can be achieved by the
selection of appropriate canisters.
8370 Persons using gas masks should practice regularly with them in order to become proficient
in putting them on quickly and breathing through them. Gas masks cannot be used in
oxygen deficient atmospheres, in unventilated locations or areas where large
concentrations of poisonous gases exist.
8375 Source: JICA, 2011
Figure 9.3 Gas mask

b. Dust Protection Mask
This is a gas mask that takes air in which fine solid particles are suspended, removes the
fine particles and detoxifies the air after passing it through the particle filter.
8380 c. Respiratory Equipment
In all dusty areas, effective filter masks should be used to guard against specific hazards.
Hose mask should be used by men entering tanks or pits where there may be dangerous
concentrations of dust, vapour, gases or insufficient oxygen. Hose mask with blower and
the airline respirator are used where the hazard is immediate, that is, hasty escape would be
8385 impossible or cannot be made without serious injury if there is failure of the equipment.
Oxygen or air breathing apparatus, that is, self-contained oxygen breathing equipment
using cylinders or bottles of compressed oxygen or air is used where required. This is a
must when the length of the hose pipe in on-line supply of oxygen exceeds more than 45 m.
Gas masks: Canisters consist of a face piece connected by a tube to a canister. Chemicals in
8390 the canister purify contaminated air. No single chemical has been found to remove all
gaseous contaminants. It does not supply oxygen and can be used where there is sufficient
oxygen.
Various types of respirators and their suitability are as follows:
Self-contained breathing apparatus
8395 This apparatus is equipped with a cylinder containing compressed oxygen or air which
can be strapped on to the body of the user or with a canister which produces oxygen
chemically when a reaction is triggered (Figure 9.4). This type of equipment is
suitable for an oxygen deficient atmosphere. It is also suitable for high concentration
Final Draft 9-14

of chlorine.
8400
Source: Stylex Fire Protection Systems
Figure 9.4 Self breathing apparatus

Air-line respirator: Air-line length 90 m (max.)
It is suitable in any atmosphere, regardless of the degree of contamination or oxygen
8405 deficiency, provided that clean, breathable air can be reached. This device is suitable
for high concentrations of chlorine, provided conditions permit safe escape if air
supply fails.
9.2.1.2.7 Ear Protection
Where noise levels are high and exceeds specified limits, effective ear-pads or earplugs must be
8410 used.
9.2.1.2.8 Safety Belt
When you work on ladders or scaffolding, use extreme caution to prevent falls. Safety belt
should be used to prevent falls.
9.2.1.2.9 Portable Lighting Equipment
8415 The equipment normally used is portable electric hand lamps of permissible types, electric cap
lamps and explosion proof flash lights.
9.2.1.2.10 Portable Blowers / Ventilating Fan
Replace the air in oxygen deficient and hazardous spaces with fresh air using exhaust fan and
exhaust ducts (Figure 9.5).Ventilation also includes the method of exhausting the air, but
8420 generally the method of blowing in air is more effective.
Source: GVT Engineering
Figure 9.5 Portable blower (ducting blower)

9.2.1.2.11 Safety Fences
8425 Visitors including adults and children visit the STP as part of social studies. For this reason, the
safety management officer should install fences in the facility and ensure a proper route for
Final Draft 9-15

visitors so as to prevent any accident.

9.2.1.2.12 Safety Signs
To warn of danger to workers, visitors, and other construction workers in an STP, safety signs
8430 such as shown in Figure 9.6 should be displayed in the STP.
Prohibition (Red circle)
Warning (Yellow triangle)
Obligation (Blue circle)
Source: http://www.safetysignindia.com
Figure 9.6 Safety signs

9.2.1.3 Workplace-specific Preventive Measures
Good design and the use of safety equipment will not prevent physical injuries in sewerage
8435 works unless safety practices are understood by the entire crew and are enforced. Safety
preventive measures specific for the workplace are described here.
9.2.1.3.1 On-site
Before entering the pit or tank, follow all of the procedures required for work in
confined spaces defined in 9.2.1.1.1.
8440 When oxygen concentration is less than 19.5% and hydrogen sulphide concentration
is more than 10 ppm, use forced ventilation to ventilate the tank before entering it.
Wear rubber gloves to prevent wounds from infection.
9.2.1.3.2 Sewer System
a. Traffic Hazards
8445 Before starting any job in a street or other traffic area, study the work area and plan
your work.
Traffic may be warned by high-level signs far ahead of the job site.
Traffic cones, signs, or barricades arranged around the work, or a flagger are
applicable to direct traffic.
Final Draft 9-16

oncoming traffic.
Use fluorescent jacket while working along roads (Figure 9.7).
Source: Vibgyor Industries
8455 Figure 9.7 Fluorescent jacket

b. Manhole
Before entering the manhole, follow safety entry procedure. (Refer to Sec. 2.11.1.2
Safety measures to be taken before any manhole entry)
Before entering the manhole, follow all the procedures required for work in confined
8460 spaces defined in 9.2.1.1.1.
Source: JICA, 2011
Figure 9.8 Photo showing typical confined space entry

When oxygen concentration is less than 19.5% and hydrogen sulphide concentration
8465 is more than 10 ppm, use forced ventilation to ventilate the tank before entering it.
Manhole work usually requires job site protection by barricades and warning
devices.
Never use your fingers or hands to remove a manhole lid. Always use a tool
specifically designed for this purpose.
8470 Be alert for loose or corroded steps.
Wear a properly fitted pair of rubber gloves and boots, or an approved substitute that
will provide protection from infection.
Tools and equipment should be lowered into a manhole by means of a bucket or a
basket.
8475 9.2.1.3.3 Pumping Station
Before entering the well, follow all of the procedures required for work in confined
spaces defined in 9.2.1.1.1.
Final Draft 9-17
spaces defined in 9.2.1.1.1.

When oxygen concentration is less than 19.5% and hydrogen sulphide concentration
is more than 10 ppm, use forced ventilation to ventilate the tank before entering it.
8480 Do not work on electrical systems or controls unless you are qualified and authorized
to do so.
Guards over couplings and shafts should be provided and should be in place at all
times.
If stairs are installed in a pumping station, they should have hand rails and non-slip
8485 treads.
Fire extinguishers should be provided in the station, properly located and maintained.
The use of liquid-type fire extinguishers should be avoided. All-purpose A-B-C
chemical-type fire extinguishers are recommended.
Good housekeeping is a necessity in a pumping station to prevent slip and fall
8490 accidents.
Properly secure and lock up an unattended pumping station when you leave so as to
prevent injury to a neighbourhood child and possible vandalism to the station.
9.2.1.3.4 Sewage Treatment Plant
a. Head Works
8495 Bar screens or racks
Remove all slime, rags, grease, etc to prevent slip and fall accidents. Never
leave rake or other tools on the floor.
Never lean against safety chains.
Always turn off, lock out and tag the main circuit breaker before you begin
8500 repairs.
The time and date the unit was turned off should be noted on the tag, as well as
the reason it was turned off. No one should turn on the main breaker and start
the unit until the tag and lock have been removed by the person who placed
them.
8505 Pump rooms
If the room is below ground level and provided with only forced-air ventilation,
be certain the fan is on before entering the area.
Guards should be installed around all rotating shaft couplings, belt drives, or
other moving parts normally accessible.
8510 Remove all oil and grease, and clean up spills immediately.
Be sure to provide barricades or posts with safety chains around the opening to
prevent falls.
Until the area has been checked for an explosive atmosphere, no open flames
(such as a welding torch), smoking or other sources of ignition should be
8515 allowed.
Do not work on electrical systems or controls unless you are qualified and
authorized to do so.
Final Draft 9-18

Wet pits or sumps

Before entering the pits or sumps, follow all of the procedures required for work
8520 in confined spaces such as defined in 9.2.1.1.1.
When oxygen concentration is less than 19.5% and hydrogen sulphide
concentration is more than 10 ppm, use forced ventilation to ventilate the tank
before entering it.
For access ladders to pit areas, the application of a non-slip coating on ladder
8525 rungs is helpful.
Watch your footing on the floor of pits and sumps; the floor may be very
slippery.
Tools and equipment should be lowered into a manhole by means of a bucket or
a basket.
8530 Only explosion-proof lights and equipment should be used in these areas.
Grit channels
Keep walking surfaces free of grit grease, oil, slime, or other material to prevent
slip accidents.
Before working on mechanical or electrical equipment, be certain that it is
8535 locked out and properly tagged.
Install and maintain guards on gears, sprockets, chains, or other moving parts
that are normally accessible.
Before entering the channel, pit or tank, follow all of the procedures required
for work in confined spaces such as defined in 9.2.1.1.1.
8540 When oxygen concentration is less than 19.5% and hydrogen sulphide
before entering it.
Rubber boots with steel safety toes and a non-skid cleat-type sole should be
worn.
8545 b. Clarifiers or Sedimentation Basins
Always turn off, lock out and tag the clarifier breaker before working on the
drive unit.
Maintain a good non-skid surface on all stairs, ladders, and catwalks to prevent
slipping.
8550 When it is necessary to actually climb down into the launder, always wear a
harness with a safety line to prevent a fall accident and have someone
accompany you.
Watch your footing on the floor of pits and sumps; the floor may be very
slippery.
8555 Guards should be installed over or around all gears, chains, sprockets, belts, or
other moving parts. Keep these in place whenever the unit is in operation.
c. Digesters and Digestion Equipment
Methane gas produced by anaerobic conditions is explosive when mixed with
Final Draft 9-19

the proper proportion of air.

8560 Smoking and open flames should not be allowed in the vicinity of digesters, in
digestion control buildings, or in any other areas or structures used in the sludge
digestion system.
All these areas should be posted with signs in a conspicuous place which forbid
smoking and open flames.
8565 All enclosed rooms or galleries in this system should be well ventilated with
forced air ventilation. Never enter any enclosed area or pit which is not
ventilated.
Before entering the digester for cleaning or inspection, follow all of the
procedures required for work in confined spaces such as defined in 9.2.1.1.1.
8570 When oxygen concentration is less than 19.5% and hydrogen sulphide
before entering it.
Explosion-proof lights and non-sparking tools and shoes must always be used
when working around, on top of, or in a digester.
8575 When working on equipment such as draft tube mixers, compressors and
diffusers, ensure that equipment is properly valved out, locked out and
appropriately tagged to prevent the gas from leaking.
If a heated digester is installed, read and obey the manufacturer's instructions
before working on the boiler or heat exchanger because there is a risk of
8580 explosion.
Sludge pump rooms should be well ventilated to remove any gases that might
accumulate from leakage, spillage or from a normal pump cleaning.
Good maintenance of flame arresters will ensure that they will be able to
perform their job of preventing a back flash of the flame.
8585 d. Aerators
An operator should never go into unguarded areas alone.
Approved life buoys with permanently attached hand-lines should be accessible
at strategic locations around the aerator.
Operators should wear a safety harness with a life line when servicing aerator
8590 spray nozzles and other items around an aerator.
Lower yourself into the aerator with a truck hoist if one is available.
Be extremely careful when using fixed ladders as they become very slippery.
Watch your footing on the floor of the aerators: the floor may be very slippery.
e. Sewage Ponds
8595 Never go out on the pond for sampling or other purposes alone. Someone
should be standing by on the bank in case of trouble.
Always wear an approved life jacket when working from a boat or raft on the
surface of the pond.
f. Disinfection Device
Final Draft 9-20

8600 Do not accept containers that have not been pressure tested within five years of
the delivery date.
Do not accept containers not meeting the standards. (Refer to IS 10553 Part I
Requirement for chlorination equipment)
The most common causes of accidents involving chlorine are leaking pipe connections and
8605 excessive dosage rates.
Bottles or cylinders should be stored in a cool, dry place away from direct
sunlight or from heating units.
Bottles or cylinders should never be dropped or allowed to strike each other
with any force. Cylinders should be stored in an upright position and secured by
8610 a chain, wire rope, or clamp.
One of the tanks should be blocked so that they cannot roll.
Always wear a face shield when changing chlorine containers.
Connections to cylinders and tanks should be made only with approved clamp
adaptors or unions. Always inspect all surfaces and threads of the connector
8615 before mixing connection. Check for leaks as soon as the connection is
completed. Never wait until you smell chlorine or sulphur dioxide. If you
discover even the slightest leak, correct it immediately.
Like accidents, leaks generally are caused by faulty procedure or carelessness.
Obtain from your supplier and post in a conspicuous place (outside the
8620 chlorination and sulphonation room) the name and telephone number of the
nearest emergency service in case of severe leak.
Cylinder storage and equipment rooms should be provided with some means of
ventilating the room. As chlorine is approximately two and a half times heavier
than air, vents should be provided at floor level.
8625 Normally ventilation from chlorine storage room is discharged to the
atmosphere, but when a chlorine leak occurs, the ventilated air containing the
chlorine should be routed to a treatment system to remove the chlorine. A
caustic scrubbing system can be used to treat air containing chlorine from a
leak.
8630 The IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) for chlorine is 30 ppm.
Always enter enclosed cylinder storage or equipment rooms with caution. If you
smell chlorine or sulphur dioxide when opening the door to the area,
immediately close the door; leave ventilation on, and seek assistance.
Never attempt to enter an atmosphere of chlorine when you are by yourself or
8635 without an approved air supply and protective clothing, which will allow a
person to enter safely into an atmosphere of chlorine. Remember to use the
"buddy system" (system in which two persons work as a single unit) when
responding to a leak.
9.2.1.3.5 Water and Wastewater Quality Test Laboratory
8640 a. Toxic substances should be handled with the following precautions:
Store poisonous substances in containers with tight lids. Clearly indicate the contents
of the containers; place them in a special cupboard for chemicals that can be locked,
and record the quantities of the substances used.
Final Draft 9-21
Some substances may decompose when exposed to light and explode; store such
8645 substances in cool, dark locations.
Store gaseous substances in well-ventilated locations.
Gaseous substances should generally be handled in well-ventilated locations. If this
is not possible, safety masks should be worn, the location ventilated thoroughly, and
after use, the persons handling the substances should gargle and wash their face.
8650 b. Alkali / acid should be handled with the following precautions:
Wear protective goggles, rubber gloves, and protective clothing, if necessary.
Handling hydrochloric acid
Since this acid is highly corrosive, always wash your hands after handling it.
Sometimes pressure still remains in sealed bottles in which this acid is stored.
8655 When opening the bottle, take care because the acid within the bottle may gush
out unexpectedly.
Handling sulphuric acid
Since this acid is highly corrosive, always wash your hands after handling it.
Sulphuric acid generates heat after reacting with water. If a large amount of
8660 sulphuric acid falls on any part of the body, wipe it off first with cloth and then
wash the affected part of the body with water (if you do not wash with water,
symptoms may get worse due to generation of heat; so take precautions).
When diluting sulphuric acid, always dilute by pouring sulphuric acid into
water and not vice versa.
8665 Handling nitric acid
Nitric acid vapours are strong respiratory toxins, so take care to ventilate the
place thoroughly.
Take measures to not handle vapours.
When opening the container with nitric acid, ensure that the acid does not gush
8670 out when the container cap is removed.
Handling sodium hydroxide
Take care that sodium hydroxide does not stick to the hand or other body parts
because it has the action of decomposing proteins.
Locations should be available for properly washing parts of the body, preferably
8675 where sodium hydroxide is used.
When dissolved in water, intense heat is generated and the solution may spray
out. Take care to dissolve little by little so as to avoid risks.
c. Glass appliances should be handled with the following precautions:
Inspect thoroughly before use; do not use those with scratches or cracks.
8680 Handle beakers, flasks, test tubes which have small thickness very carefully since
these objects have less mechanical strength.
Containers with reasonable thickness if heated suddenly may break; so take
precautions.
Final Draft 9-22

Round off sharp corners of glass tubes before using them.

8685 Use appropriate supporting stands when you handle large flasks.
When you insert a glass tube or a thermometer in a rubber stopper or cork stopper, do
as carefully as it may break and lead to an injury.
Take care not to touch heated glass with your bare hands.
Insert solids in a beaker of flask while tilting the container and slide in the solid
8690 gently so as not to break the bottom.
9.2.2 Corrective Measures
9.2.2.1 Emergency Contact
The plant engineer should set up an emergency contact system to prepare for emergencies, and
appropriately fix the scope of contacts and the persons responsible for contacting relevant
8695 personnel.
The contact system should include records of medical organizations, and the names and
telephone numbers of departments such as internal medicine, surgical department,
ophthalmology or general hospital.
Figure 9.9 shows an example of emergency contacts.
Hospital
Accident (ambulance)
Fire station
(ambulance)
Person detecting Police station

the accident
Safety officer
Plant engineer
8700
Source: JSWA, 2003
Figure 9.9 Example of emergency contacts

9.2.2.2 Emergency Measures
Workers frequently perform dangerous work or handle dangerous chemicals while working in
8705 sewerage systems and on-site systems. For this reason, emergency measures need to be
thoroughly understood beforehand. Workers need to adopt appropriate action if such an
unexpected situation arises.
Information on emergency measures is given below.
The supervisor of the safety personnel (organisation) should always inspect and
8710 maintain rescue appliances and clearly indicate their storage location.
The supervisor of the safety personnel (organisation) should establish assistants for
rescue action at each workplace and train them beforehand.
Medical organisations to be contacted in an emergency should be decided
beforehand (names and telephone numbers of hospitals with internal medicine,
8715 surgical department, ophthalmology or general hospital to be kept ready so they can
be summoned immediately).
Should be able to offer first aid immediately.
Final Draft 9-23

Subsequently, the doctor, and if necessary, the rescue organisation where the patient
is being given treatment, should be notified the type and seriousness of the accident,
8720 the first aid given, the rescue appliances in hand, etc.
The patient should be put to bed in a relaxed manner.
Although it is good to rest the head and the body in a horizontal condition on a bed, if
the face is flushed, the head should be raised slightly.
If the face is bluish in colour, the pillow should be removed and the head maintained
8725 at a low level.
If the patient has vomiting sensation, the face should be kept sideways to allow the
patient to vomit.
The patients body temperature should be checked, and the patient should be
encouraged, but should not be indiscreetly moved.
8730 Attention should be paid so as not to overlook wound, burn, bone fracture, hip
dislocation, and so on.
The status of the patient, the condition of the surroundings, environment and work
method should be studied closely, a sketch should be made and photos should be
taken.
8735 Vomit, excrement and urine, bloodstain, etc., should be preserved as is, so that they
can be analysed later.
Care and treatment for injured workers are described in Appendix 9.5 separately for each wound
or injury.
9.2.2.2.1 First Aid Tools
8740 The plant engineer should make arrangements for quickly offering first aid measures. The plant
engineer should do the following to minimize injury during an accident or disaster:
Provide necessary materials for offering first aid.
Artificial respirator
Stretcher (Figure 9.10)
8745 First aid box (Figure 9.11)
Should ensure that a responsible person always manages the first aid tools.
Drugs and equipment set aside in a first aid box are as given below. Unnecessary
items should not be placed in the first aid box.
Waterproof casts
8750 Adhesive plasters of assorted sizes
Eye protection pads
Disinfectant lotions
Safety pins of assorted sizes
Unused sealed twin blade razor
Final Draft 9-24

8755
Source: Hiren Industrial Corporation
Figure 9.10 Stretcher
Source: Hiren Industrial Corporation
8760 Figure 9.11 First aid box

9.2.2.2.2 Extinguisher
Fires are classed as A-, B-, C-, or D-type fires, according to what is burning.
Class A fires (general combustibles such as wood, cloth, paper, or rubbish) are
usually controlled by cooling - as by use of water to cool the material.
8765 Class B fires (flammable liquids such as gasoline, oil, grease, or paint) are usually
smothered by oxygen control - as by use of foam, carbon dioxide, or a dry chemical.
Class C fires (electrical equipment) are usually smothered by oxygen control - use of
carbon dioxide or dry chemical extinguishers - non-conductors of electricity.
Class D fires occur in combustible metals, such as magnesium, lithium, or sodium,
8770 and require special extinguishers and techniques.
Use carbon dioxide or halon compressed gas extinguishers to control fires around electrical
contacts. Do not use soda-acid type extinguishers because the electric motor will have to be
rewound and you could be electrocuted attempting to put out the fire. Also remember that
carbon dioxide can displace oxygen.
8775 9.2.2.2.3 Emergency Lighting
Emergency lighting is required for illuminating critical control areas and for allowing fast exit
from an area if the normal lights go out. An emergency generator that starts automatically with a
power failure is wired separately to turn on emergency lights in critical areas. Instead of an
emergency generator, battery packs are often used for evacuation. Please refer to clause 5.12.4
8780 and 5.12.6 of Part A.
Final Draft 9-25

9.2.2.3 Searching out Hazards

The safety management officer should carry out the following safety examinations:
Record the status of occurrence of accident (Appendix 9.6). Study the status of
occurrence and causes of accidents, and based on the studies pick out the conditions
8785 for occurrence of industrial accidents (risk locations, risky work, risky actions, etc.).
Examine which parts of the workers bodies were affected by accidents from the
records of accidents. Examine the necessity of protective gear.
Check the status of work location, and study unsafe actions and inappropriate
working methods of the workers.
8790 Study the status of use of workers tools.
The safety officer should consider the results and report them to the plant engineer.
The safety officer should reflect the results of the examinations above in the education of
workers.
9.3 Health Aspects and Measures

8795 9.3.1 Preventive Measures
9.3.1.1 Personal Hygiene against Pathogen
The worker should take precautions because a large number of coliform groups, various kinds
of micro-organisms, and egg parasites exist in sewage.
The workers should strive to maintain good health by taking care of the following points:
8800 Wear clean uniform, work boots, etc.
After work and before having a meal, always wash hands and disinfect them.
After work, take a shower if possible.
Do not enter the offices and lounges wearing dirty clothes.
If necessary, take vaccinations against tetanus, leptospirosis fever, and so on.
8805 9.3.1.2 Maintaining Cleanliness
The worker should maintain each facility in a clean and neat condition.
The floors of work rooms, stairs and corridors should be cleaned at the appropriate
frequency to maintain them in a clean condition.
Disinfection of relevant locations is to be carried out periodically.
8810 9.3.1.3 Health Check
Workers should receive health check once a year so as to maintain their health, and prevent
illnesses or detect them at an early stage. The results of the health check should be maintained
as records.
Recommended items to be inspected during the health check are as given below.
8815 Examine medical history.
Final Draft 9-26

Examine subjective symptoms and other objective symptoms.

Check height, weight, vision and hearing ability.
Chest X-ray examination.
Blood pressure measurement.
8820 Check for anaemia.
Check for liver functions.
Check for lipids in blood.
Check blood sugar level.
Urine analysis.
8825 Electrocardiogram analysis.
9.3.2 Corrective Measures

When a worker has symptoms of an illness listed in Table 9.1, the plant engineer should ensure
that the worker is checked up by a specialist doctor and receives proper treatment and care and
should take the following actions considering the content of work done by the worker:
8830 Change the workplace if necessary.
Change the content of the work.
Shorten the working hours.
Perform relevant measurements of the working environment.
Maintain the facility or equipment.
8835 9.4 Safety Personnel (Organisation)
The plant engineer is expected to establish an appropriate safety management organisation in
order to avoid losses of workers, stoppage of operations, etc., due to industrial accidents.
9.4.1 Institutional Arrangement

The number of workers assigned for operation and maintenance of an STP varies according to
8840 the scale of the facility, the treatment process used, and equipment installed.
If the scale of the facility increases, the following will also increase:
Equipment installed
Workers
Quantity of work
8845 Injuries and accidents
Accordingly, the number of safety and health supervisors will vary depending on the scale of the
facility.
Figure 9.12 shows the safety management organisations for large STP, medium STP, and small
STP, respectively.
Final Draft 9-27
(Large STP > 50 MLd) (Medium STP (5 to 50 MLd)) (Small STP < 5 MLd)
Plant engineer Plant engineer Plant engineer
On-site Safety officer On-site Safety officer

On-site Safety officer
8850 Safety Health Safety & Health Safety & Health
supervisor supervisor supervisor promoter
Figure 9.12 Safety management organisation
9.4.2 Human Resources
Safety officer is to be assigned, and safety management to suit the number of workers in the
workplace is required to be implemented.
8855 The plant engineer should select and assign safety officer to ensure the safety and health at the
workplace. The plant engineer should give permission for any required repair works on
equipment / facilities in the STP.
The safety officer should carry out the following duties as full time service:
Prevent risks or personal injury to workers and promote health checks and other
8860 improvements to health of the workers.
Select a safety supervisor to manage workers safety, and select a health supervisor
to manage workers health.
If an industrial accident occurs, investigate its causes and take measures to prevent
its recurrence.
8865 Perform tasks necessary to prevent industrial accidents.
The safety supervisor is selected by the safety officer, and has the following duties:
If there is a risk in the structure, equipment, work place or working method, adopt
emergency measures or measures to prevent such risks.
Periodically inspect equipment and tools such as safety equipment and protective
8870 gear, etc., to prevent risks.
The health supervisor is selected by the safety officer, and has the following duties:
Study the working environment, working conditions, and equipment in relation to
how they affect the health of the workers.
Inspect and maintain first-aid tools.
8875 Provide health education and look after matters necessary for maintaining good
health.
The plant engineer should nominate a safety and health promoter at a site where a safety
supervisor or a health supervisor is not selected.
The safety and health promoter is selected by the plant engineer and has the following duties:
8880 The safety and health promoter should inspect the facility and equipment, check
their usage stage, and based on the results of these checks, should adopt relevant
Final Draft 9-28

measures.
The safety and health promoter should make efforts to maintain the health of the
workers through health checks and impart safety and health education to workers.
8885 The safety and health promoter should examine the causes of work accidents and
measures to prevent recurrence of the same.
The safety and health promoter should collect information on workers safety and
health, prepare and maintain statistics of work accidents, diseases, and absence from
work.
8890 Where no safety management officer, safety supervisor or health supervisor and safety and
health promoter is selected, the plant engineer should manage all safety and health matters
related to the facility.
9.5 Awareness and Training
Safety training should aim for improving awareness and techniques of persons engaged in work
8895 so that accidents during work are prevented. Safety training should consist of four courses to be
imparted to Manager, Technical, Skilled and Unskilled grades of personnel.
The Manager is a person who performs labour management and manages the work
environment so as to ensure the safety of workers.
A person in the Technical grade is an Assistant Engineer or Junior Engineer, who
8900 operates and repairs mechanical and electrical machinery and equipment by his own
judgement.
A person belonging to the Skilled grade is one who uses machines and equipment,
and performs work following the instructions of the superior using the Work
Manual.
8905 A person belonging to the Unskilled grade is one who performs manual work mainly
in the plant obeying instructions of the superior.
Trainees should upgrade/acquire skills to perform their work safely through training. The
overview of training for each grade of personnel is given below.
9.5.1 Manager
8910 Managerial training should be given to managers once every five years on the topics mentioned
below.
Laws, regulations and latest information related to sewerage systems
Labour and welfare matters related to workers
Periodic performance assessment of subcontractors and vendors
8915 9.5.2 Technical Staff

The plant engineer should ensure that training in their respective fields is imparted to the
technical staff once every three years in the mechanical and electrical sections (Technical
Grade).
9.5.2.1 Mechanical
8920 Operation and maintenance of mechanical machinery and equipment such as pumps
Final Draft 9-29
and blowers
Repairs to mechanical machinery and equipment such as pumps and blowers
Methods of examining the causes of breakdown in mechanical machinery and
equipment such as pumps and blowers
8925 Methods of operating machinery and equipment (welding equipment) used for
repairs during breakdown of pumps, etc.
Emergency response procedures
9.5.2.2 Electrical
Operation and maintenance of electric equipment such as MCC
8930 Repairs to electric equipment such as MCC
Methods for examining causes of breakdown in electric equipment
Emergency response procedures
9.5.3 Skilled Staff
The plant engineer should ensure that training in their respective fields is imparted to the skilled
8935 staff once a year in the mechanical and electrical sections (Skilled Grade).
9.5.3.1 Mechanical
Safe work
Communication at the workplace including instructions from supervisors,
communicating with subordinates, and communication during joint work
8940 Maintenance of mechanical machinery and equipment such as pumps and motors
Repairs to mechanical machinery and equipment such as pumps and motors
Hazardous work (oxygen deficiency, hydrogen sulphide poisoning)
Measuring instrument (oxygen concentration meter, etc.)
Method of usage of protective gear (safety belt, breathing apparatus)
8945 9.5.3.2 Electrical Staff
Safe work
communicating with subordinates, and communication during joint work
Maintenance of electric equipment such as breakers and switches
8950 Repairs to electric equipment such as breakers and switches
Electric shocks
Method of usage of measuring instruments (oxygen concentration meter, rpm gauge,
insulation tester, etc.)
Final Draft 9-30
8955 Method of usage of protective gear (safety belt, breathing apparatus)

9.5.4 Unskilled Staff
The plant engineer should give training to unskilled staff once a year.
Safe work (what not to do)
8960 communicating with subordinates, and communication during joint work
Matters related to keeping things tidy and in order, cleanliness and neatness
Names of tools and their usage (pliers, screw drivers, etc.)
Electric shocks
8965 Use of protective gear (gloves, protective goggles, etc.)
9.5.5 Training Assessment

Persons who have received safety training should be assessed on the lessons learnt. The results
of the assessment should be recorded in the assessment table shown in Table 9.9. The plant
engineer should warn the trainees on items assessed as unsatisfactory, and improve their
8970 awareness to such items.
Table 9.9 Record of training assessment
Job Trainees current knowledge & skills
requirement Excellent Good Fair Poor Nil
1
2
3
4
5
The worker should receive safety training and should preferably not be transferred to a different
workplace within one year. Otherwise this would result in lowering the quality of work at the
8975 workplace and may lead to a drop in work efficiency. For this reason, work status at the
workplace, stationing of personnel and training assessment should be considered during
transfers.
9.6 Emergencies
9.6.1 What is an Emergency?
8980 An emergency is a situation developing before our eyes with our full conscience and our
realization that soon the situation will turn to adversity. We may not be equipped to deal with it.
We cannot take control. This leaves us with no time to locate the source of help. We may not
know where to get help for a given situation.
9.6.2 How to Think during Emergencies?
8985 The foremost requirement is not to jump to conclusions. Always think of what is most important
and imperative at that moment. Let us consider some situations that can arise
Final Draft 9-31

9.6.2.1 Situation 1
You notice a colleague during working hours trying to repair a floodlight during broad daylight
at a height of some 6 m by standing on a permanent secure ladder but he is not wearing safety
8990 gloves. You grow cold at the thought that he may get electrocuted and nobody could reach him
at that height soon enough. This is a simple emergency situation. For example, going back to the
case of the colleague who was on top on a mast without safety gloves, you have the options of
(a) calling him on the cell phone to alert him about his not wearing gloves, (b) going up the
ladder personally with a spare set of gloves, (c) quietly switching off the electrical circuit to that
8995 mast and (d) quietly slipping out of the scene unnoticed. Each solution will merit itself under
certain situations. Solution (a) is apt when the electrical circuit is already found switched off.
Solution (b) is apt when the electrical circuit is switched off and the fuse is in your pocket.
Solution (c) is apt when you find that the circuitry is energized. Solution (d) is apt when you
find the circuitry is already switched off and your colleague has recorded in the works register
9000 that he is taking the fuse with him, so that nobody can energize the circuit until he returns.
9.6.2.2 Situation 2
A colleague is sitting on the walkway of a clarifier and is absorbed in collecting a sample of the
treated sewage overflowing the weir. You notice that a snake is slowly making its way towards
him. If you move in speedily, the snake may get hustled and move away from you faster and
9005 move closer to your colleague. This is a very serious emergency. Now then what will you are
doing? The first thing to do will be to call out to the colleague on cell phone not to move and sit
still as reptiles are alerted only when there is movement ahead of them. The next thing to do will
be to ask your colleague to jump into the clarifier and swim to the safety of the channel and
launder. Of course, this presumes he knows swimming. Suppose he does not know swimming,
9010 what will you do? Ask him to immediately stand upright so that if it bites, it may spare the body
parts closer to the heart and he can still be saved by tying up the limb upside of the bite with a
rope or at least torn piece of a shirt and simultaneously for you to follow the reptile and try to
push it into the water surface with whatever piece of extended tool that you may have.
9.6.2.3 Situation 3
9015 During a monsoon season, let us say there is a sudden cloudburst and torrential downpour and
before the staff could realize what will happen, the entire site is flooded to about knee height
and the sludge pits are marooned. Electrical connections get shorted somewhere and there is
total darkness. The staff are scattered at different locations in the STP area of over 25 hectares.
There was no way of setting foot forward, as they could not locate where the pump pit is. The
9020 fear of more floods is very much there. You can somehow make out the silhouette of the
administrative building and slowly wade towards it by announcing yourself. When all the staff
members reach the building, they could not hear voices of two persons in that shift. Panic grips
them. But nothing could be done till next day morning when it is discovered that of the two
missing persons, one was absent and the other has gone out on personal work without informing
9025 others. The lesson here is that in every shift, be punctual in reporting and ensure a mini
assembly of handing over and taking over at the meeting point. This ensures mutual
knowledge of presence or absence. Another lesson is to have solar powered lamp posts with self
contained circuits insulated against rains and located adjacent to electrical lampposts so that
when total electricity fails, these will come on at least for that interval of time.
9030 9.6.2.4 Situation 4
When two operators are moving a portable diesel pump on a trolley over a gravel roadway, the
road caves in suddenly and they are pulled into a huge pit, fortunately after the engine was
pulled in. This is later on discovered as the plant bypass concrete pipeline crossing the road
which has been corroded in the crown to such a degree that it could not take that load. There
Final Draft 9-32

9035 have been no signs on the site showing that the pipeline is crossing the road there. Just imagine
if the operators had fallen first and the engine after them? The lessons are these - all pipe
crossings of roads should be through culverts with sidewalls raised above ground. Bypass
pipelines are flowing rarely and gases accumulate and would corrode the pipe easily. Always
provide them in non-corrodible glass reinforced fibre pipe. Erect markers over the route of big
9040 buried pipes wherever these are not in the road alignment.
9.6.2.5 Situation 5
A primary settling tank sludge removal arm is not rotating for sometime but the settling tank
continues to be operated. After certain time, it is noticed that the accumulated sludge is
becoming visible through the sewage liquid when seen from the top. The settling tank is stopped
9045 from service and the sludge is allowed to dry up. Manual labourers are employed to walk into
the settling tank and scoop out the sludge and transport it as head loads. Suddenly, two of
labourers are found to be sinking into the sludge. Fortunately, the other labourers throw a rope
and the two are able to grab it and are pulled out. The lessons are simple. Wet grit dumps can
behave like quicksand in such locations. Suppose the two were not noticed sinking, they would
9050 have been located only after death while scooping the sludge. Removing such grit dumps should
be as per regulations for confined spaces and all personnel should be watched and accounted for
by a supervisor.
9.7 The Need to resist

Sometimes, tasks required to be carried out by field staff may involve risks, ignoring safety and
9055 potential emergency. The employee must politely resist doing the same. If every staff member
resists, only then the management will know and make amends.
9.8 Summary
Sanitation workers or STP operators are often forced to work under poor working conditions
with high risk of operational diseases or accidents.
9060 Each operator or worker should ensure operational safety by wearing designated personal
protection or by using designated protection devices. Above all, they should follow the working
procedures thoroughly when working in confined spaces.
Final Draft 9-33

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 10: ON-SITE SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 10 ON-SITE SYSTEMS

10.1 Introduction
9065 The on-site treatment is done individually in the premises (at the point of generation itself) as an
interim measure. The on-site treatment ranges from a basic sanitary facility such as pit latrine
(twin pit with water seal) to a simple type where anaerobic treatment and infiltration treatment
are done by combining a septic tank and a soak pit and a sophisticated type where advanced
sewage treatment is done. The sludge which is produced in each on-site facility is collected by
9070 an exclusive vehicle and then is treated collectively. The treatment systems of domestic
wastewater in the on-site system and the off-site system are shown in Figure 10.1.
On-site Off-site
Black water Latrine / Toilet
Twin pit pour flush latrine

Septic tank followed by soak pit
Community and public toilet
Sewage Sewage treatment plant
Grey water On-site methods
Septic tank followed by soak pit

Sludge treatment facility
Advanced type purifiers
Figure 10.1 On-site sewage treatment system

Note: There can be cases where both black and gray can be treated together.
9075 10.2 On-site Facility Maintenance Systems

A system for maintaining an on-site treatment facility varies depending on its scale and
treatment method. If the scale is small, in many cases the installer or administrator controls the
facility voluntarily. If the scale is medium or large, or if the facility employs an advanced
method, in most cases a special vendor having engineers controls it. The different scales adopt
9080 different control types-staff members are resident in a large-scale facility such as a sewage
treatment plant, whereas they make a regular travelling inspection in a small- or medium-scale
facility.
Basic hygienic treatment facilities (e.g. pit latrines) and septic tanks require regular cleaning
(sludge extraction) as the main maintenance work. Accordingly, the administrator (house owner)
9085 shall check daily how much sludge is accumulated in the facility and determine when it should
be extracted. Meanwhile, the state and municipal governments shall prompt the residents and
the persons concerned to raise awareness of the importance of the sludge control of their on-site
facilities and to cooperate in it. More specifically, both state and municipal governments should
draw up an action plan for extracting, treating, and disposing of the sludge generated in on-site
9090 facilities in accordance with the Septage Management Guidelines (MOUD, 2012), and
prepare measures and budgets necessary for implementation of the plan.
Precautions to septage management planning are shown below.
Final Draft 10-1
The state and municipal governments should establish an on-site sanitation system
(OSS) that conforms to relevant laws.
9095 Efficient management requires a database of hygienic facilities including septic
tanks under control.
Public and private providers in charge of sludge collection should establish a system
to ensure that they offer services properly.
Selecting a sludge treatment method requires a survey of land use requirements,
9100 travelling distance, pollution prevention, and facility construction and maintenance
costs.
It is necessary to disclose information about septage management to the residents
and persons concerned, and to conduct necessary activities for receiving their
cooperation.
9105 10.3 Maintaining On-site Facilities

An on-site facility is controlled by the installer, building owner, or community, but the
administrator runs and maintains the facility by himself/herself or commits it to a special vendor,
determined according to the scale and treatment method. This subsection summarizes general
requirements for the latter case.
9110 The vendor should be familiar with the facility plan, design statements (including the structure,
facility capacity, and specifications for the components), relevant drawings, and maintenance
records. In addition, the vendor should understand how to operate, maintain, inspect, repair, and
adjust the equipment, as well as how to adopt measures against problems.
10.3.1 Inspecting and Maintaining the Treatment Unit
9115 An advisory note on Septage management prepared by the Ministry of Urban development
giving details about the Septage management plan which can be referred to regarding the
inspection and maintenance of these on-site facilities.
a. Inspection
The purpose of inspection is to find an abnormal condition or failure at an early stage, find the
9120 cause, and take measures quickly by checking the equipment for operation and the whole
treatment unit for operating status. How many times inspections are conducted and what is
inspected vary according to the treatment capacity and method.
b. Maintenance and Repair
The purpose of maintenance is to ensure that the equipment displays its performance as
9125 defined in the specifications. If the inspection results show an abnormal condition, failure,
or degradation in the performance defined in the specifications, repairs are made to recover
the function. Such repairs are made by on-site staff or entrusted to a special vendor.
10.3.2 Cleaning
Cleaning the equipment and removing residue and sludge generated are necessary to maintain
9130 the performance of the facility. The vendor should keep a record of cleaning and reflect it in the
maintenance work.
10.3.3 Water Quality Control
The means of checking whether the facility displays its performance as defined or whether it
Final Draft 10-2

meets legal control values is to test the effluent water for quality. Some facilities may require
9135 evaluating the quality of not only the discharged water but also the water treated in each process
because the latter gives control indices.
10.3.4 Hygienic Measures including Infection Prevention
Excreta and sludge include many infectious pathogens and parasites. Therefore, the illegal
disposal of the sludge into the environment or its unsanitary treatment causes contagious
9140 diseases and pollutes groundwater or rivers with contaminants contained in the sludge. Table
10.1 shows key pathogens contained in excreta and sludge.
Table 10.1 Key pathogens contained in excreta and sludge
Cholera, dysentery, Salmonella typhi, paratyphoid, Vibrio parahaemolyticus,
Bacteria Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, staphylococcus, streptococcus, and tubercle
bacillus
Viruses Polio, various enteroviruses, infectious diarrhoea, infectious hepatitis, and Izumi fever
Protozoans Dysentery bacillus and amoeba
Coprozoa, worm egg, roundworm, hookworm, whipworm, Trichostrongylus
Parasites
orientalis, pork tapeworm, and Taenia saginata
Source: Sudo.R , 1977
10.3.5 Measures against a Disaster or Accident

9145 Unlike a large-scale sewage treatment plant, an on-site and small-scale treatment facility
normally requires no resident engineer for operation control. Therefore, it is necessary to plan
measures against emergency states in case no engineer is available. The administrator should:
always take measures against any disaster or accident,
when a disaster occurs, immediately perform patrols and inspections to check for
9150 abnormality,
continuously monitor the storage states of materials for emergency recovery and
reserve units, and place the latter in a standby state,
draw up a mobilization plan and duty list against a disaster or accident, and inform
the persons concerned thereof, and
9155 make plans for reporting, liaison, temporary action, and recovery work.
10.4 Latrine/ Toilet

10.4.1 Pour Flush Water Seal Latrine
The squatting pan should be sprinkled with a small volume of water and scrubbed
daily with a long handle bamboo piece or strong wood gently crushed to the shape of
9160 a brush at one end. This shall be done preferably immediately after the morning
usage is completed so that the pan is wet enough for the sticky organics to be
scrubbed easily.
After scrubbing, again a small volume of water should be poured and simultaneously
the scrubbings can be pushed into the pit using the same make shift brush by the
9165 householder, or he can arrange to have it done.
Ablution water shall be kept in a plastic container and covered with a lid and kept
Final Draft 10-3

ready inside the latrine enclosure. The volume shall be not less than the needs of the
number of persons in the household for a morning usage. For example, if a person
can manage with 2 litters per usage and if there are four persons in a household, the
9170 water needed is 8 litres. It will be prudent to store 10 litters of water. The mug that is
used for taking the water from the stored plastic container shall be hung from the
wall on a strong nail and shall not be left inside the container because of growth of
slime over such mugs when left immersed for long periods.
Before using the latrine pan, pour about 500 ml of water along the surface of the pan
9175 starting from the uppermost side and guiding the mug to evenly wet the pan.
Any other wastewater shall not be diverted into the pour flush latrine and particularly
storm water should not be let into the pan.
The Technology Advisory Group and World Bank have stipulated the procedure for switching
from one pit to another as under.
9180 a. Only one of the two pits is to be used at a time. After about three years when the first
leach pit is full (the indication being back flow when flushed), the discharge from the
pan should be diverted to the second pit and the first pit should be allowed to rest.
The diversion of discharge to the second pit can be undertaken by the householder or,
if he wishes, he can make private arrangements for this to be done. After the pit is
9185 filled and the latrine is connected to the second pit, the pit cover should be removed
and soil to a depth of 150 mm should be used to fill the first pit and the cover placed
in position again. Where earth is not easily available, or there is difficulty in removal
of the pit cover, the earth could be added later when emptying the pit contents, for
ease of handling. When the first pit has been out of use for about two years, it can be
9190 emptied by the householder himself or by the local authority. This can be done
manually by shovel or auger. The contents will then be safe for handling, dry and
without any foul smell. In special cases such as flooded areas, etc., the sludge, after
being taken out, should be spread out in a bed for sun drying during the non-rainy
season and utilized as manure. It will be valuable humus with some fertilizer value.
9195 The humus can be utilized as manure in the kitchen garden or fields.' When the
second pit is full, the first pit should be used by diverting the discharge from second
to first pit. Thus, one of the two pits is to be used alternately. The householder should
keep a record when each of the two pits is put to use, disconnected and emptied; a
card supplied by the local authority should be used for this purpose. The local
9200 authority should provide emptying services to the householders free of cost on
request through local contractors or through its own employees. The humus will
become the property of the local authority. Marketing facilities should be developed
for the sale and use of the humus as manure in the fields.
b. To foster confidence in the minds of the people about the suitability and performance
9205 of the pour-flush latrines, the local authority should provide free service to latrine
adopters, and attend to their complaints regarding construction, operation and
maintenance. Groups (each one consisting of a skilled and trained person, and a
labourer, for about 2,000 latrines) should be maintained for this purpose. In small
towns where the number of latrines is less than 1,500, only a trained labourer could
9210 be kept to work under the guidance of a technical employee of the local authority.
However, in the beginning when the number of latrines is less than a thousand, the
Junior Engineer or the Supervisor should attend to complaints
10.4.2 Public Toilet
Public toilets are installed in parks, along roads, and in public facilities. Some are independently
Final Draft 10-4

9215 arranged outdoors, and some are installed in buildings. The users of the former are unspecified,
resulting in insanitation. Accordingly, the toilet administrator shall clean the toilets and maintain
the hand-washing units regularly. If a public toilet has sewage treatment facilities, the
administrator shall maintain them as well. It is recommended to clean the toilet at least once a
day. There is an example of collecting fees from the users and spending them for cleaning the
9220 toilet smoothly.
In addition to playing a role as public sanitation, the public toilet works as a facility for local
disasters, so it shall be maintained appropriately to allow anyone to use it at any time.
Improving the users manners requires school education and awareness-raising activities for
residents.
9225 Concerning community toilets, the users are limited, in many cases resulting in maintenance of
good sanitation.
10.4.3 Mobile Toilet
Mobile toilets, which can be delivered by vehicle, are temporarily used for shelters and events.
They have a storage tank in the lower part to store wastewater, which is extracted and disposed
9230 of at the appropriate time. Some mobile toilets are equipped with a cleaning water tank and
manual pump to flush excreta with the water. The tank capacity is limited, so it is necessary to
plan a system for extracting the stored wastewater and to maintain a disposal site.
The method of using common toilets applies to public and common toilets. The administrator
should submit a request for regular cleaning and instruct the users not only to follow good toilet
9235 manners but also to cooperate in conserving water.
Mobile toilets need to be stockpiled for emergency use. Therefore, the state and municipal
governments should establish a network with private sectors to construct a system for arranging
such toilets when an emergency occurs.
10.5 On-site Methods
9240 10.5.1 Conventional Septic Tank / Improved Septic Tank
The IS 2470 pertains to septic tanks.
To maintain the function of septic tanks, the user should:
Not use, any chemicals (e.g. acid and alkaline agents) that have an adverse effect on
the digesting function for cleaning the toilet,
9245 Keep the tank and its surrounding area neat so as not to block control,
Not mix oil with discharged water because the digesting function degrades or
offensive odour or scum is generated. If it is unavoidable, install an oil-water
separator upstream of the septic tank, and
Monitor the sludge accumulating status at the right time to prevent its overflow.
9250 10.5.1.1 Purifying Wastewater and Accumulating Sludge
Organic and solid substances in wastewater are digested in the septic tank and converted to
digester gases, scum, and settled sludge, which are gradually accumulated. Meanwhile, the
wastewater is purified to change to intermediate water. If the settled sludge and scum in the
septic tank accumulate excessively, they partially flow out with the intermediate water, resulting
9255 in degradation in the quality of treated water. If the degraded water flows into the soak pit, the
penetration function degrades. Therefore, maintaining stable treatment requires the control and
Final Draft 10-5
regular extraction of sludge in the septic tank.

The amount of sludge accumulated in the septic tank varies depending on the type, volume, and
quality of wastewater, the tank capacity, the foreign matter mixing ratio, and the water
9260 temperature. The amount of sludge can be determined by inserting a transparent vinyl pipe to
the bottom of the tank, blocking the pipe tip with a finger, and pulling it out. When the amount
of sludge and scum reaches about one-half of the tank depth, it is the time to extract the sludge,
so the administrator should arrange to do so. If the tank is large, it is recommended to perform
sludge surface checks at multiple points and to find the average level. Accordingly, an
9265 inspection window should be arranged during the installation of the septic tank.
10.5.1.2 Mechanical Cleaning of Septic Tan
Please refer to Appendix 10.1 for the details on mechanical cleaning on septic tank.
10.5.1.3 Septage Management
In general, the administrator requests a cleaning vendor to extract sludge from the septic tank. If
9270 a regular extraction system is introduced, the vendor visits the facilities to conduct sludge
extraction work regularly. Sludge extraction is classified into two types according to the sludge
accumulation status: whole and partial. The former is employed typically in small-scale
facilities. For this work, equipment like a vacuum tanker should be used rather than extracting
sludge by hand from the sanitation point of view. The vendor should:
9275 Take care not to splash sludge on the surrounding area (e.g. the soil surface),
Take hygienic measures if manual work is unavoidable,
Extract sludge quickly, otherwise offensive odour will diffuse over the surrounding
area, and
Maintain a record of the work and the amount of sludge extracted.
9280 The sludge extraction frequency is about once every two to three years, which varies depending
on how the toilet is used and the tank capacity. As a rule, this work is conducted by a vacuum
tanker.
10.5.2 Advanced Type Treatment Units
This sub-subsection describes the operation control of a relatively large-scale (medium or
9285 larger) plant-type treatment facility equipped with machines.
10.5.2.1 Pre-treatment Process
a. Screen Facilities
Inflow wastewater includes not only organic matter that can be treated biologically but
also a variety of large and small foreign substances that cannot be treated biologically, such
9290 as cloth, paper, wooden pieces, soil, and sand. The screening process removes the latter
before wastewater enters the following treatment unit. If screening fails for some reason, it
clogs or damages the pipe, waterway, or other equipment.
i. Removing Caught Screened Materials
The amount of foreign matter to be captured by the screen varies depending on the
9295 foreign matter content of wastewater and the mesh size of the screen. If foreign matter
is not removed from the screen at the right time, the captured amount increases
gradually and the screen becomes clogged. In the extreme case, the wastewater may
Final Draft 10-6

overflow the waterway. Moreover, clogging stops wastewater flow before the screen
creating an anaerobic condition and offensive odour.
9300 ii. Sanitary Disposal of Screened Materials
Foreign matter is removed and raked into the screen bucket, and then rinsed with
water for sanitary disposal to a location where drainage equipment is installed. The
area where the screen bucket is placed should be cleaned and disinfected.
b. Flow Equalization Facilities
9305 Stabilizing the function of the biological treatment process (main one) requires making the
flow rate and quality of wastewater even, so the flow equalization facility adjusts the flow
rate.
i. Control by Transfer Pump
In general, the transfer pump starts, stops, or issues an alert according to the water
9310 level of the flow equalization tank. The level at which the pump starts running varies
depending on the variation in inflow wastewater and the margin of the flow
equalization tank, but in many cases, it is set at 15 to 30 cm above the pump stop level
(also known as the low water level (LWL)). Specifying such a control position is
important for equalizing the water feed. This should be done carefully considering
9315 management of the subsequent metering unit. If garbage adheres to the level switch
for pump control, it may not work; so regular inspection and cleaning are necessary.
ii. Controlling the Metering Unit
The metering unit receives the wastewater lifted by the pump from the flow
equalization tank, supplies a given amount of wastewater to the biological treatment
9320 process, and returns the remainder to the previous tank. The flow rate of the supplied
water is adjusted by changing the height of the overflow weir. If sludge and sand
accumulate in the unit or foreign matter is caught in the weir, the flow rate changes.
Therefore, sludge and sand should be removed and the unit cleaned regularly.
9325 Source: Jokasou Standard, 1980
Figure 10.2 Metering unit

iii. Stirring in the Flow Equalization Tank
The stable biological treatment function requires keeping the flow rate and properties
Final Draft 10-7
of wastewater constant and uniform, so stirring is necessary in the flow equalization

9330 tank. The stirring method includes liquid circulation, mechanical stirring, and air
stirring. It is essential to check whether the stirrer works correctly and whether the
resulting stirring effect is good.
10.5.2.2 Main Treatment Process
a. Controlling the Aeration Tank
9335 The control of sewage treatment facilities (Chapter 4 SEWAGE TREATMENT
FACILITIES) applies.
b. Controlling the Sedimentation Method
The contact aeration method is based on treatment principles similar to those for the
activated sludge method, but the former is more advantageous in flow rate and load
9340 changes and suitable for the treatment of wastewater with relatively low concentration.
Accordingly, the contact aeration method is used in many on-site treatment facilities.
However, it has disadvantages: as the biological film thickness increases, the contact
material becomes clogged. This result in degradation of the treatment function, and a fixed
amount of microorganisms can respond to low load but cannot treat load beyond the design
9345 value. Accordingly, these advantages and disadvantages should be understood before using
this method.
i. Controlling the Contact Aeration Tank
To improve the treatment efficiency of the contact aeration tank, the administrator
should control it while paying attention to the following points:
9350 Make efforts not to change the inflow rate by adjusting it,
Keep BOD load in the proper range (overload should be avoided if no measures
are taken),
Form biofilm that consists of appropriate microorganisms,
Confirm that aeration works well in the tank (the proper dissolved oxygen
9355 concentration is not less than 2 to 3 mg/L and it can be a little higher, but lower
concentration degrades the treatment function),
Pay attention to the thickness of biofilm and activate the back washing unit at the
appropriate time to remove excess biofilm, and
When the removed biofilm (sludge) increases excessively in the tank,
9360 temporarily stop aeration to settle and extract it with a pump (the sludge causes
the contact material to be clogged).
ii. Controlling the Sedimentation Tank
In this treatment method, the amount of microorganisms that contribute to the
treatment depends on the surface area of the contact material; therefore, it does not
9365 require adjustment of the sludge concentration in the aeration tank, as shown in the
activated sludge method. Accordingly, all the sludge settled and separated in the
sedimentation tank is not needed, so it should be extracted according to the
accumulation status and fed to the sludge treatment process.
c. Controlling the Membrane Separation Method
Final Draft 10-8

9370 This is the method of using a membrane separator to divide wastewater into solid and liquid
instead of the conventional gravity settlement used in the activated sludge treatment
system. The membrane separation method features sound solid-liquid separation, ease in
keeping the MLSS concentration of the aeration tank high, and compact facility size. Many
separators used in on-site facilities employ a membrane immersed in the aeration tank to
9375 obtain permeated liquid. The separator is classified into two types: a flat membrane and a
hollow yarn membrane.
Source: JEFMA
Figure 10.3 Membrane separators

9380 i. Controlling the Aeration Tank
The control of the activated sludge method applies generally. One difference is that it
is necessary to maintain a high MLSS concentration to enable proper functioning of
the membrane separation method. The concentration should be 8,000 to 12,000 mg/L
in many cases.
9385 ii. Controlling the Membrane Separator
Inspecting the treated water (which passes through the membrane)
While the membrane separator works correctly, the water that has penetrated the
membrane should have a transparency of more than one meter. Therefore, if the
results of inspecting the appearance of the permeated water show haze or SS, it
9390 is likely that the separator will not work. Possible causes include a break in the
membrane or a certain connector, and the generation of slime in the membrane.
In the former case, the broken part should be replaced or repaired. In the latter
case, a chemical cleaner, is also used, as described hereunder.
Differential pressure and water penetration rate
9395 In the membrane separator, the differential pressure between the front and back
of the membrane is the driving force to filter wastewater. Generally, the larger
the differential pressure, the higher the water penetration rate. Continuous
operation of the separator gradually forms sediment and deposit on the surface
and in the micropores of the membrane causing clogging. Even if the separator
9400 runs at the same differential pressure, the filter resistance increases due to the
clogged membrane and the water penetration rate reduces gradually. Conversely,
Final Draft 10-9
to keep the rate constant, differential pressure should be increased in proportion

to the amount of clogging.
However, there is a limit to increasing the differential pressure. Therefore, the
9405 membrane should be cleaned when the differential pressure reaches a certain
level. The level varies depending on the facilities, so it is necessary to find a
control value during trial operation. Generally the membrane needs to be
cleaned when the pressure rise is 5 to 10 kPa for the flat type or 20 to 30 kPa for
the hollow yarn type.
9410 Checking the aeration state
The tank in which the membrane separator is installed (immersed / kept out)
should be aerated at a constant rate. Accordingly, it is necessary to check
whether the aeration rate is appropriate and whether the whole membrane
separator is uniformly and consistently aerated. The separation is by filtration
9415 through membranes.
Cleaning the membrane
As mentioned earlier, continuous operation of the membrane separator
gradually clogs the membrane and reduces filtering performance. Therefore, the
membrane should be cleaned at the appropriate time.
9420 Rinsing with water
Activated sludge flocs, microorganisms metabolites, and other foreign matter
that accumulate on the membrane surface should be removed by rinsing with
water or by other physical means.
Cleaning with chemical liquid
9425 When the membrane pores are clogged with refractory organic substances in
wastewater or with scale derived from inorganic substances in wastewater, it is
not possible to remove them only by physical means. In this case, it is essential
to use chemicals to decompose such adherents.
Sodium hypochlorite is used as a cleaner to decompose stains derived from
9430 organic substances. To decompose inorganic scale, organic acid such as oxalic
or citric acid is used.
10.5.2.3 Advanced Treatment Process
a. Controlling the Flocculation Sedimentation Treatment
The control of sewage treatment facilities (Section 4.7 Activated Sludge Proces of Part B)
9435 applies.
b. Controlling the Sand Filter
The control of sewage treatment facilities (Section 4.7.1 Sand Filtration of Part B) applies.
c. Controlling the Activated Carbon Adsorption Unit
The activated carbon adsorption unit has the objective of adsorbing soluble and
9440 difficult-to-biodegrade organic matter (COD) and inorganic matter included in sewage and
removing them. Fixed bed activated carbon adsorption tower has practically the same
construction as a sand filtration tower, and it requires periodic back washing, but it can also be
Final Draft 10-10

automated. In the fixed bed tower, back washing may be performed at a frequency of once in
one to two days. If the activated carbon layer gets deposited with suspended solids, combined
9445 washing using water and air is an effective method. The adsorbing performance of activated
carbon degrades as water passes through; therefore, the activated carbon replacement period is
decided taking COD as a control indicator.
10.5.2.4 Controlling the Disinfection Unit
There are some disinfection methods, such as chlorination, ultraviolet (UV) light treatment,
9450 and ozone treatment. This item describes the first one, the most popular method.
a. Coliform Bacilli as a Pollution Index
Escherichia coli that lives parasitically in the intestinal tract of men and animals is
discharged with faeces outside and can be used as an index that shows the degree of
pollution with excreta. Detecting coliform bacilli means that the bacteria in the digestive
9455 organ are discharged with faeces and that there is a possibility of pollution with dysenteric
bacilli, bacteria that causes alimentary infectious diseases. The lifespan of such pathogenic
bacteria in water varies depending on the living environment, including water temperature
and pH. It is generally said that the lifespan of Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholera, and
dysenteric bacillus in a river are 10 to 30 days, 20 to 30 days, and 7 to 10 weeks,
9460 respectively.
b. Handling Disinfectants
Disinfectants frequently used include sodium and calcium hypochlorite. Handing these
chemicals requires wearing protective equipment, such as goggles, rubber gloves, and a
mask.
9465 c. Controlling the Contact Tank
Adjusting the disinfectant injection rate requires measuring the residual chlorine
concentration at the outlet of the contact tank. Too high a chlorine concentration is not
good from the viewpoint of effect on the ecosystem in the effluent area. On the other hand,
no residual chlorine indicates a possibility of insufficient disinfection. Therefore, the
9470 residual chlorine concentration at the outlet of the contact tank should be not too high or too
low. In general, the control value is 0.1 to 0.3 mg/L.
10.6 Septage Treatment Unit
The principles of Screen, Grit, Centrifuge, Activated sludge respectively shall apply here also.
10.6.1 Collecting and Delivering Sludge
9475 Collecting and delivering sludge by vehicle corresponds to the transfer of wastewater through a
sewer, and constitutes a network for sanitary treatment systems. The collection and delivery
efficiency varies depending on the scale of the source, the distance between facilities or distance
to treatment plants, and the truck size. In general, 4-ton trucks are used for a small-scale facility,
and 6- to 10-ton trucks for medium- to large-scale facilities.
9480 Manual sludge extraction causes problems, such as insanitary workers and pollution due to
splashing during transportation. Accordingly, a mechanical method (e.g. a pump truck pump or
vacuum tanker) should be used as a rule. When the tank truck extracts sludge, the suction unit
emits offensive odour, which requires measures. For example, a deodourizer (e.g. an activated
carbon adsorption unit) is sometimes attached to the outlet. The tank truck is likely to be
9485 insanitary, so it should be cleaned regularly. In addition, water used to clean the tank inside
should be treated hygienically.
Final Draft 10-11

If the distance from the collection point to the vehicle is large or the difference in level between
the two is large, it is necessary to install a suction pump on the way or to use a high-power
vacuum tanker.
9490 The vehicle carries highly corrosive matter. Therefore, it is essential to clean internal parts of
the tank and change the lubricating oil.
10.6.2 Basics of Sludge Treatment
There are various sludge treatment methods, including treatment in a special facility, common
9495 treatment in a sewage treatment plant, and solar drying on a floor. It is necessary to select an
optimal method considering the local conditions. The following summarizes common and basic
points for planning sludge treatment and disposal:
Sludge includes worm eggs and pathogenic bacteria, so a sanitary treatment method
(not manual method) should be used.
The organic concentration of sludge is more than 100 times higher than that of
9500 wastewater. Discharging it into the environment without treatment causes pollution,
so proper treatment is necessary.
Water accounts for a major part of sludge, so technology or operation for efficiently
separating the water from the sludge is necessary.
The operation and maintenance of a sludge treatment system require the
9505 development of human capabilities.
It is necessary to introduce a resource recycling system; for example, to safely treat
sludge for agricultural use.
10.6.3 Operation Control of Sludge Treatment
10.6.3.1 General
9510 Like a sewage treatment plant, staff members reside in the sludge treatment facility, which in
most cases is designed to receive collected sludge and run the main units including the
solid-liquid separator in the daytime. A control system can be established in which no staff
member works during night and on holidays.
The characteristics of sludge collected from septic tanks vary depending on the scale, extraction
9515 frequency, and load condition. Accordingly, the administrator of the treatment facility should
hold prior discussion with the collecting vendor. The following shows key agenda items to be
discussed:
In a medium- or large-scale sewage treatment plant, a large amount of sludge is
extracted at once. Therefore, the administrator should ask the vendor to distribute the
9520 work over several days to mitigate changes in the amount of sludge.
The administrator should ask the vendor not to concentrate sludge delivery in a
limited time slot.
Sludge collected from restaurants may include a large amount of oil. Accordingly,
the administrator should ask the vendor to adopt measures against this problem.
9525 Industrial sludge degrades the biological treatment function significantly, so the
administrator should ask the vendor to adopt measures against this problem.
Figure 10.4 shows the configuration of a sludge treatment facility. The main process is
Final Draft 10-12

solid-liquid separation. The maintenance of the facility requires expertise in the solid-liquid
separation technology of sludge.
Stirring Sludge
Sludge Pre-treatment
storage thickening
input unit
tank tank
Discharge
Polymer
Separated
Activated Disinfection Treated
Dehydrator liquid
sludge tank tank water tank
tank
9530 Solar drying
Figure 10.4 Flow chart of sludge treatment

10.6.3.2 Controlling the Pre-treatment Unit
a. Pre-treatment
Collected sludge includes foreign substances, such as cloth, paper, wooden pieces, soil, and
9535 sand, which should be removed, because they cause clogging of pipes or equipment failure.
The pre-treatment unit consists of a screen and sedimentation tank. Extracting the foreign
matter including sand is insanitary work, so it is recommended that such work be
automated.
The automatic raking screen rakes and places garbage into a bucket automatically, but it is
9540 necessary to clean the screen and extract the garbage.
Soil and sand accumulated at the bottom of the sedimentation tank should be discharged to
the outside by a high-powered suction vehicle. There is a method of vacuuming the
discharged sand.
9545 Figure 10.5 Flow chart of a pre-treatment unit

b. Stirring Storage Tank
The nature of collected sludge varies, so the stirring storage tank is used to make the quality
and quantity of sludge uniform. The stirring method may be classified into aeration and
pump circulation methods. The former is sounder and less troublesome. However, because
9550 of offensive odour, the installation environment may require the tank to be equipped with a
lid to deodourize collecting odour. A given amount of the treated sludge moves from this
tank to the sludge thickening tank via a transfer pump and a metering regulator. The
operation control of mini package plants (Section 10.3.2.1) applies to each unit.
c. Controlling the Solid-liquid Separation Tank
Final Draft 10-13

9555 i. Sludge Thickening Tank

An important point for running the sludge thickening tank is the adjustment of the
extraction time according to the sludge accumulation status. Therefore, it is essential
to observe the concentration of the extracted sludge. There are some sludge extraction
methods, such as a manual pump and a combination of a timer and a pump. The daily
9560 control of the thickening tank includes removing scum on the surface and cleaning the
area around the overflow weir.
ii. Sludge Storage Tank
This tank emits hydrogen sulphide and causes lack of oxygen because it keeps sludge
in an anaerobic state. Accordingly, safety measures should be taken while cleaning the
9565 tank interior.
iii. Flocculant
The purpose of adding a flocculant is to change the nature of sludge particles to
improve dewaterbility. The flocculant is classified into organic and inorganic
(polymer) types, which are used independently or in combination. In many cases, the
9570 organic flocculant is powder, which is diluted to attain a specified concentration. The
sludge thickening method is classified into two types: one uses a condensing tank with
a stirrer, and the other employs a centrifugal separator in which a flocculant is injected
directly into the sludge supply pipe. Selecting a proper flocculant basically requires a
jar tester.
9575 iv. Sludge Dehydrator
The operation control of sludge treatment facilities (Chapter 5) applies.
d. Controlling the Activated Sludge Treatment Unit
The operation control of sewage treatment facilities (Chapter 4) applies.
10.7 Summary
9580 On-site wastewater treatment has the following features; it is carried out near the source; its
scale is mostly small because the treatment applies to individual houses; and a variety of
technologies are adopted according to the surrounding conditions. Accordingly, there are cases
where the administrator itself or a private special vendor conducts operation control of on-site
facilities. In the operation control of a septic tank, a typical on-site facility, it is important to
9585 extract accumulated sludge properly in order to keep the function stable. Therefore, the state and
municipal governments need to draw Septage management plan based on the Advisory note on
Septage Management Guidelines (MOUD, 2012). The optimal Septage treatment technology is
selected in consideration of the local conditions. It is necessary to conduct operation control
according to the selected treatment technology.
Final Draft 10-14

Part B: Operation and Maintenance APPENDICES
1030 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Appendix 1.1 Monitoring Through Information Control Technology...................................A-1

Appendix 1.2 Database for Effective O&M.........................................................................A-3
Appendix 1.3 Conclusions and Recommendations ..............................................................A-5
1035 Appendix 2.1 Troubleshooting in Sewers............................................................................A-9
Appendix 2.2 T.V. Inspection Report ................................................................................ A-11
Appendix 3.1 Detailed Troubleshooting for Horizontal Centrifugal Pump Sets..................A-12
Appendix 3.2 Possible Causes and Corrective Actions to Check for Pumps.......................A-16
Appendix 3.3 Troubleshooting in Sewage Pump Stations ..................................................A-20
1040 Appendix 4.1 Troubleshooting in STPs.............................................................................A-22
Appendix 4.2 Operational Parameter ................................................................................A-50
Appendix 4.3 Calculation .................................................................................................A-55
Appendix 5.1 Troubleshooting in Sludge Treatment Facilities ...........................................A-60
Appendix 6.1 Typical Ledger and Records........................................................................A-65
1045 Appendix 6.2 Preventive Maintenance..............................................................................A-69
Appendix 6.3 Troubleshooting for Electrical Facilities......................................................A-71
Appendix 7.1 Minimum Laboratory Equipments Needed for Tests....................................A-80
Appendix 7.2 Suggested Laboratory Service Infrastructure for Monitoring Water Quality .A-81
Appendix 9.1 Health and Safety Policy.............................................................................A-82
1050 Appendix 9.2 Characteristics of Common Gases Causing Hazards....................................A-88
Appendix 9.3 Confined Space Entry Procedure.................................................................A-91
Appendix 9.4 Confined Space Pre-entry Checklist ............................................................A-93
Appendix 9.5 First Aid .....................................................................................................A-95
Appendix 9.6 Sewage Treatment Plant Accident Report....................................................A-98
1055 Appendix 10.1 MECHANICAL CLEANING OF SEPTIC TANKS ....................................A-99
Final Draft A-i

LIST OF TABLES
Table A1.1-1 Ledger for electrical equipment .......................................................................A-4

1060 Table A2.1-1 Troubleshooting in sewers ...............................................................................A-9
Table A2.2-1 T.V. inspection report ....................................................................................A-11
Table A3.1-1 Type of troubles ............................................................................................A-12
Table A3.1-2 Probable causes..............................................................................................A-12
Table A3.2-1 Corrective actions .........................................................................................A-16
1065 Table A3.3-1 Troubleshooting in sewage pump stations......................................................A-20
Table A4.1-1 Manual bar screens........................................................................................A-22
Table A4.1-2 Mechanical bar screens .................................................................................A-22
Table A4.1-3 Detritors........................................................................................................A-23
Table A4.1-4 Velocity controlled grit removal channels ......................................................A-24
1070 Table A4.1-5 Oil & grease removal unit - gravity type........................................................A-25
Table A4.1-6 Mechanized oil & grease removal unit...........................................................A-25
Table A4.1-7 Primary clarifiers circular mechanical sludge scraper type .............................A-25
Table A4.1-8 Activated sludge plants..................................................................................A-28
Table A4.1-9 Biological nitrification-denitrification systems ..............................................A-32
1075 Table A4.1-10 Secondary clarifier problems .......................................................................A-33
Table A4.1-11 Rotating biological contactors .....................................................................A-33
Table A4.1-12 Biological phosphorous and nitrogen removal .............................................A-34
Table A4.1-13 Facultative ponds ........................................................................................A-35
Table A4.1-14 Aerobic ponds .............................................................................................A-37
1080 Table A4.1-15 Anaerobic ponds..........................................................................................A-37
Table A4.1-16 Maturation ponds ........................................................................................A-38
Table A4.1-17 Land irrigation systems ...............................................................................A-38
Table A4.1-18 Chemical treatment systems ........................................................................A-39
Table A4.1-19 Treated sewage chlorination ........................................................................A-40
1085 Table A4.1-20 Treated sewage disinfection by UV .............................................................A-41
Table A4.1-21 Treated sewage disinfection by ozonation....................................................A-41
Table A4.1-22 Surface aerators...........................................................................................A-42
Table A4.1-23 Air blowers .................................................................................................A-42
Table A4.1-24 Air distribution system ................................................................................A-44
1090 Table A4.1-25 Air diffusers ................................................................................................A-44
Table A4.1-26 Power back up.............................................................................................A-45
Table A4.1-27 Interpretation of routine laboratory results ...................................................A-46
Final Draft A-ii

Table A4.1-28 Flow measuring systems..............................................................................A-46

Table A4.1-29 Septic tank and leaching systems where sewerage system is not in place......A-47
1095 Table A4.1-30 Sequencing batch reactors (SBR).................................................................A-48
Table A4.1-31 Moving biofilm bed reactors (MBBR) .........................................................A-48
Table A4.1-32 Membrane bio reactors (MBR)....................................................................A-49
Table A4.2-1 Table parameters for clarifiers .......................................................................A-50
Table A4.2-2 Parameters of activated sludge systems .........................................................A-50
1100 Table A4.2-3 DO saturation vs. temperature in Celsius in tap water at MSL........................A-53
Table A4.2-4 DO correction factor for altitudes ..................................................................A-53
Table A5.1-1 Sludge thickening by gravity thickeners ........................................................A-60
Table A5.1-2 Anaerobic sludge digesters ............................................................................A-61
Table A5.1-3 Mechanical sludge dewatering devices ..........................................................A-63
1105 Table A5.1-4 Sludge drying beds........................................................................................A-64
Table A6.1-1 Operational record: Power receiving and transforming equipment .................A-65
Table A6.1-2 Monthly report: Electric power receiving ......................................................A-66
Table A6.1-3 Ledger for electrical equipment .....................................................................A-67
Table A6.1-4 Electrical facility ledger (Distributing board).................................................A-68
1110 Table A6.3-1 Electric motors..............................................................................................A-71
Table A6.3-2 Capacitors.....................................................................................................A-73
Table A6.3-3 Starters, breakers, and control circuits ...........................................................A-74
Table A6.3-4 Panels ...........................................................................................................A-77
Table A6.3-5 Cables ...........................................................................................................A-77
1115 Table A6.3-6 Transformers .................................................................................................A-78
Table A7.1-1 Minimum laboratory equipments needed for tests..........................................A-80
Table A7.2-1 Suggested laboratory service infrastructure for monitoring water quality .......A-81
Table A9.2-1 Characteristics of common gases causing hazards..........................................A-88
Table A9.4-1 Confined space pre-entry checklist ................................................................A-93
1120 Table A9.6-1 Sewage treatment plant accident report..........................................................A-98
Final Draft A-iii

LIST OF FIGURES
1125 Figure A1.1-1 Automatic water quality monitor...................................................................A-1

Figure A1.1-2 Water Quality Analysis .................................................................................A-2
Figure A1.1-3 Central Control Room...................................................................................A-2
Figure A1.1-4 Main monitoring room in Water Reclamation Centre.....................................A-2
Figure A4.2-1 SRT as a function of aeration basin temperature for 90-95% BOD removal ..A-54
Final Draft A-iv

APPENDIX 1.1 MONITORING THROUGH INFORMATION CONTROL

TECHNOLOGY
1.1.1 OUTLINE
Understanding the condition of sewage to be treated is very important for efficiently operating a
5 sewage treatment plant. However, it is inefficient to receive data from site only at the time when
such data is needed. That is why the condition of sewage to be treated can be grasped
simultaneously by making use of systems for monitoring through information control
technology. This can be done by centralized monitoring using systems such as SCADA (refer to
Sec. 6.6 SCADA System, Part B), which helps to determine operating methods.
10 Items to be measured include DO, SS, pH, ORP, COD, influent flow rate, effluent flow rate, and
return flow rate. Measuring equipment include equipment for measuring single items to those
that can make several kinds of measurements simultaneously. Equipment that can make several
measurements simultaneously, are described below.
1.1.2 EXAMPLES OF MEASURING EQUIPMENT
15
Source: DKK-TOA CORPORATION
Figure A1.1-1 Automatic water quality monitor
Features
Monitors the environmental water quality of rivers, lakes, and other water bodies
20 and the water quality of effluents, etc.
Built-in automatic cleaning and calibration functions greatly reduce maintenance
work.
Integrated sensors are employed to reduce unit size and save space.
Measurement items
25 Water temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen
1.1.3 MONITORING EXAMPLE FROM JAPAN
1.1.3.1 Sewerage (Public Works Bureau) in the City of Osaka
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of Sewerage System
It is important to properly operate and maintain facilities such as sewers, pumping
30 stations and sewage treatment plants so that these facilities play their roles
effectively.
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of Sewage Treatment Plants
Sewage treatment plants are operated on a 24-hour basis in order to treat
wastewater continually for ensuring effective operation of sewage treatment plants
35 in response to varying inflow rates.
Final Draft A-1

Various water quality examinations are conducted at plant laboratories to monitor

the quality of the final effluent.
Figure A1.1-2 Water Quality Analysis
40
Figure A1.1-3 Central Control Room

1.1.3.2 Bureau of Sewerage Tokyo Metropolitan Government
Water Reclamation Centre
Water reclamation centres must process wastewater as it flows in non-stop, 24-
45 hours per day. If the centres should stop functioning properly, pollution would
spread quickly to rivers and the sea.
In order for microorganisms, which are the main players in the treatment process,
to function properly and discharge wastewater debris as sludge, the water quality of
influent and effluent is tested, and maintenance, inspection, and monitoring of
50 equipment are performed constantly.
Figure A1.1-4 Main monitoring room in Water Reclamation Centre

Note: Tokyo Metropolitan Government calls a sewage treatment plant a water reclamation centre.
Final Draft A-2

55 APPENDIX 1.2 DATABASE FOR EFFECTIVE O&M

Effectively collecting, querying, analyzing, reporting, distributing, storing, and archiving data -
whether electronic, paper, audio, image, or videohave become key to effective and efficient
operations.
In recent years, raw data is being increasingly managed by computers.
60 A computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) {also called a computerized work
management system (CWMS) or a work management system (WMS)} enables utilities to
manage maintenance work and minimize equipment downtime cost-effectively. The system is
designed to plan, schedule, and manage maintenance activities; control parts inventories;
coordinate purchasing activities; and help prioritize long-term asset investment needs.
65 A CMMS typically consists of the following six components:
Work management (corrective, preventive, and predictive maintenance scheduling,
activities, and procedures);
Equipment inventory (an inventory and description of equipment and support
systems requiring maintenance, along with other technical or accounting
70 information); Electrical equipment of ledger is shown in next page.
Inventory control, tools, and materials management (materials, tools, and spare
parts management, scheduling, and forecasting);
Purchase or procurement (maintenance-related requisition, procurement, and
accounting);
75 Reporting and analysis (standard and ad hoc reports); and
Personnel management (staff skills, wages, and availability).
If a database containing the items mentioned above can be used, costs can be easily managed,
and the data can be used to prepare budgets.
Final Draft A-3

80 Table A1.1-1 Ledger for electrical equipment

Classification File No.
Location ( ) ( )
Name Related Ledgers
Fixed asset No. ( ) ( )
Capacity Voltage V Insulator type
Rotor
Insulation resistance
Number of poles Current A
allowance
Others
Phase Type Rotating direction
Items on name plate
Frequency Hz Rotation rate rpm Lead wire direction

Secondary
Voltage V V Impedance voltage

Primary
Current A A Specification Frequency
Mode1 Manufacturer Voltage
Test performance chart

Specification Lot No. Current
Date of mfg. Loss
Measuring
Mode1 ( ) ( ) Reduction ratio 1) mm 2) mm
position
Diameter ( ) ( ) Mode 1 3) mm 4) mm
Reducer
Sleeve
Length Name Chart No. Name Chart No.

Related charts
Type Manufacturer
Wire
Coil
Thickness Voltage V
No. of coils Current A

Starting resistor
Special notes
Total weight Resistance
Mode 1
Manufacturer
Source: JICA, 2011
Final Draft A-4

APPENDIX 1.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Mostly influent to the STP was found to contain lot of solid wastes including
85 plastics,pouches etc. which may cause wear and tear of pumps & machinery and
reducedefficiency of treatment, specially in case of UASB process where the feeding
pipes and overflow weirs/V-notches in division boxes/effluent gutters,
arechocked/obstructed, thus also resulting in reduced STP capacity. It is,
generally,observed that mechanical screens installed in STPs/PSS are out of order,
90 mainly because of the reason that these are not regularly sun and also clue to poor
maintenance. Comprehensive scheme for providing solid waste management in all the
towns including public awareness, institutional strengthening etc. need to be
implemented. As an immediate solution to the problem, specially in UASB process,
fine/mesh screens can be put in place of ordinary bar screens. Larger size of feeding
95 pipes with more frequent cleaning can also solve this problem.
2. Staff/officers/engineers engaged for O&M at some STPs are not fully familiar and
aware of the subject of sewage treatment. They are not trained in the O&M of the STPs.
Proper training programme needs to planned & implemented for all the engineering
level staff/officers who are deputed for O&M of STPs. This should be followed by
100 training for operators as well as chemists who perform sampling/testing work.
3. At most of the STPs, either O&M manual is not prepared or it is not available/used, or it
is not comprehensive enough to include various steps /procedures to be followed in day
to day O&M of the plants as per design so as to have desired quality of treated effluent.
O&M manual should spell out the procedure of reporting and recording of all the
105 data/parameters including quality of waste water in various units of the plants.
4. Polishing ponds (in case of UASB process) and Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are
mostly found accumulated with sludge resulting in reduced capacity/detention time in
the tank. This also effects the quality of treated effluent due to sludge flowing out with
it. Sludge levels should be checked regularly and the ponds should be cleaned off
110 deposited sludge accordingly.
5. In case of polishing ponds or WSPs, it is found that single unit of these ponds have been
provided in some STPs. In such cases, it is very difficult to clean off the accumulated
sludge /silt without closing the STP. So it is important that at least two units of such
ponds are provided at each STP. Also, in case of big ponds/channels wide and long
115 partition/baffle wall need to be provided for easy access for inspection/repairs.
6. Sludge in UASB reactors are not withdrawn regularly based on its level and
concentration in the reactors which results in sludge flowing with the effluent in
polishing ponds and thus poor quality of treated effluent. Regular checking of sludge
level and its concentration in the reactors is essential for proper sludge withdrawal.
120 7. Due to improper removal of filtrate from sludge drying beds, subsequent
removal/withdrawal of sludge from sludge drawing beds/reactors is not possible in a
desired manner, as the capacity of sludge drying beds is reduced. Hence, filtrate from
the beds and sludge from the reactors/sludge drying beds need to be taken out regularly
in a proper way.
125 8. It is important to prepare daily status report so as to record occurrence of problems in
respect of running, functioning, repair, maintenance etc. of all the equipments, units,
facilities etc. installed in each STP, so that the problems, if any, can be solved as and
when applicable. This will also serve as feed back for future planning & execution as
well as tool for monitoring the performance of STPs at a higher level.
130 9. Some of the STPs dont have sufficient baffle walls and also, sufficient length of
Final Draft A-5

overflow weirs at their final outlets in case of UASB polishing ponds and WSPs,
resulting in poor effluent quality. Baffle walls should be constructed for whole length
the pond width so that scum/sludge does not flow out with the effluent. Similarly,
longer overflow weirs will ensure less approaching velocity of flow and subsequently,
135 efficient solid liquid separation.
10. In view of frequent rusting/damage of iron/MS parts/accessories installed in STPs/PSs
due to sulphur action, such items e.g. railings, screens, platforms etc., as far as possible,
should be manufactured in stainless steel, as seen in case of STPs being
constructed/renovated in TamilNadu, Maharashtra etc. Moreover, small electric
140 installations such as motors, flow meters, starters, etc put up for operation of aerators,
screens, grit removal mechanism, gates etc. should be covered with temporary sheds
(PVC) to protect against rain water, dust etc.
11. It is observed that in most of the towns specially, in UP, Bihar and even Delhi, where
there is acute shortage of power supply, standby arrangement during power cut/failure
145 does not generally exists to meet the power requirement for running the plant. Frequent
& long power cuts and subsequent sudden discharge into the STP also causes shock
load to various units of STP, even in UASB and WSP processes, thus adversely
effecting the efficiency of treatment. Hence, alternative standby arrangement in the
form of generators along with sufficient funds for fuel need to be provided to ensure
150 continuous operation of STPs. Intermittent operation of STPs will not help in achieving
the desired quality of treated effluent and thus minimizing the river water pollution. In
addition, unless continuous power supply is available effluent quality parameters
specially, BOD etc can not be tested accurately.
12. Majority of State Govts./implementing agencies are not able to provide sufficient and
155 regular funds for O&M of STPs resulting in their unsatisfactory performance. The
annual const of O&M of sewerage system and STPs in a town varies from 5 to 10 %,
depending on the quantum of pumping (stations) and type /size of STP. It is also
observed that the revenue from STPs is negligible or far less than the expenditure
required to be incurred for proper O&M of the STPs in all cases. In case of STPs
160 constructed with central funding under NRCP by Ministry of Env. & Forests, O&M
cost is to be borne by the State Govts. If the amount for O&M of STPs can not be
provided on regular basis by the State Govts., the matter needs to be looked into at the
highest level, whether further new works should be taken up under the programme.
13. Sometimes, the staff/engineers engaged in O&M of the STPs are frequently transferred
165 so that their experience and know-how does not get transferred to their successors & is
thus not available for O&M of the STP. So the O&M staff/engineers should be deputed
at a plant for sufficient no. of years and their experience and knowhow transferred to
their successors in a planned & systematic manner. In case O&M is being got done
privately through an annual contract, the agreement should be such that the same
170 contractor continues after initial period of one year, subject to its satisfactory
performance. As a matter of fact, O&M of a STP should be included in the main
construction contract for a period of at least 5 to 10 years. This arrangement is found to
be giving good results in case of some of the STPs, namely at Channai, Panji, Nasik etc.
where this practice has been adopted.
175 14. Mostly the result of tests for effluent quality being carried out by various independent
agencies are not fed back to the staff managing the O&M of the STPs. As a matter of
fact the results of the tests, especially, if they are adverse, should be informed to the
operating staff as soon as possible so that corrective measures can be taken at site
accordingly. Also, testing of effluent for fecal coliform is not being done in most of the
180 plants which is one of the most important indicator in abatement of pollution of rivers.
Final Draft A-6

15. In some of the states, specially in UP, O&M of the STPs in some towns is being done
by local bodies which do not have qualified, experienced and knowledgeable staff who
can supervise the O&M of the STPs. Local bodies have engaged private agencies on
contract for O&M of these STPs but their performance is very much unsatisfactory.
185 This arrangement of O&M of STPs by local bodies, where competent staff is not
available, may not last long. In such cases, if it is essential for O&M to be done by local
bodies only, staff/engineers with experience in O&M of STPs should be got
transferred/appointed from the implementing agency, namely UPJN who have
constructed the plant.
190 16. A holistic approach for abatement of pollution of rivers need to be adopted as on one
hand population and other human activities are increasing & on the other hand the
problem further gets compounded due to declining minimum flow, as a significant
quantity of water is abstracted upstream of a town for irrigation/drinking purposes. This
is specifically applicable in case of Yamuna in Delhi where all the water is withdrawn
195 from the river upstream of Wazirabad barrage.
17. It is estimated that out of 3267 mld of sewage generated in Delhi, 2376 mld treatment
capacity exists. But only 1530 mld of total sewage generated is treated at the STPs.
Thus only 64.37% of treatment capacity of STPs is utilized. Under utilization of
capacity of treatment is on account of (i) deficiency in sewerage not work
200 (settlement/silting of trunk sewers) and (ii) improper O&M of conveyance system and
pumping stations. Also, it is important to note that treated sewage is mostly discharged
into storm water drains (17 nos.) which carry untreated sewage and join river Yamuna.
Storm water drains carry sewage from unsewered areas, overflow from
manholes/pumping stations and treated/untreated industrial wastewater. In order to have
205 desired quality of river water in Yamuna at Delhi, the following immediate measures
need to the taken :-
a. Rehabilitation/desilting of trunk sewers.
b. Provision of sewerage net work in unsewered areas.
c. Augmentation of treatment capacity of STPs as per requirement.
210 d. Use of treated effluent for irrigation & other purposes.
e. Proper O&M of the sewerage system & STPs.
18. Sewage treatment with WSPs (anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds) is most
economical in terms of capital as well as O&M cost and is suitable for small towns
where sufficient land is easily available. But certain basic precautions e. g. providing
215 proper weir length and baffle wall(s) at the outlet of ponds during construction; and
proper O&M in respect of cleaning of sludge deposited in ponds at suitable intervals (6
to 12 months) and arresting algal/hyacinth growth are minimum requirements which
have to be kept in mind for achieving desired results.
19. Conventional treatment process, namely ASP/trickling filter is very much suitable in
220 case of large towns, where land is scarce, provided there is no shortage of power and
funds to meet capital and O&M costs. In some of the large towns UASB process has
been provided under NRCP, as it is economical in respect of O&M as compared to ASP.
But it is observed that in some cases desired results are not achieved as O&M agencies
are not paying importance to the intricacies involved in the treatment process, namely
225 uniform feeding to the plant/reactor, proper grit removal & withdrawal of sludge from
UASB reactors, regular cleaning of accumulated sludge from polishing ponds etc.
Improper O&M of these plants is giving a bad impression about UASB technology,
which otherwise appears to be quite appropriate for sewage treatment for most of the
Final Draft A-7

towns in our country.

230 20. In places, where land availability is very scarce, sewage treatment using FAB (Fluidized
Aerobic Bed) reactor, in which biomass grows on small elements (media) that move
along with the water in the fluidized bed state, can be the most appropriate choice. The
movement is caused by bubbling air at the bottom of the reactor. The system has been
provided in a few towns under NRCP but poor O&M might give a negative signal in
235 adoption of this process of treatment.
21. Schemes for providing interceptors with nala-tapings and main/trunk sewers along with
STPs (down stream works) are being implemented under NRCP by Ministry of Env. &
Forests in various towns which are situated on the bank of different rivers and are
polluting the river waters. Upstream works i.e. internal/branch sewers including house
240 connections etc. for a town need to be taken up by the State Govts. Through their own
resources so as to have a holistic approach in abatement of pollution of rivers. This will
also help in solving the problem of weak sewage reaching the STPs for treatment.
Besides, it is also observed that sewerage schemes in various towns are being
sanctioned/implemented by different agencies/departments under different Central/State
245 plans e.g. NRCP by Ministry of Env. & Forests, NURM by MOUD etc. Unless proper
coordination exists between different agencies/departments, implementation of
sewerage schemes may lead to defective planning/execution and duplication of works,
without achieving the desired goal. Thus, as far as possible, all the sewerage schemes
for a town should be sanctioned/implemented under a single funding agency/Ministry.
250 22. Out of 68 no. of STPs inspected for their performance evaluation, it is observed that
O&M in case of 40 no. of STPs is found to be poor or very poor for various seasons.
There is no mechanism for physical monitoring of the performance of STPs constructed
and commissioned under NRCP by Ministry of Env. & Forests. These are seldom
visited by higher officers of NRCD in Ministry of Env. & Forests for their inspection so
255 as to get first hand information on the status of O&M of STPs by the State
Govts./implementing agencies. Moreover, the scope of work of Project Management
Consultants (PMC), appointed by the Ministry for implementation of YAP - II, includes
monitoring of O&M all the STPs constructed in Delhi, UP & Haryana under YAP I.
But it is understood that no action has been taken by NRCD in this respect since the
260 appointment PMC two years back. Regular monitoring of all the STPs for their
performance evaluation at central level (CPCB) twice a year by having own
independent sampling/testing of wastewater need to be carried out for bringing
improvement in O&M of STPs and get the desired quality of treated effluent.
23. It is understood that projects based on generation of electric power from biogas, which
265 is being produced as a result of digestion of sludge in STPs, are eligible for CDM
(Clean Development Mechanism), as it will help in reducing and stabilizing the
emissions due to methane which is a green house gas. Based on the potential of
biogas/power generation from STPs, expenditure on O&M can be offset by earning
carbon credits on recurring basis. It is, therefore, recommended that a feasibility study
270 should be got done for taking up a CDM project in case of any one of the STPs by DJB
in Delhi as it can be a perennial source of revenue generation.
In view of importance of abatement of pollution and preservation of rivers and other water
bodies, proper sewage treatment, its O&M and subsequently, optimum utilization of treated
sewage for irrigation and other purposes needs to be given higher priority by Central/State
275 Govts. urgently. Looking into the overall situation of O&M of the STPs, it can be concluded
that sewerage and sewage treatment is generally not considered a priority item by the State
Govts./local authorities/implementing agencies. So, unless importance/priority is given by them,
the situation may become bad to worse.
Final Draft A-8

APPENDIX 2.1 TROUBLESHOOTING IN SEWERS

280 Table A2.1-1 Troubleshooting in sewers
No. Troubles / Problems Likely causes First stage remedies Second stage remedies
Install small lifting
Toilet floor below road elevation Raise the toilet floor
arrangement
House sewer pipe broken Relay the sewer Go for new connection
Use a kraite from the terminal
Solids are choking the sewer Dig out the sewer and relay
chamber
1. House sewer does not flow
Connection is made to public sewer by Y or Tee Dig open the junction in road Insert a manhole in public
junctions and rectify sewer
Dig it out and relay in straight Construct a new sewer in
House connection may be passing through bends
alignment another alignment
Expose the pipe and shear off
Roots of trees might have grown into the sewer Dig out and relay the sewer
the roots
Organic matter has accumulated at the bottom Raise the vent higher than the Take a sewer connection if
2. Septic tank emits foul smell
and become concentrated roof for free air passage available
Septic tank effluent smells bad Provide a leach pit and then let Provide trees for evaporating
3. This is always the case when discharged freely
odour it out to road drain the effluent
Open out downstream Use jet rodding machine at the
The sewer to the next manhole is choked (or)
manholes to find out where the downstream end and jet the
some other downstream sewer is choked
Sewage overflows from sewage is not flowing sewer at the high end
4.
manholes Use a bucket cleaning machine If established, dig out and
The sewer has collapsed in the next reach or
to establish the broken sewer or provide new sewer pipe after
somewhere else downstream
not temporary blocking upstream
Check the TDS by a pocket Provide a bypass to nearby
meter every hour to find out water course in the night hours
Sewage level does not go down abnormalities in nights. and arrange for higher capacity
The sewage pump sets are very old and worn out
5. at all in the sewage pumping If TDS is much less in nights pump sets to nearby STP or
(or) ground water is infiltrating into the sewers
station ground water is seeping next higher pumping station.
through defective sewers or Launch a study to locate the
joints infiltration
Final Draft A-9

Insert new manholes on each Interconnect by a CI or DI
side at a reasonable distance to sewer pipe laid on proper
be away venteak piles
Sewer manhole keeps sinking The sub surface soil is defective (or) the
6. Use temporary bypass pumping of sewage from upstream
into ground foundation has given way
manhole to downstream by diesel pump sets and flexible hose till
the above remedy is completed. Connect the house service
connections to the upstream manhole
The sewers are choked and anaerobic conditions Pull out the column and seal Try to ensure sewers flow
Public do not want ventilating
7. have set in resulting in foul smelling Hydrogen the connecting pipe to the freely and not over 80 % of its
columns near their property
Sulphide gas public sewer depth at all times
Sewage pump sets require The pump is horizontal and its axis is higher than Replace by wet submersible Redesign the pumping station
8.
priming and take a long time the sewage elevation in the well pumps fully
Sewers do not let out sewage at The sewer has collapsed in between and sewage
9. Similar to the troubleshooting of item 1 above
downstream manhole is going into the ground
safety equipments such as
Dig out the sewer and re-
barricade, signs or security
The underground portion is hollowed because backfill or relay.
lights should be installed
10. Road collapse occurs sand has been drawn into the pipe due to As other methods, soil
immediately around the
breakage or step displacement stabilization is required
collapsed road to prevent
secondary disaster
Final Draft A-10

APPENDIX 2.2 T.V. INSPECTION REPORT

Table A2.2-1 T.V. inspection report
Book No. Page No. Date:
285 Camera Direction M.H. No. to M.H.No. Viewer

Street
Quadrant 4 1
District: Pipe size & type:
Code
Easement 3 2
Distance: Cleanliness of line: M.H.Condition: Grade of Line:
Distance Quadrant Root
Photo No. Remarks Repairs
Reading 1 2 3 4 Rating
Final Draft A-11

APPENDIX 3.1 DETAILED TROUBLESHOOTING FOR HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SETS

Table A3.1-1 Type of troubles
No Type of Trouble Probable causes as per conditions indexed in Table below
a. Pump does not deliver water 1,2,3,5,6,7,9,10,15,18,21,23,26,28,29,30,31,33,40,41,42
b. Insufficient discharge 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10,13,16,17,18, 20,21,23,24,27,28,29,30,31,33,39,40,41
c. Insufficient pressure is developed 2,3,4,21,23,24,26,27,28,33, 39
d. Pump loses prime after starting 22,25,28,33,37,38,49,53,54, 55,56,58
e. Pump requires excessive power 22,25,28,33,37,38,49,53,54, 55,56,58
f. Stuffing box leaks excessively 34,36,44,45,46,47,48,50,51, 52
g. Gland packing has short life 11,12,34,36,44,45,47,48,49, 50, 52
h. Bearing has short life 17,20,32,34,35,36,37,39,41, 44,48,51,54,55,56,57,58,59, 60,61,62,63
i. Pump vibrates or is noisy at all flows 10,17,19,20,22,33,34,36,37, 38,40,41,43,45,46,47,48,51, 52,53,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62, 63, 65
j. Pump vibrates or is noisy at low flow 1,2,3,9,10,17,20,21,27,39
k. Pump vibrates or is noisy at high flow 25,28
l. Pump oscillates axially 38
m. Coupling fails 34,36,38,60,62
n. Pump overheats and /or seizes 1,2,3,11,12,17, 2 0,24,26,27, 31,34,36,37,38,44,45,47,48, 49,50,53,54,55,56,57,58
Pump rotates in reverse direction on shutdown or after
o. 14,64
power failure or tripping
Table A3.1-2 Probable causes
No Probable Causes
1. Pump not fully primed
2. Pressure at eye of impeller has fallen below vapour pressure, causing cavitation (check for clogging on suction side)
3. Suction lift too high. (Reduce suction lift after calculating permissible suction lift from NPSHA and NPSHR)
4. Excessive amount of air in liquid
5. Air pocket in suction line (Check whether any point in suction line is above centre line of pump, and if so, lower the line)
6. Air leaks into suction line
7. Air leaks into pump through stuffing boxes or mechanical seal
Final Draft A-12

No Probable Causes
8. Net opening area of foot valves is small
9. Foot valve/strainer partially or fully clogged or silted up
10. Suction bell mouth or foot valve insufficiently submerged
11. Water-seal pipe clogged
12. Seal cage improperly mounted in stuffing box, preventing sealing and allowing fluid to enter space to from the seal
13. Circular motion in suspended suction pipe observed (The problem indicates occurrence of vortex)
14. Foot valve leaks
15. Flap of foot valve jammed
16. Concentric taper in suction line causing air pocket (Replace with eccentric taper)
17. Occurrence of vortex in intake, sump or well (Check whether all parameters for vortex-free operation are satisfied; take remedial measures)
18. Casing not air-tight and therefore breathing in
19. Short bend/elbow on suction side
20. Inadequate clearance below suction bell mouth (Raise bell mouth to achieve recommended bottom clearance for vortex-free operation)
21. Speed too low for pump driven by diesel engine
22. Speed too high for pump driven by diesel engine
23. Wrong direction of rotation
24. Total head of system higher than design head of pump
25. Total head of system lower than design head of pump
26. Static head higher than shut off head of pump
27. Pump characteristics unsuitable for parallel operation of pumps
28. Burst or leakage in pumping main
29. Pumping main partially or fully clogged
30. Air trapped in pumping main
31. Malfunctioning of line valve causing partial or full closure
32. Capacity of thrust bearing inadequate
33. Foreign matter in impeller
34. Misalignment
Final Draft A-13

No Probable Causes
Foundations not rigid, or broken/loose foundation bolts, or supporting structural member (RCC/ structural steel beams) not rigid (Dismantle existing
35.
foundation and cast new foundation. Strengthen supporting RCC/ structural steel beams)
36. Pump (impeller) shaft bent
37. Rotating part rubbing on stationary part
38. Pump shaft bearing (bush bearing or anti-friction bearing) worn
39. Wearing rings worn
40. Impeller damaged
41. Impeller locking pin loose
42. Pump shaft or transmission shaft broken
43. Transmission shaft ben
44. Shaft or shaft sleeves worn or scored at the packing
45. Gland packing improperly installed
46. Incorrect type of gland packing for operating conditions
47. Shaft running off centre because of worn bearing or misalignment
48. Rotor out of balance, causing vibration
49. Gland too tight, resulting in no flow of liquid to lubricate gland
50. Failure to provide cooling liquid to water cooled stuffing boxes
51. Excessive clearance at bottom of stuffing box between shaft and casing, causing interior packing to be forced into pump
52. Dirt or grit in sealing liquid, leading to scouring of shaft or shaft sleeve
53. Excessive thrust caused by mechanical failure inside the pump or by the failure of the hydraulic balancing device, if any
54. Excessive grease or highly viscous oil in anti- friction bearing housing or lack of cooling, causing excessive bearing temperature
55. Lack of lubrication causing overheating and abnormal friction in anti-friction bearing, bush bearing or transmission shaft bearing
56. Improper installation of anti-friction ring (damage during assembly, incorrect assembly of stacked bearings, use of unmatched bearings as a pair, etc)
57. Dirt in bearings
58. Rusting of bearing from water in housing
59. Mechanical seal worn out
60. Coupling bushes or rubber spider worn out or wear of coupling
61. Base plate or frame not properly levelled
Final Draft A-14

No Probable Causes
62. Coupling unbalance
63. Bearing loose on shaft or in housing
64. Reflux valve (NRV) does not close tightly during shut down, after power failure or after tripping
65. Critical speed close to normal speed of pump
Source: JICA, 2011
Final Draft A-15

290 APPENDIX 3.2 POSSIBLE CAUSES AND CORRECTIVE ACTIONS TO CHECK FOR PUMPS
Table A3.2-1 Corrective actions
(1) Pump won't start or run
Check to see if float ball is stuck. If so, remove obstacle. If required, reposition
pump or remount switch in new position so it does not get stuck.
Float switch is not being raised high enough
Fluid level might not be high enough to engage switch. Raise float manually or add
water until float is at activation height to test switch
Check outlet to ensure that it has power. If not, replace fuse or reset breaker in
fuse/breaker box.
Plug pump directly into an outlet without using an extension cord.
If extension cord MUST be used, ensure that it is made of adequately heavy gauge
wire to support the length of cord and horsepower of pump being used.
Pump is not receiving adequate power
Check that wire providing power to the outlet where pump is plugged in is
adequate.
Pump should be plugged into an outlet that is fed by its own circuit breaker (or
fuse).If circuit breaker feeds power to other outlets or appliances, use an outlet that
is fed by its own breaker
Remove screen from bottom of pump and make sure no obstruction is preventing
Impeller is jammed with debris
the impeller from moving freely. Remove any obstructions
Bypass the float switch. Unplug pump cord from the piggyback plug of float switch.
Plug the pump's plug directly into outlet to test. If pump runs, float switch is
Float switch is defective
defective. Replace float switch. (Do not leave pump plugged in too long or it will
burn out)
Pump is defective If all items above check out OK, then pump is defective and needs to be replaced
(2) Motor hums but little or no fluid is ejected from pit
Motor is just humming but does not run Follow diagnostics above for "Pump won't start or run"
Drill 1/16" to 1/8" anti-airlock hole in pipe just above pump's discharge and just
Pump is air-locked
below check valve
Final Draft A-16

Check valve usually has an arrow on it indicating water flow. Ensure it is pointing
up towards the discharge, not towards pump.
Check valve is stuck or closed, or installed incorrectly Inspect to see if check valve is stuck or closed.We recommend check valves be
installed horizontally in sewage applications so solids cannot settle onto the flapper
valve and hold it shut
Impeller is damaged Inspect impeller for worn or missing blades. Replace impeller if needed
Check for blockages at discharge of pipe. If in cold area, see if pipe is frozen
closed.
Discharge pipe is partially or fully blocked Discharge pipe has too many 90-degree elbows which restrict flow. Using more
than 3 or 4 elbows can restrict flow considerably. Consider using 45 elbows
instead of 90 elbows
Inspect impeller area of pump for debris that has jammed the impeller. Remove as
Impeller is jammed
needed
Suction intake screen is partly or fully blocked Inspect suction screen at bottom for debris blocking it. Remove debris
Volute (bottom of pump) is cracked allowing water to leak out Inspect bottom section of pump for cracks or holes that would allow water to escape
Inspect discharge pipe and joints for any location where water can leave the pipe
Discharge pipe is leaking
and return to the sump pit
(3) Pump runs for a short time and ejects some fluid but shuts off before pit is empty. (Bear in mind a few inches will remain at bottom of pit. This is normal)
Be sure that pump is plugged directly into outlet. It is recommended that the outlet
be fed by its own circuit breaker (or fuse). If the breaker (or fuse) sends power
elsewhere, the pump may be short of voltage when it starts.
Pump is overheated and shut off by thermal overload Make sure proper pump has been chosen for your application. A sewage or effluent
pump is designed to empty a sump, sewage or effluent pit. Using this pump where it
can run for extended periods (waterfalls, pond circulation, etc.) can cause
overheating
Check if pump shuts off before float ball is all the way down. If it shuts down too
Float switch is out of adjustment
early, adjust float switch according to instructions in the owners' manual
If adjustment above did not resolve problem, or no adjustment is possible, replace
the float switch
(4) Pump runs continuously
Plug pump cord into piggyback connector on back/side of float switch plug. Place
Pump cord and float switch cord are plugged in separately
the combination in a single receptacle of an outlet
Final Draft A-17

Inspect pit for debris that can cause the float ball to get stuck and not settle at its
Float switch is stuck
OFF position. Remove debris or relocate pump or switch to avoid it
For tethered style float ensure there is minimum of 5cm of cord between float ball
Float switch is out of adjustment and cord mounting bracket. Make sure cord is not so long that float can settle on
floor of pit and not hang straight down
Fluid is not being discharged from pit See item above labelled "Motor hums but little or no fluid is ejected from pit"
(5) Pump starts and stops too often
A very small pit or basin will simply not hold as much water. Enlarging the pit or
Sewage pit or basin is very small
basin (if possible) would be wise
For tethered style float ensure there is minimum of 5cm of cord between float ball
Float switch is out of adjustment
and cord mounting bracket
After pump has run, inspect to see if fluid is coming back into pit through the pump.
Fluid is coming back into pit from discharge pipe
If so, the check valve has failed. Replace the check valve
(6) Pump is noisy
Place insulating foam between pipe and wall and/or joists.
Try hanging the pipe with an exhaust hanger from an auto parts store.
Discharge pipe is rattling or banging against wall and/or floor joists
Install a section of flexible rubber hose (like radiator hose) between the pump
discharge and the discharge pipe for insulating vibrations
Install a section of flexible rubber hose (like radiator hose) between the pump
discharge and the discharge pipe for noise insulation.
Check valve slams shut with a bang just after pump shuts off You may be using a pump that is higher in horsepower than you need. It may cause
the water to move too fast in the pipe. After the pump shuts off, the fluid column
keeps moving upward for a moment, then slams down
Adjust float switch according to the owners' manual so that it shuts off before it
Pump is sucking air at end of its cycle
starts sucking air
Inspect impeller for broken or missing blades, or debris stuck to blade. Clean /
Pump itself is vibrating replace impeller or pump to rectify but also inspect sump pit to eliminate debris that
could damage new impeller
(7) Fuse or circuit breaker feeding the outlet where pump is plugged in trips or blows when pump activates
Water entered cord and/or float switch connector (especially possible if Separate pump plug from switch plug use hair dryer to dry them out.
your breaker is a GFCI type breaker) Remove cord connector from top of pump and dry out with cloth or hair dryer
Final Draft A-18

Remove screen from bottom of pump and make sure nothing prevents the impeller
Impeller is stuck or jammed with debris
from moving freely. Remove any obstructions
Check to make sure the wire supplying power to the pump is appropriate for the
Using an extension cord or wiring to outlet which is of inadequate capacity
horsepower and amp draw of the pump in place
We recommend that the pump be plugged directly into an outlet and that the outlet
is the only item being powered by the circuit breaker that feeds it. If the breaker is
Shared circuit breaker (or fuse)
powering other items, the additional draw of the pump starting can pop the breaker
(or blow the fuse)
Plug pump directly into outlet (without plugging into float's piggyback plug) to see
if pump runs without popping breaker or fuse. If it does, but it pops fuse/breaker
when plugged in through float switch, the float switch is defective. Replace float
switch
If all the items above check out OK, then the motor may be defective and it will be
Pump motor has a shorted winding
necessary to replace the pump
Final Draft A-19

APPENDIX 3.3 TROUBLESHOOTING IN SEWAGE PUMP STATIONS

Table A3.3-1 Troubleshooting in sewage pump stations
The rated current has been Check the current drawn and compare
If it exceeds rated current, stop the pump
exceeded because of worn out value with that in the manual for pump
& report to competent officer
motor set
Sewage pump set starts
Cavitation has changed the Check for unusual gurgling sounds from If so, stop the pump &report to the
1. pumping and automatically
dynamic balance of the impeller the pump volute competent officer
trips after some time
The pumping mains has been
Verify the outlet end of the pumping If a pipe seems to be clogged, close the
choked and there is back
main if it is a free discharge valve, remove a pipe length and check
pressure
Sewage pump motor heats Use an appropriate flap type
If heating is excessive, stop the pump &
2. up beyond permissible thermometer. Do not use bare Verify with the manual of the pump set
report to competent officer
limit hands
Bearings have worn out or
Sewage pump set makes a Use a hand held decibel level meter and If noise level exceeds 80 dB, stop the
3. cavitation has loosened parts of
lot of noise verify from 1-m distance pump and report to the competent officer
impeller
A constant and steady drip is
beneficial in gland packing of
Sewage pump has Most probably, the packing rope has Stop the pump and rectify the same from
4. horizontal foot mounted pump
continuous gland leak softened and has given way fresh supplies
sets, but a steady flow is a
source of trouble
Most probably the foundation
Sewage pump vibrates Install a new foundation outside the Make an adaptor frame and remount the
5. bolts have given way or
noticeably footprint of old foundation base plate
cavitation has occurred within
The pump delivery head may be in the
The non return valve may have Remove the pressure gauge, fit a standby
shutoff range. This should be verified
tripped and discharge pressure is calibrated pressure gauge and reconfirm
Pump seems to be drawing from the pump curve and delivery
not able to open the flap of the that the pump is at the shutoff range
6. current but flow meter does pressure gauge
non return valve. The same
not record any flow Immediately shut down the pump set and arrange for opening and inspection of the non
thing may occur with a gate
valve also return valve and gate valve, and rectify the same. Allow the raw sewage to go through
emergency bypass to identified water course
Final Draft A-20

If it is lower by 5% stop the pump and
Pump may not be receiving the report to competent officer or switch over
Check the voltmeter reading
designated voltage to genset if the timing is morning peak
flow
Pump delivery line may be Check the air valve position and release If the air valve is defective, replace the ball
Pump makes a humming having an air lock any trapped air by opening it inside
7. noise when switched on but If the pump is submersible, the
there is no discharge The pump has to be switched off and If crack is detected, take pump out of
bottom casing may have cracked
physically raised above the water level service and send it to the pump
and sewage may be escaping
and inspected manufacturer
there itself
Allow the well to flood. Chances are the
The suction opening may be Stop the pump set. Use another pumpset
sheet or rag may float up and can be
blocked by some sheets or rags if available
removed by a long pole and hook
Circuit breaker for the
Pump motor may have shorted This is to be verified by a qualified operator. If true, take the pump out of service and do
8. pump trips when pump is
winding not install unless it comes back fully repaired and with all correct records
switched on
Final Draft A-21

APPENDIX 4.1 TROUBLESHOOTING IN STPS

295 Table A4.1-1 Manual bar screens
Velocity of approach and velocity of
exit are less than 0.6 m/s Take a branch air line and fix it to
1. Grit settles in screen chamber The flow is not entering the screen agitate the sewage at entry and exit.
This will at least help in buoyancy Reconstruct the approach and exit
perpendicularly and forms a swirl
channels appropriately and maintain at
before it
least 4 times the width in each location
Screen rods get clogged with Place a flow deflector arrangement
2. plastic sachets, rags, sanitary Same causes as in 1 above in water resistant ply upstream like
napkins etc the turnstile used in horse racing
Hand rake rod cannot be The rods might have been welded to a
Fabricate a new screen set of rods which are individually fixed in the concrete
3. ploughed freely through the cross rod before the sewage enters the
floor and the walking platform
full length of the screen screen
Operator feels insecure to The width of platform is too small
4. Add extra width of platform with handrail at the upstream end
stand and rake and there is no handrail behind him
Operator is uncomfortable in Provide a light roofing arched cover and fix appropriate light on the roof edges
5. There is no roof
sun and rain so that the operator is not subjected to glare
Operator is not able to carry
There is no arrangement to keep the Make arrangement for hanging the rod on the outer air side of the sidewall at
6. the raking bar with him while
raking bar near the platform waist height while standing on the platform
climbing up
Verify flows and verify that bypass
Increase in sewage quantity or higher If gravity does not permit and flows are
Unusual or excessive peak flows back to inlet chamber
7. peak sewage flows or industrial very high, demand additional screen
screenings during peak hours of flow if gravity
effluents may occur chambers
permits
Table A4.1-2 Mechanical bar screens
1. Same as items 1 and 2 above
Screenings drop back into the The flap plate at the top requires
2. Should not be attended by the operator. Call the equipment supplier
sewage channel resetting
Final Draft A-22

The moving raker drops back
3. The mechanical arrangement is faulty
with a loud noise
Shear pin may be broken, or rope
Motor is running but raker
4. over the pulley may be loose, or rack
does not move
& pinion are not in mesh
Alignment of stationary and moving
Marks of metal made on metal Should not be attended by the operator. Call the equipment supplier
5. parts are not in order and these parts
in screen rods
have moved away
Screen starts moving and
6. Motor torque power is not adequate
suddenly the motor trips
The screen may be clogged (or) the
Sewage overflows screen
7. hydraulics and channel dimensions If choking is not the problem, refer to the design department
chamber
are not matching
Increase in sewage quantity or higher Verify flows and bypass peak flows If gravity does not permit and flows are
Unusual or excessive
8. peak sewage flows or industrial back to inlet chamber during peak very high, demand additional screen
screenings
effluents may occur hours of flow if gravity permits chambers
Table A4.1-3 Detritors
Try to reduce the flow through the
Sewage is flowing too fast across the If this solves the problem construct
detritors by opening the bypass
detritors additional detritors as needed
valve? and watch for improvement
Grit classifier is not meshing with the
Try to screed the inclined floor to Get the channel made in SS and fix
grit evacuation channel floor in the
Detritors and classifiers do not match the rakes correctly
1. case of scrapers
bring out any grit
The screw is not meshing with the Change the arrangement to raker type. This is economical considering overall
curved portion in which it is moving aspects
Take a sample in a beaker, allow it to settle and watch for grit load in raw
The sewage may not have grit at all sewage. If there is no grit, bypass the grit chamber and remove the mechanical
equipment to stores
The grit washing mechanism is not Install organic return pump to lift the sewage to the top of the grit washer rake
2. The grit has foul smell
working (or) screw and wash down the organics
Final Draft A-23

Add extra classifiers to the existing
Trace the locations in collection system
Road washings, ash, or material from ones by additional SS troughs and
and rectify the connections
3. Excessive grit building sites may be entering the screws
collection system
Increase speed of scrapper as well as frequency of removal of grit
This can occur when the flow is small
Excessive organic matter in Install additional organic return Try to recirculate outlet flows to attain
4. and velocity through detritors is less
the grit pumps in classifiers the velocity
than design velocity
5. For all other mechanized systems refer the problem to the equipment supplier. The operator should not attempt repairs
Table A4.1-4 Velocity controlled grit removal channels
Grit gets washed away in the Velocity varies widely between
1. Refer the problem to the design department
channels average flow and peak flow conditions
Usually travelling platform with trip
switches at end and vacuum pump set
with hanging hoses are provided to
Grit removal facilities do not Never enter the grit channel. Demand a
2. discharge into dedicated channel along Do not attempt any rectification
exist mechanized grit removal system
the length of grit chamber. This
probably not provided or it is not
working
The grit delivered by the grit
The system design does not permit
3. removal vacuum system has Construct a grit washing hydro cyclone facility
rinsing of the grit
foul smel
Reduce the number of parallel grit Install temporary pump sets to recycle
This can occur when the flow is small channels in use outlet flow
Excessive organic matter in
4. and velocity through detritors is less
the grit Insert planks or brickwork along the length to reduce the width of flow and
than design velocity
increase the velocity
Velocity is too high and detention Add more channels or introduce
5. Carryover of grit Increase grit removal frequency
period is too short equalization basin for raw sewage
Final Draft A-24

Table A4.1-5 Oil & grease removal unit - gravity type

The required facility of a slit pipe
Do not try to skim by any other Arrange for spraying an insecticide
rotatable at the surface of the oil has
means. The layer is best left as it is mildly once a day on the scum
not been provided
Oil and grease floats on the The required operating platform with
Demand the platform
surface before the handrails is not provided
1.
downstream baffle and cannot Try to loosen it by blowing hot air
be skimmed around its housing at the ends. This
If this does not work, call the
The slit pipe is not rotating can be done by using a hair drier.
equipment supplier
Stand on the outside on a ladder and
not on the oil trap
In hot summer fumes are seen The oily scum becomes hot and starts Immediately place a non flammable Install a non flammable light roof with
2.
above the unit emitting fumes light roof on the unit 4.5 m headroom
300 Table A4.1-6 Mechanized oil & grease removal unit
1. All problems Whatever the reasons, the operator shall not attend to the problem and shall call the equipment supplier
Table A4.1-7 Primary clarifiers circular mechanical sludge scraper type
Install a circular platform with
handrails on the land side. The
Use a long wire brush to scrape out platform shall be preferably RCC
the biological growths if there is a supported independent of the clarifier
1. Scum flows over outlet weirs Scum baffle is not provided
circular walkway with handrail. If foundation
there is no walkway, do nothing
Demand installation of a scum baffle
all round and a scum removal arm
Final Draft A-25

If discharge is by gravity, open the
valve fully and watch for sludge.
If no sludge drains out, pump
compressed air if a Tee flange joint Even after these measures, if the
is available. If there is no Tee joint, sludge does not drain, divert the
bring a sewer jet rodding machine sewage from the clarifier, empty out by
and jet the line at mild pressure for temporary diesel pump set. Then hose,
not more than a minute and again inspect and rectify. Invariably, sludge
Choked up sludge withdrawal pipeline after an hour pipelines are of CI or DI and they do
If it discharges by direct suction and not collapse. However, if it has
2. Sludge solids start floating if no sludge drains out, pump collapsed, major repair is called for
compressed air if a Tee flange joint especially after ensuring that
is available. If there is no Tee joint, dewatering the groundwater is done to
bring a sewer jet rodding machine below the floor level of the clarifier
and jet the line at mild pressure for
not more than a minute and again
after an hour
Higher HRT generates gas bubbles,
which reduces density of sludge 1. Spray water on sludge lumps
solids, leads to floating of sludge 2. Increase sludge removal frequency
lumps
Check whether electrical supply is

If both the connection and switch are
Sludge scraper arms do not Jamming of motor, gearbox unit (or) available at the motor terminals.
3. in order, call the equipment
rotate breakage of transmission mechanism Check the local push button switch
manufacturer
with megger
Scraper arms rotate but the Scraper blades have lost the squeegees
sludge coming out is merely at the floor level. This means the Guide a remote operated video camera on the sides of the wall at three or four
4.
sewage and sludge is sludge is not moving towards the locations. Inspect the film footage and perform repairs
occasional centre for withdrawal
Final Draft A-26

Excess growth of bio mass on Indicates aerobic organisms growing
5. Same procedure as in item 1 above
the V notches in weirs in the grooves
If it is a horizontal foot mounted Verify electrical connections, and Even after these measures, if pump
centrifugal pump set, the gland switch off the motor. Remove the does not work, call the pump set
Sludge pump runs for few packing may be too tight gland packing and re-fit it properly supplier
6.
minutes and stops suddenly If it is a positive displacement stator-
rotor pump set, the stator and rotor Call the pump set supplier
might have jammed
Sludge does not drain easily Grit has entered the tanks and has Install air lift pumps on the top of
Try to increase the efficiency of grit
7. by gravity in hopper bottom choked the drain pipe of the hopper tanks and evacuate the grit content
removal equipment
tanks tank periodically
The incoming raw sewage is probably Usually settling tanks can absorb a peak flow of about 2.5 times during morning
Surges occur in the settling
8. being pumped directly from the hours but if the raw sewage itself is pumped intermittently, then an equalization
tank overflows on the weirs
collection system tank is needed
Typically, the thickener overflow may
Settling tank effluent is There is nothing to be done; this can be allowed to go on and will automatically
9. be darker than sewage and can cause
darker than raw sewage be rectified after aeration tank
this problem
Too much detention in the settling
Bubbles are noticed in the tank introduces septic conditions and Recirculate the outlet flow back to inlet
Increase sludge removal frequency to
10. tanks and sludge spreads after anaerobic activity. This releases to increase the flow and reduce
contain the problem
the bubbles methane and hydrogen sulphide detention
bubbles
Final Draft A-27

Table A4.1-8 Activated sludge plants

If the plant has been constructed in at Simultaneously, in the other module,
least two parallel modules, shut down remove the air diffuser facilities,
flow to one module. This applies to motors &gearboxes in other units and
all units like clarifiers, aeration tanks, store them carefully in the store. Do
thickeners and digesters not disturb piping and valves
The clarifiers may be hydraulically
Simultaneously, verify whether it is
under loaded causing serious
possible to install a lower air
problems like septicity and foul
compressor of the required air capacity
odour. Try to install temporary pump
calculated by pro rating the same to the
set and return 100 % of treated
flow and same head
sewage back to screen chamber
If possible install a new air If there is VFD facility for the existing
compressor without changing the air compressor, try to adjust the output
This is a common problem, and it motor prorated to the flow
Raw sewage flow is much seriously affects the performance
1. The sludge withdrawal from primary Consult a process design person before
less than design flow causing huge waste in the electrical
energy for aeration clarifier will give thin sludge and the operating the dilution water pump set.
thickener may not need separate Too much water into thickener is not
dilution water recommended
In the secondary clarifier, operate the Simultaneously, verify the MLVSS in
return pump set as designed. The the aeration tank. If the concentration
excess sludge wasting time and is too low compared to the design
volume may have to be adjusted pro concentration, throttle and reduce
rata to the sewage flow versus design recirculation in the treated sewage
flow recirculation pump set
The dewatering machines will have
The digester may not be working
facilities for polyelectrolyte addition.
efficiently due to smaller organic
Check the proper dosage in the lab. Do
load and possibly smaller solids
not add more polyelectrolyte than
concentration. Do not take any action
actually needed
Final Draft A-28

The sludge dewatering machines may
Construct required facilities to store
not give the required sludge
the first time dewatered sludge and the
consistency. If watery, it has to be
required pump sets to pump it back
put through the dewatering machine
again to the dewatering machine
again
Even after these measures, if microbes
In STPs of industrial clusters where
do not develop, supplement
the work is only in day shifts, the
commercially available enzymes as per
sewage is actually mostly urine and
manufacturers guidelines. Also add
no night soil as the natures call is
micro nutrients once a week. The
finished by the population in their
A balanced availability of organic Excel sheet for calculating the micro
houses itself before coming to the
material, nitrogen and phosphorous nutrients quantity is given in
industry. Locally available cow dung
must be available otherwise organisms Appendix-B. Procure the chemicals,
has to be dissolved in water, filtered
Microorganisms do not will not grow prepare a solution and add to the
2. to remove straw etc and added to
aeration tank slowly over an hour so
develop aeration tank. Dosage should be
that it mixes well with the tank
determined to obtain at least 50 mg/l
contents. The addition is at the inlet
of BOD
end
Same as above for batch type reactors like SBR
First apply physico-chemical treatment
In case of sewage coming from one
Toxic Material may be present in raw to a stream carrying toxic material and
SPS, first off identify the line at inlet
sewage then let it be allowed for further
and divert it
treatment
Raw sewage flow is much
3. This can be adjusted to about 15 % Make sure the hydraulics is adequate If not, bypass after grit removal
higher than design flow
MLSS develops but does not A peculiar problem may be the TDS Verify the design TDS and actual Locate the source & avoid it in the
4.
survive of the sewage TDS collection system
New plants usually have such Try to spray the treated sewage using By adopting these measures, the
White coloured foaming of
5. problems because the sludge is young a temporary pump set twice in a day problem should be controlled within a
aeration tank
and not aged. The foam may be time shift to break the foam month at the maximum
Final Draft A-29

removed without any worries If possible attach a greenhouse nylon
net to strong anchor nails on the side
walls handling it carefully
F/M ratio is too high Do not waste sludge from either secondary clarifier or aeration tank
Increase sludge wasting and verify
If the problem persists provide a raw
Older plants may have such problems whether MLVSS has increased to
Dark brown foaming of sewage equalization tank and ensure
6. due to very little sludge wasted in about 70 %.
aeration tank uniform raw sewage flow to the
secondary clarifier, If air supply is available, increase it
aeration tank
by using the VFD
Nocardia to be checked under a Check and correct oil, grease & fat in
Most probably, filamentous organisms
Greasy very dark foaming of microscope by a microbiologist raw sewage
7. such as Nocardia might have come
aeration tank Increase sludge wasting by 10 % day till the desired level of MLSS is achieved
into the MLSS
If possible increase aeration air by
Insufficient oxygen has caused
Very dark foam and mixed VFD. If this is not available, report the
8. anaerobic conditions in the aeration Check the DO in the aeration tank
liquor is black matter to all including the CEO
tank
directly to supplement the aeration
Unequal flow distribution or unequal
MLSS concentration varies
return sludge to the aeration tanks or Check the flow rates and adjust the valves of return sludge lines to each aeration
9. between the parallel aeration
both can cause this problem in both tank or division weirs in flow division boxes before entry into aeration tanks
tanks
surface and diffused aeration
Small amount of whitish
10. This is actually a sign of a plant operating well
foam at corners
Verify F/M ratio. Most probably this If the aeration tank is step aeration
would have increased to a higher type, send the raw sewage to the
Sludge rises almost all over Toxic contents in raw sewage may be value than the design value second compartment
11. the clarifier weir and causing dispersed growth bulking in If the aeration tank is a plug flow type,
overflows aeration system Verify the DO in aeration tank. This try to divert the raw sewage at least
might be very low or absent about 20 % of the distance away from
the inlet
Final Draft A-30

If the tank is a complete mix tank with
Verify the MLVSS. Its value might
uniform entry of sewage all along one
be very low compared to the
side, try to cut off raw sewage for one
designed value
hour every shift
If the plant has facilities to add a
Verify the raw sewage pH for any
coagulant, try to use a non ionic
sudden drop due to acidic effluents
polyelectrolyte for some time
Microscopic examination by a Check nitrogen, phosphorous, BOD Distribute the raw sewage along the
microbiologist shows a large number ratio and adjust N and P by adding length of aeration tanks in plug flow
of filamentous organisms commercial NPK fertilizers reactor so that initial zones can recover
Check for nitrification and reduce Assemble 50 mm SS crib mesh with
If the STP is not designed for oxygen supply to aeration tank by lockable clasps of size equal to cross
denitrification and if excess oxygen is reducing the air output of blowers / section of launders and of cubical
given in aeration tank, there can be compressors but without affecting shape, fill with loose foam and stack
nitrification of ammonia, this nitrate mixing energy requirement which are along the launder at intervals to trap
will be denitrified in the sludge zone also equally important in diffused the solids. Periodically remove, wash
of secondary clarifiers and the rising aeration systems and restack
bubbles will carry over the sludge If the aeration is by surface aerators
solids from the sludge layers If this is not possible, follow the foam
adjust the submergence to reduce the
filled cribs as mentioned above
oxygen transfer
Check return sludge concentration and solids level (balance) around final
Sludge return rate is too high
clarifier and settleability test
Check micro biota, DO, pH and nitrogen concentration; raise Do and pH,
Sludge concentration in Filamentous growth
supplement nitrogen and add chlorine
12. return sludge is low (<8,000
mg/L) Check micro biota and dissolved iron content; if present, supplement nitrogen
Actinomycetes predominant
feed
Collector mechanism speed is
Adjust speed of collector mechanism
inadequate
Final Draft A-31

Table A4.1-9 Biological nitrification-denitrification systems

Check for DO in the mixed liquor as
it enters the secondary clarifier and
If there is still no nitirification, the
find out if it is the same as in the
problem may be elsewhere. Hence go
design of the STP. If it is less, try to
This can be due to insufficient oxygen to the next steps as given below
increase by using the VFD on the
supply, absence of required compressor
1. Nitrification does not occur
bicarbonate alkalinity and hindrance
from toxic chemicals in sewage Check the bicarbonate alkalinity and
If the alkalinity is less, supplement it
nitrogen ratio. The alkalinity
by adding sodium bicarbonate to the
expressed as CaCO3 shall not be less
extent required. The quantity is to be
than 7.5 times of nitrogen expressed
calculated by the chemist
as N
Check the nitrate in the influent to
and effluent from the denitrification If everything appears normal, check
tank and compare with the design whether the bottom floor level mixer is
values. If it is much lower, check the functioning in the anoxic tank portion
This is due to inadequate contact time N in the raw sewage and clarifier and rectify the equipment, if necessary
between raw sewage, return mixed effluent to find out the nitrification
2. Denitrification does not occur
liquor and return sludge and also due
to inadequate nitrification itself Check if the BOD in raw sewage has If this is the case, in reality there is no
gone up compared to design value. If immediate solution in a plant already
this is the case, the oxygen supplied constructed and in use. The best
is consumed by BOD reducing possible solution would be to restrict
micro-organisms the raw sewage volume proportionately
Final Draft A-32

Table A4.1-10 Secondary clarifier problems

1. Problems in primary clarifier sludge issues as discussed earlier are equally applicable here also
The better form of MLSS settling in Check for nitrification in kg / day as
Pin type of flocs in clarifier clarifier is blanket settling. The also BOD removal in kg / day. If the If the problem persists, the only
are seen and these flocs do settling flocs trap any suspended nitrification fraction is higher then method is to add a non-ionic polymer
2.
not reduce the turbidity of matter and pull it down along with such a pin head floc formation can to the mixed liquor before it enters the
effluent completely settling. The effluent may not appear occur. Increase the return sludge ratio clarifier
very clear to the extent possible
305 Table A4.1-11 Rotating biological contactors
Check for pH variations in raw
sewage every four hours for a week. If the problem persists even after
If variation is large, , try to identify taking these measures, toxic chemicals
Very large bio mass sloughs This can be due to pH variations and / the source in the collection system are probably entering the sewage
1. off from the discs all of a or sudden toxic chemicals in raw and correct it
sudden while rotating sewage Check for metals in the raw sewage If the problem continues even after
and detect any unusual increase. taking these measures, the only
Trace the problem to its source and remedy is to introduce an equalization
correct it there tank for raw sewage
An optional method is to introduce
Check the raw sewage for hydrogen coarse bubble aeration in the first 25 %
Typical streaks of whitish bio The presence of hydrogen sulphide in
sulphide odour, estimate the of the RBC drum by releasing
2. mass over the discs observed the raw sewage and associated
concentration and try to pre-aerate in compressed air through a pipe with
frequently septicity can lead to this problem
the collection tank perforations. This has been found to be
very effective
Check the BOD loading as per design
Even after this if the problem
and adjust it suitably by limiting the
continues, verify as hereunder
sewage volume
Solids build up in the RBC The initial BOD concentration is
3. Verify whether raw sewage SS are
drums higher than the designed value In the meantime insert coarse bubble
much higher than the designed SS
aeration in the drum as discussed
and try to rectify the problem at the
earlier
source in the collection system
Final Draft A-33

Sometimes, a mild non ionic If the problem continues in spite of
polyelectrolyte can be added to the these measures, introduce primary
influent end to precipitate coagulant settling before RBC and take the
from BOD load primary sludge to aerobic digesters
After a period of power
outage, when the RBC is re- When the power outage occurs, the Ask the equipment supplier to verify
started, it refuses to rotate, biomass on the disc has water content. Check alignment before trying and match the torque rating of the
4. the motor creates a humming This water adds to the weight of the anything else. If alignment has motor and the torque enforced by the
noise and the disc assembly disc and initial torque of the motor is changed, call the equipment supplier wet disc assembly which is measured
needs an external push to set not adequate to overcome the inertia by the rope and weight method
it rolling
A simple method is to temporarily
This is an associated phenomenon of increase the RPM of the disc Also, reversing the direction of feed
RBS systems. Strictly speaking, they assembly to just about double the and outlet about once a month helps
5. Growth of snails in discs
do not affect the BOD removal designed value for a few minutes at a build up bio mass growth to uniform
efficiency time and use a long pole to dislodge weight along the length of the shaft
the snails back into the sewage drum
Table A4.1-12 Biological phosphorous and nitrogen removal
Check the anaerobic zone for DO. It
The phosphorous removal occurs in should be zero or less than 0.2 mg/l. The air supply to aeration tank can
Treated effluent contains
the anaerobic zone. If it is not removed If DO is high, reduce the aeration air reduced if there is a VFD attached to
1. more phosphorous than
fully, it can cause eutrophication in supply to hold the DO in aeration the air compressor motor. If it is not
designed
receiving water bodies tank to not more than 1 mg/l. This is there, demand it
the root cause
Check the raw sewage BOD and if
Treated effluent has low This condition is possible if raw Instead of supplemental air
needed, install supplemental air
2. phosphorous content but the sewage BOD is higher than the design compressor, a high duty compressor
compressor to meet the extra oxygen
BOD is high at over 20 mg/l value can also be installed
needed for the higher BOD
Final Draft A-34

Treated sewage meets Confirm the raw sewage nitrogen and
Nitrogen removal and phosphorous If all parameters are as per the design,
phosphorous removal BOD and the air actually pumped by
removal occur in two separate zones raw sewage has nitrate inhibitors.
3. requirements but the nitrogen the air compressor to be according to
and not together. Hence understanding Conduct lab studies and control the
content is much higher than design. If the air supply is less,
the respective problem is necessary source in collection system
required increase it
Table A4.1-13 Facultative ponds
Weeds do not grow if water is more If sludge depth has built up and
than 1 m depth. Check the outlet reduced the water depth, remove the
level and the sludge depth weeds
If there are two parallel ponds, take
Weeds attract and promote growth of Thereafter allow the sludge to sun dry
out one pond at a time from sewage
insects like flies, mosquitoes and so and then till it by a tractor. Leave as-is
Weeds grow inside the pond flow at start of summer and pump out
1. on. They can also become a nuisance for a week and then remove the sludge
sewage the top liquid using a portable diesel
as reptiles may be found hidden in the taking safety precautions
pump set into the other pond
weeds
The removed sludge is good soil
The disposal can be in the root zone of
filler and has to be put through a
trees or spread over the outer slope of
compost pile for at least a month. Try
the bunds for better turf growth
to use vermin composting
Scum promotes insect growth and Do not try to remove the scum out of
Once it breaks up, the gas bubbles
Scum forms in the corners propagation, particularly flies and the pond. Take a long thin pole and
2. propping the scum are released. The
and insects grow over it mosquitoes. It can cause insect borne beat the scum gently so that it breaks
scum mat will sink into the pond
epidemics if not removed up at the surface
The greatest risk of such growth is that It is dangerous to stand on top of a tree
Physically shear off the growths. Do
someday this growth will break the and cut the tree branches. Use a crane
Bunds are overgrown with not pull the roots from the bund as
bund and suddenly the sewage will and make the labourer sit inside its
3. weeds, small plants or even this will loosen and break the bund.
flow out and fall into all wells or rivers bucket. The cut weeds, twigs etc., can
trees The sheared material must not fall
in the zone causing a major health be placed into a netting tied to the
into the pond
hazard or water borne epidemic bucket and taken out safely
Final Draft A-35

Overhanging tree branches This is to be avoided because the pond Identify the trees and mercilessly cut
drop leaves on the pond and requires sunlight to function and the the branches overhanging the pond.
4.
this causes shadow region on blocking sunlight will cause septicity, Do not cut the tree as the cut roots
the pond surface and BOD removal will suffer will topple the bund
Pond turns dense green in Accept it; this should not be taken as a Leave it as it is and it will disappear If the density is high recirculate the
5.
summer months problem on its own when monsoons set in pond effluent by pumping
DO level in pond water is This need not necessarily be a problem
Raw sewage BOD may be very low If DO is present in the pond effluent,
6. very low and even at mid day as long as effluent BOD is under
and this may cause low DO level do not disturb it
it does not go above 2 mg/l control
Check the raw sewage for oil &
grease regularly. Sometimes, Demand the construction of a gravity
This is risky. It blocks the solar heat automobile service stations and oil & grease removal unit for raw
energy from penetrating the pond, industries will suddenly discharge sewage before the raw sewage is
Oily sheen and shine slowly which prevents algae growth. This in waste oils into the collection system. allowed into the pond This is a must
7. Trace the source and control it
increases on the pond surface turn stops oxygen production by algae,
so removal of BOD from the pond is A temporary and very effective method is to sink country wood poles around
affected adversely the inlet zone, tie fishing net and place straw inside this zone. The straw will
absorb the oil & grease and should be left there until the oil & grease removal
unit is built
Final Draft A-36

Table A4.1-14 Aerobic ponds

Check and correct the sewage depth
by adding an elbow or bend to the Simultaneously verify whether the
Weed grows inside the pond Minimum 1 m liquid depth is needed
1. outlet pipe to get 1 m sewage in minimum freeboard is 0.5 m. If not,
in the liquid to prevent weeds from growing
pond. Inlet pipe may remain the bund should be raised all round
submerged
Too much of algae in the This is inherent in aerobic ponds and As long as receiving water course has flow, algae are not a problem and the
2.
pond sewage cannot be avoided ecological system need not be disturbed
Receiving water course is Algae are aquatic organisms. This is a The immediate remedy is to bypass
The final remedy is to use chemical
3. dry, algae die there and foul dangerous situation as algal toxins the aerobic pond and avoid growth of
treatment instead of aerobic ponds
odour is present may enter soil and ground water dense algae
Try to erect a temporary rock fill
Foul odour of dead algae One possible reason is very small flow The final remedy is to construct a
bund like a coffer dam and reduce
4. from ponds especially in high as compared to design flow, and thus regular cross bund, switch the flow
the area of the pond pro rata to flow
summer months very high detention time in the pond into it and remove the rock fill
as compared to the design flow
Table A4.1-15 Anaerobic ponds
Foul odour of hydrogen This is an inbuilt mechanism when The only practical method is to use aromatic trees like Eucalyptus as live fence
1.
sulphide (rotten egg) sulphate is reduced in anaerobic action in two successive rows with first row at least 3 m away from the toe of the bund
Oily scum with shiny Try to install a simple gravity type
This is also an inbuilt mechanism of Engage a licensed re-refiner to collect
2. appearance is floating on the underflow baffle tank at the inlet and
such ponds and take away the oil periodically
pond surface trap the oil
This is a good sign that the anaerobic
system is functioning well. The end This is part and parcel of the anaerobic pond system and no action need be taken
Bubbles rise from the pond
product of sulphide and methane gas to control it. However, if the sludge in the pond has built up to leaving only
sewage and burst at the pond
3. lifts a column of sludge equal to its about 30 cm of liquid depth, start desludging procedures as described in Section
surface, which throws up
diameter and when bubble escapes to 4.1.13 Facultative ponds. If the pond is a single pond, construct a rock fill bund
black sludge
the air, the sludge disperses back into in the middle and proceed to desludge one after the other
the pond
310
Final Draft A-37

Table A4.1-16 Maturation ponds

1. These are to be dealt with similar to Section 4.1.14-Aerobic ponds
Table A4.1-17 Land irrigation systems
This promotes flies, mosquitoes and
Applied sewage is ponding may cause water borne epidemic; Check the ground water level. Stop irrigating and divert the sewage
1.
on land therefore, it should be controlled Sometimes, this may be the problem to a natural drainage course
quickly
Check the sodium content and verify
If sodium is high, it will enter the soil whether it is within the permitted If it is too high, stop irrigation for a
Sewage is running off over and exchange the calcium and values application measured as prolonged period and wait for
2.
land instead of going in magnesium. Slowly the soil becomes Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) or monsoon rains to slowly wash out the
hard as a rock and permeability is lost Exchangeable Sodium Percentage sodium by dissolution in rainwater
(ESP)
The root zone may be flooded and air
Irrigated crop has suddenly Free up the soil by tilling it ensuring Drain the stagnating sewage by cutting
3. entry to soil is sealed. This creates foul
become weak and dies that it can breathe ditch drains
odour and results in water pollution
Nitrogen is applied as nitrate and is not Check whether raw sewage nitrogen
Nitrate concentration in Verify the permissible loading rate and
4. being taken up by plant. This can is being nitrified in the treatment
ground water increases correct it if necessary
cause nitrate pollution in ground water plant
Suspended solids in applied sewage Removal of suspended solids is very
A well constructed soil filter can help
5. Sprinklers do not sprinkle have blocked the pores and organisms important before application to
instead of a mechanized system
may have grown in the sprinkler end sprinkler systems
Final Draft A-38

Table A4.1-18 Chemical treatment systems

The raw sewage does not have the
The added chemical may have
required acidity or alkalinity to react
impurities which prevent floc
Flocs form from chemical reactions in with the chemicals. Check the plant
formation. Examples are lime powder
rapid mixer and build up in O&M manual and the actual
and commercial alum
flocculation. However, initial flocs do chemicals being used
Flocs do not form in rapid not develop due to organics and SS The added chemical may be actually
1.
mixer & flocculator different that what is indicated on the Carry out lab test on the chemicals
label
Hydraulic shear of the raw sewage is
Install vertical radial baffles for half
needed in the mixer. If the tank is a If the first stage remedy does not work,
the radius to break the vortex and
circular one, vortex alone will form change the tank to a square shape
bring up the shear
and not shear
Take the rapid mixed sample in a If the lab test proves floc can build up
Flocs are formed in the flash The speed of the flocculator has to be
glass beaker and slowly rotate it but the flocculator fails in the plant,
2. mixer but these are broken up slow enough to allow the flocs to be
clockwise and then counter clockwise then the flocculator needs to be
in the flocculator built up to bigger size
with a glass rod and watch the flocs changed
Chemicals settle down in the The mixing energy is important to Increase the speed of rapid mix If this not work, introduce additional
3.
flash mixer keep the chemicals in suspension impeller and watch compressed air
The detention time may be too short.

If undersized, construct the required
Check the time needed by allowing a
tank or use an additional tank and split
sample to settle in a glass beaker and
the flow to both the tanks
verify the detention time in the plant
The flocs are unable to settle down
Flocs overflowing in the The shape of the tank also plays an
4. In small plants, the best arrangement
sedimentation tank important part. Horizontal flow
will be a square shaped tank with
rectangular tanks are usually not
conical hopper bottom at 60 degrees to
preferred. Circular tanks with conical
horizontal
hopper are better
The flow pattern carries over the flocs
Refer the problem to the equipment supplier
and the inlet baffle is not effective
Final Draft A-39

The flow through the unit may be Check the design manual of the plant If needed, ask for one more unit to
much higher than what is designed and rectify the same manage the flows
Add lime powder to the wet sludge
The water in the sludge may be a If it does not dewater even then, use a
by using a paddle mixer equipment
Sludge does not dewater bound water and would need a polyelectrolyte in addition to lime
5. before using it on a filter bed
fully in drying beds weighting agent such as lime
powder Other chemical such as FeSO4 or FeCl3 or saw dust may also apply with Lime
powder
315 Table A4.1-19 Treated sewage chlorination
This is most serious problem that can
The first aid kit is either happen in a plant and needs emergency The plant in charge shall directly The old kit if located can be used as
1.
empty or it has disappeared measures to be adopted bypassing purchase a ready kit and install it standby
procedures
This again is a major issue of a Immediately stop all chlorination, Call for emergency measures to fill the
The sodium hydroxide filled
2. different kind and needs immediate close all chlorine containers and open tank before re-commissioning the
liquid tank is empty
action the windows, doors, and ventilators chlorination
There is no water in the Keep at least three to four buckets of
3. Connect the shower to two different
shower This is not an emergency but all the fresh water and paint the buckets in
water sources so that at any one time,
There is no water in the eye same requires immediate attention red colour to indicate it is for use in
4. one of these will work
rinsing wash basin emergency situations only
Verify the MPN count of inlet to and
Strictly speaking, this is the desirable Eventually take up re-appraisal of the
There is no residual chlorine outlet from chlorine contact tank. If
5. situation if the purpose of chlorination chlorination system to deliver higher
in the chlorinated effluent the design value is not met increase
has been served in MPN count dosage and augment the facilities
the chlorine dose after lab estimation
This can be because the inlet to Check the chlorine in the contact tank
There is too much chlorine in Request the plant chemist to calibrate
chlorine contact tank is not having the outlet and compare with the design
6. the sewage coming out of the chlorine demand every week and
designed demand (or) too much value. If it is higher by 1 mg/l, reduce
chlorine contact tank indicate it on a wall board for all to see
chlorine is being applied to the sewage the chlorine dosage
Final Draft A-40

Testing of joints in the Immediately stop chlorination, close
plumbing lines with Chlorine gas when in contact with chlorine cylinder valves and open up Call the system supplier for a complete
7.
ammonia solution swab ammonia always gives whitish fumes all windows, doors, and ventilators. system check and rectification
shows white fumes Switch on exhaust fans
Inadequate chlorination equipment
Replace equipment as necessary to provide treatment based on maximum flow
capacity
Conduct dye test
Short circuit in chlorine contact
Install baffles in the chlorine contact chamber
Coliforms count fails to meet chamber
Install mixing device in chlorine contact chamber
8. required standards for
disinfection Solids build up in contact chamber Clean contact chamber
Chlorine residual is too low Increase contact time or increase chlorine feed rate
High TSS Reduce TSS in effluent

Inability to maintain Malfunction or deterioration of
9. Overhaul pump
adequate chlorine feed rate chlorine water supply pump
Low chlorine gas pressure at Insufficient number of cylinders Connect adequate number of cylinders to system so that feed rate does not
10.
the chlorinator connected to the system exceed the recommended withdrawal rate for cylinders
Chlorinator will not feed any Pressure reducing valve in chlorinator Dissemble chlorinator and clean valve stem and seat.
11.
chlorine is dirty Precede valve with filter or sediment trap
Table A4.1-20 Treated sewage disinfection by UV
1. There are no standardized methodologies in this section. Please follow whatever is prescribed by the system supplier
Table A4.1-21 Treated sewage disinfection by ozonation
1. There are no standardized methodologies in this section. Please follow whatever is prescribed by the system supplier
Final Draft A-41

Table A4.1-22 Surface aerators

Have an electrician check the motor
Moisture has entered the motor or
and replace with spare motor if Rewind the motor
winding breakdown has occurred
available
Motor - high or uneven Amperage drawn is higher than the Aerator submergence is more than
1. Call the equipment supplier
amperage rated amperage of motor the recommended value
Excessive friction and heat in motor Inspect and lubricate bearings and
Overhaul, if needed
gear gears
Gear reducer - bearing or Lack of proper lubrication Repair or replace oil pump If problem persists, call the equipment
gear noise Change oil supplier
2.
Remove obstruction in oil line If problem persists, call the equipment
supplier
Cracked coupling Call equipment supplier and replace coupling; align impeller shaft
Shaft coupling - unusual
3. Loose coupling bolts/ nuts as a result Call equipment supplier and for torque bolts, use locking nuts, align impeller
noise and vibration
of vibration shaft
Call equipment supplier and repair torque blade bolts, use lock-washers, align
Loose blades
Aerator impeller - unusual impeller
4.
noise and vibration
Cracked blades Call equipment supplier and replace torque bolts; align
Table A4.1-23 Air blowers

Coupling misalignment Stop the machine and realign
1. Unusual noise and vibration If difficult, call equipment supplier
Loose nuts, bolts and screws Stop the machine and realign
Delivery air is at lower Bypass valve open, leaks or breaks in Close the valve and check the Proceed to check leaks in pipeline by
2.
pressure than rated pressure distribution piping pressure instantaneously soap solution test and rectify
Check the records of pressure at each Remove, clean and refit diffusers in
3. Air system - high pressure Plugged diffusers in the aeration tanks
branch line and detect abnormalities the abnormal line
Air flow rate is lower than Higher ambient temperature than Check the ambient air temperature and if it is drastically high call the equipment
4.
the rated flow design conditions may be the reason supplier
Final Draft A-42

System oil - low pressure Oil level too low, oil filter dirty
5. Drain and refill with proper oil type
Valve sticks are open, incorrect oil
6. System oil - high pressure Incorrect oil type Drain and refill with proper oil type
Suction lift too high
Purge air at filter
7. Oil discharge - low pressure Air or vapour in oil
Secure coupling
Coupling slipping on pump shaft
8. Low oil temperature Oil cooler water flow too high Throttle water flow
Increase water flow
Oil cooler water too low; incorrect oil
9. High oil temperature Drain and refill with proper oil type
type or insufficient oil circulation
Replace oil filter, check oil lines for restrictions
Call equipment supplier to check
Blower speed too high Reduce speed to recommended RPM bearings for clearance, hot spots,
10. Hot bearings Defective bearings Damage: Repair or replace. cracks or other damage. Repair or
Oil cooler water flow rate too low Increase water flow replace
Increase water flow
11. Motor doesnt start Overload relay tripped Correct and reset
12. Motor noisy Noisy bearings Check and lubricate

Check openings and duct work for
obstruction
Restricted ventilation
13. Motor temperature high Check for grounded or shorted coils If in doubt, call equipment supplier
Electrical abnormality
and unbalanced voltages between
phases
Final Draft A-43

320 Table A4.1-24 Air distribution system

High, low or no indication in Loose movement, out of calibration,
1. Clean and correct defects
meters dirt
Leakage in seals, gaskets and Loose bolts or fittings
2. Tighten and or replace
flex connections Blown out
Drain traps daily, install additional traps, flush pipes, and remove standing
3. Pipe corrosion Condensate
water
Vacuum action by reverse operation of Flush pipe, install check valve on If problem still persists, remove, clean
4. Sludge inside pipe
blower blower, repair check valve and refit
5. Dirt in pipes No or inefficient air filtration Install filters, and clean filters more frequently
Hardened grease Remove old grease and apply seizing inhibitor, operate valves monthly, drain
6. Valves difficult to operate
Corrosion in valves condensate traps daily
Table A4.1-25 Air diffusers
Another option will be in situ air
Loosen the joint at the walking
purging by a portable mini air
platform and slowly lift the air drop
blower . This can be connected to the
pipe till air bubbles can be seen. This
drop pipe by a Tee and closing the
means the diffusers have choked and
regular valve to purge the choked
cannot get over the full sewage depth.
organic matter. This action can also
Remove the drop pipe for cleaning
Some parts of aeration tank Air is not being released from the be done routinely
1. do not show release of air diffusers at the floor level of the Most often this works very well but
bubbles at the surface aeration tank If the air system is designed for
the system should have been designed
doubling the air when needed and if
for such an application. Please check
more than one air compressor is
the manual of the plant before
installed, briefly apply the air from
attempting the first stage remedy.
both the compressors and purge the
Take care that this double flow is not
diffusers for about 5 minutes every
continued for more than five minutes
hour for a few times
in an hour
Final Draft A-44

In general, Bourdon gauges are
Switch off the compressor and verify
instantaneous measurement units and
This may be a serious problem. If the whether the Bourdon gauge goes back
Compressor shows full not permanent reading gauges.
pressure gauge on compressor delivery to its zero position. If it does not,
design pressure but there are Change these gauges to proper
2. is of the Bourdon type, most probably replace with a new one
no air bubbles coming out of diaphragm gauges
it has gone into permanent set showing
aeration tank The gauges are always best installed
the full pressure
with pressure to current converter Request for such a change
type transducers or transmitters
If pressure gauges are available at all If there is no leak, the compressor
Pressure gauges are in order, If air is not being released from locations before changes of alignment may be at fault. Check the amperage.
compressor is in working anywhere in the aeration tank, it of air transmission piping, try closing If it is negligible then there is a
3.
condition but air bubbles do causes major leaks in transmission all these and open section after section mechanical problem with the
not rise from aeration tank pipelines to verify the leaky section below compressor. Call the equipment
ground and rectify supplier
Air escapes in large bursts This may be due to detachment of the This is a major problem and will require a team of well qualified and properly
from a few places instead of air header pipe and the diffuser head at protected divers to dive and fix the problem at site while the service team is on
4.
uniform diffusion all over the the floor; hence the bulk of air escapes standby at site. Do not empty the tank because growing the microbes again is
tank at the joint location not easy
The MLSS concentration has gone out
The entire contents appear If this remedy also fails, there is
of control and become too high. They Check the MLSS and then the
viscous and shine like oil and almost surely a problem of shock
are mostly dead and cannot abstract MLVSS. If both these values deviate
5. air escapes at surface loads or toxic substances coming in
the oxygen from the diffused air. This very much from the design, waste
intermittently in large sewage. Check, identify locations in
causes build up and sudden exploding fifty percent and let system recover
exploding bubbles the collection system &rectify
of air bubbles
Table A4.1-26 Power back up
At least 20-30 % capacity of areation
Arrange for Dual power supply
Sudden break/stoppage in Air blower should be back by DG sets to
1. Power Failure (through a separate power supply
supply to Areation Tank ensure minimum air supply to
grid)
aeration tank for duration of 7-8 hours
Final Draft A-45

Table A4.1-27 Interpretation of routine laboratory results

COD value is much higher If it is only sewage, this should not be
1. Check the N and P also and compare The performance of the STP may not
than BOD the case. However, if there are large
with the old records. If the COD is be up to the designed value. Focus on
industrial effluents from chemical
higher, report the matter to locate the indentifying the source and cutting it
manufacturing industries, this can
pH values show sudden source off properly
2. occur
increase or decrease
Non biodegradable organic chemicals
The colour of sewage keeps enter into sewage i.e. wax, lignin, Pretreatment with chemical coagulation is required
3. cellulose etc.
changing often
Take a Whatman number-42 filter paper and filter the treated sewage into a test
The treated sewage appears tube of 25 ml and check the transparency and clarity. The colour may be that of
turbid and cloudy but the This can be the case where the algae green algae but there must be clarity. If the filtrate is still turbid and strong in
4.
laboratory report records present in the treated sewage colour, then the pond is overloaded
BOD of less than 20 mg/l
Increase quantity of return sludge so as to increase MLSS
Table A4.1-28 Flow measuring systems
If there is a channel of at least 10 m
If the pump house is within the plant,
straight length, mark the middle 10 m
find out the timings of each pump set
and conduct a float test. Take the
and calculate the flow from the pump
observed velocity at 0.8 and find out
Any mechanical equipment may go name plate
the flow
out of order at any time. The operator
Bulk flow meter reading There may be a division box for the It is not at all advisable to go into
1. must have the capacity to find out the
appears to be incorrect raw sewage to the primary clarifiers. such locations when there is no
flows from other non conventional
methods and compare the readings Verify the weir length and depth of daylight because these locations are
flow over the weir and record the above ground level with probably no
readings only in the daytime for one facilities for night work. An error in
shift and compare with the meter day shift means the same error occurs
reading at other times also
Final Draft A-46

The ultrasonic level sensors actually Try to hold a mirror at the water
If the reading actually measured and
measure the depth of the sewage water surface by tying it to a long stick and
Ultrasonic level sensor that obtained with the mirror are tally,
from the ultrasonic emitter. It actually note the reading given by the sensor.
readings seem to be vastly then there is no problem with the
2. measures the time from release to the Actually measure the depth from the
different from previous sensor. If the depth shown by the
return signal after bouncing back from sensor to the water level if there is
recent readings sensor is different by more than 5 %,
the sewage surface, takes the average safe access, without getting into
the sensor must be serviced
and is calibrated to the depth sewage
325 Table A4.1-29 Septic tank and leaching systems where sewerage system is not in place
The key point is to minimize the water used for bathing and washing clothes.
This will solve many problems
Open the septic tank outlet chamber, Construct a fresh leach pit if there is
The problem is directly related to the pour a bucketful of water gently and space. If there is no space, try to clean
Sewage backs up into the watch whether it goes into leach pit up the old leach pit and construct an
1. leach pit only because a septic tank is
house immediately. If it does not flow, the up flow filter and discharge the
only a flow through tank
leach pit has become saturated. The effluent to the street drain. Sometimes
simplest remedy is to use the services gravity will not permit this. In such
of septage clearance vehicle and cases, use a septage vehicle, which is
empty the septic tank periodically the only answer to this problem
If the problem continues, a biological
Spray the mosquito net of the cowl
filter consisting of gunny cloth of coir
with bleaching powder solution daily
wetted with bleaching powder
This is the result of the process in the and keep it wet
Foul smell comes out of the solution may be tied
2. septic tank, and cannot be stopped. But
ventilating cowl If space is available construct a
it can be treated If the problem continues, the only
smaller septic tank and up flow filter
solution is to frequently use the
only for toilets and then allow it into
septage clearance vehicle
the main septic tank
Final Draft A-47

Table A4.1-30 Sequencing batch reactors (SBR)

If the flow is small even for this, use
the SBR tank as an ASP for 20 hours,
then stop the flow and decant. During
If the flow is adequate to run one of
this time divert the flow to the other
the modules, use that module alone
module. Once decanting is completed,
and leave the other one unused
Raw sewage flow is less than This is a usual problem in some cases start that module and pump the raw
1. sewage from the temporary module to
the design flow in the initial period
it
If the air compressor output air
Always ensure that the residual DO in
volume is too much, use the VFD to
the aeration is not less than 1 mg/l
reduce the same to match the raw
during aeration
sewage flow
Try to use all modules simultaneously The spare module will be used to
Raw sewage flow is higher except one and run the plant in receive the raw sewage when the
2. This type of problem is very rare
than the design flow continuous mode and decanting mode other modules are in decanting mode
as above and then sewage is pumped
Almost all other issues discussed under ASP shall apply here also
Table A4.1-31 Moving biofilm bed reactors (MBBR)
Raw sewage flow is less than
1. Almost all other issues discussed under SBR apply here also
the design flow
Raw sewage flow is higher
than the design flow
Mixing equipment are available as sidewall mounted facilities which bring
Almost all the media are This happens in some tank geometries
about a circular motion of the media in vertical plane. These can be simply fixed
floating at the liquid surface and because the specific gravity of the
3. on a steel post and anchored to the concrete base. This is similar to erecting a
only and do not mix fully media is just about the same as that of
submersible pump set. If anchoring facility is not available, hire a qualified
into the depth of reactor water
diver from fire service
Final Draft A-48

Media floats in 1. Water sprinkling
Gas or air trapped in media reduces its
4. air/surrounding area with or 2. Mosquito type net be placed Increase height of side walls
density
without foam above reactor
Almost all other issues discussed under ASP apply here also.
Table A4.1-32 Membrane bio reactors (MBR)
Raw sewage flow is less than
the design flow
Raw sewage flow is higher
than the design flow
If it does not settle and the jar appears
Look under the microscope for
In general, this is because the MLSS cloudy even after an hour, then there is
organisms like Nocardia or
cannot be filtered by the membranes. a need to intervene. The first step is to
Sphaerotilus natans-like filamentous
The problem may occur in both flush the membranes if these are fixed
bacteria. Get assistance from a
Membrane permeate volume suction type and pressure feed types If (or) to remove, clean and rinse if these
3. qualified microbiologist. If these are
is reducing slowly sludge bulking occurs, it is due to the are removable. In the meantime,
detected, do not panic. Take a
filamentous organisms. Usually at high identify the bulking reasons as stated
sample in a one litre glass jar and
MLSS of 10,000 mg/l filamentous under ASP and try to solve the problem.
observe the settling. If sludge settles
organisms do not create any problems Do not allow the problem to continue. It
to 30 % in half hour, it is still OK
will choke the membrane
May occur when some membranes
Membrane permeate often Try to methodically isolate each After identifying the module, remove it
give way and the microbes escape
4. brings out microbial module by isolating valves and and get it duly serviced before replacing
through it at higher pressure
suspended solids study the problem it on line
differences
Almost all other issues discussed under ASP apply here also
Final Draft A-49

APPENDIX 4.2 OPERATIONAL PARAMETER

330 4.2.1 PARAMETERS
Typical values of loading parameters for primary and secondary clarifiers and various activated
sludge modifications commonly used in India are furnished in Table A4.2-1 and Table A4.2-2,
respectively.
Table A4.2-1 Table parameters for clarifiers
Weir
Overflow rate, Solid loading, Side water
loading,
Type of Settling m3/m2/day kg/day/m2 depth, m
m3/m/day
Average Peak Average Peak Average Average
Primary Settling only 25 - 30 50 - 60 2.5 - 3.5 125
Clarifiers
Primary
Followed by secondary treatment 35 - 50 80 - 120 2.5 - 3.5 125

With activated sludge return 25 - 35 50 - 60 3.5 - 4.5 125
Secondary settling for activated
Secondary
15 - 35 40 - 50 70 - 140 210 3.0 to 3.5 185

Clarifiers
sludge
Secondary settling for extended
8 - 15 25 - 35 25 - 120 170 3.0 to 4.0 185
aeration
335 Note: Where the mechanized aerobic treatment is used after UASB reactor, the settling tank
design shall be based on conventional activated sludge process as above.
Table A4.2-2 Parameters of activated sludge systems

kg
MLVSS BOD O2/kg
Flow MLSS F/M HRT c QR/Q
Process Type /MLSS removal BOD
Regime removed
mg/L ratio Day-1 hrs days ratio % ratio
Conventional Plug flow 1,500-3,000 0.8 0.3-0.4 4-6 5-8 0.25-0.5 85-92 0.8-1.0
Complete
Complete mix mix 3,000-4,000 0.8 0.3-0.5 4-5 5-8 0.25-0.8 85-92 0.8-1.0
Extended Complete
aeration mix 3,000-5,000 0.6 0.1-0.18 12-24 10-25 0.5-1.0 95-98 1.0-1.2
4.2.2 LOADING RATE

a. HRT (Hydraulic retention time)
340 The loading rate expresses the rate at which the sewage is applied in the aeration tank. A
loading parameter that has been developed empirically over the years is the hydraulic retention
time (HRT), , day.
V
(day) (A4.1)
Q
Where,
345 V : Volume of aeration tank, m3, and
Q : Sewage inflow, m3/day
Another empirical loading parameter is volumetric organic loading which is defined as the BOD
applied per unit volume of aeration tank, per day.
Final Draft A-50

b. Specific substrate utilization rate

350 A rational loading parameter which has found wider acceptance and is preferred, is specific
substrate utilization rate, U, per day which is defined as:
Q(S0 S)
U (day 1 )
VX (A4.2)
Where,
S0: Influent organic matter as BOD5, g/m3
355 S : Effluent organic matter as BOD5, g/m3
Q: Sewage inflow, m3/day
V: Volume of aeration tank, m3
X: MLSS conc. in aeration tank, g/m3
c. SRT (Sludge retention time)
360 A similar loading parameter is mean cell residence time or sludge retention time (SRT), c , day:
VX
c (day)
Qw Xs (A4.3)
Where,
X: MLSS concentration in aeration tank, g/m3
365 Qw: Waste activated sludge rate, m3/d
Xs: MLSS conc. in waste activated sludge from secondary settling tank, g/m3
d. F/M ratio
If the value of S is small compared to S0, which is often the case for activated sludge systems
treating municipal sewage, U may also be expressed as Food applied to Microorganism ratio.
370 F / M QS 0 / XV (A4.4)
Where,
S0: Influent organic matter as BOD5, g/m3
375 X: MLSS concentration in aeration tank, g/m3
4.2.3 OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
Oxygen is required in the activated sludge process for the oxidation of a part of the influent
organic matter and also for the endogenous respiration of the micro-organisms in the system.
The total oxygen requirement of the process may be formulated as follows:
380 O 2 required (g/d) (Q (S 0 - S)/f) - 1.42 X (A4.5)
Where,
f : Ratio of BOD to ultimate BOD
1.42 : Oxygen demand of biomass, g/g
X is biological sludge produced per day.
385 X = Q Y observed (S0-S)
Yobs = Y/(1+KdC)
Where Y is 0.5
Kd is 0.06
The formula does not allow for nitrification but allows only for carbonaceous BOD removal.
390 The extra theoretical oxygen requirement for nitrification is 4.56 Kg O2/per kg NH3 -N oxidized
to NO3 - N.
Final Draft A-51

The total oxygen requirements per kg BOD, removed for different activated sludge processes
are given in . The amount of oxygen required for a particular process will increase within the
range shown in the table as the F/M value decreases.
395 4.2.4 OXYGEN TRANSFER CAPACITY
Aerators are rated based on the amount of oxygen they can transfer to tap water under standard
conditions of 20C, 760 mm Hg barometric pressure and zero DO. The oxygen transfer capacity
under field conditions can be calculated from the standard oxygen transfer capacity by the
formula:
N s (C s C L ) 1.024 ( T 20)
400 N (A4.6)
9.17
Where,
N : Oxygen transferred under field conditions, kg O2/kW/hr
Ns : Oxygen transfer capacity under standard conditions, kg O2/kW/hr
Cs : Dissolved oxygen saturation value for sewage at operating temperature, mg/l
405 CL : Operation DO level in aeration tank usually 1 to 2 mg/1
T : Temperature, C
: Correction factor for oxygen transfer for sewage, usually 0.8 to 0.85
Values of Cs is calculated by arriving at the dissolved oxygen saturation value for tap water at
the operating temperature and altitude as in Table A4.2-1 and Table A4.2-2 and then multiply it
410 by a factor which is usually 0.95 for domestic sewage without undue industrial effluents and
with TDS in the normal range of 1,200 to 1,500 mg/l.
Final Draft A-52

Table A4.2-3 DO saturation vs. temperature in Celsius in tap water at MSL

The relationship between temperature and oxygen solubility
Temperature(degree C) Oxygen solubility (mg/l)
0 14.6
5 12.8
10 11.3
15 10.2
20 9.2
25 8.6
30 7.5
35 6.9
40 6.4
100 (boiling) 0.0
Table A4.2-4 DO correction factor for altitudes
Altitude(feet) Altitude(meters) Factor
0 0 1
500 152 0.98
1000 305 0.96
1500 457 0.95
2000 610 0.93
2500 762 0.91
3000 914 0.89
3500 1067 0.88
4000 1219 0.86
4500 1372 0.84
5000 1524 0.82
5500 1676 0.81
6000 1829 0.80
415 4.2.5 SLUDGE RECIRCULATION RATE

The MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is controlled by the sludge recirculation rate and
the sludge settle ability and thickening in the secondary sedimentation tank.
QR X
(A4.7)
Q Xs X
Where,
420 QR : Sludge recirculation rate, m3/d
X: MLSS concentration in aeration tank, g/m3
Xs: MLSS conc. in waste activated sludge from secondary settling tank, g/m3
4.2.6 EXCESS SLUDGE WASTING
425 Excess sludge = (A/(0.6 to 0.8)) + B
A is calculated by the following equation and 0.6 to be used for extended aeration and 0.8 is
used for conventional activated sludge.
A = QYobs (S0-S)a
Final Draft A-53

Yobs = Y/(1+KdC)
430 Where Y is 0.5
kd is 0.06
B = Qinert TSS removal
Inert TSS = Influent TSS Influent VSS
TSS removal in primary settling tank is 60 percent.
435 Inert SS removal in primary settling tank is 80-90 percent.
VSS removal in primary settling tank is 20-40 percent.
C is from Figure A4.2-1 for the lowest operating temperature.
Excess sludge in kg/day = Yobs BOD inlet Flow MLd
Calculate excess sludge kg/day from the thumb rule in this section.
440 Adopt the higher value.
Excess sludge volume (m3/day)
= Excess wasted (kg/day) 1000/MLSS in clarifier underflow
Figure A4.2-1 SRT as a function of aeration basin temperature for 90-95% BOD removal
Final Draft A-54

445 APPENDIX 4.3 CALCULATION

4.3.1 EXTENDED AERATION ACTIVATED SLUDGE TANK
An extended aeration activated sludge tank has the following dimensions for treating the waste
with following characteristics;
Length = 60m
450 Width = 20m
Water depth =5m
Flow =7,500 m3/day
Influent BOD =200 mg/L
Effluent BOD =10 mg/L
455 Influent SS =200 mg/L
Influent VSS =150 mg/L
MLSS =4,000 mg/L
SV30 =400 mL
MLVSS =2,800 mg/L
460 Yobs =0.4 mg VSS/ mg BOD
Kd =0.04day-1
Determine:
a. Hydraulic retention time, day

b. BOD loading, kg/day
465 c. BOD volumetric loading, kg/m3.day
d. Microorganisms in aeration tank, kg
e. F/M ratio, kg/kg.day
f. SVI, ml/g
g. Excess sludge generation, kg/day
470 h. Excess sludge concentration, mg/L
i. Excess sludge volume, m3/day
j. SRT, day
k. Return sludge flow rate, m3/day
l. Oxygen requirement, kg/day
475 Solution:
Volume
a. Hydraulic Retention Time (days)
Discharge
Volume 60(m) 20(m) 5(m) 6,000(m 3 )
6,000(m 3 )
HRT
7,500(m 3 /day)
0.8 (days) 19.2 (hours)
b. BOD Loading (kg / day) BOD (kg / m 3 ) Flow(m 3 / day)

1,000 (L) 1(kg )
200(mg / L) 3
7,500(m 3 / day)
1(m ) 1,000 ,000 ( mg )
1,500(kg / day)
Final Draft A-55

BOD Load(kg / day)

c. BOD Volumetric Loading ( kg / m 3 day)
Volume(m 3 )
1,500(kg / day)

6,000(m 3 )
0.25 (kg / m 3 day)
d. Microorganisms in Aeration Tank (kg ) Volume(m 3 ) MLSS(kg / m 3 )

1,000 (L) 1(kg )
6,000(m 3 ) 2,800 (mg / L) 3

1(m ) 1,000,000(mg )
16,800(kg )
Flow BOD
e. F / M Ratio ( kg / kg day )
Volume MLVSS
BOD Load ( kg / day )
480
Microorgan isms in Aeration Tank ( kg )
1,500 ( kg / day )
0 .089 ( kg / kg day )
16 ,800 ( kg )
Sludge Settled ( ml / L )
f . SVI ( ml / g )
MLSS ( g / L )
400 ( ml )

4(g )
100 ( ml / g )
g. Excess Sludge Generation Px (SSkg / day)

Yobs Q (S0 S) Q (TSSin VSSin )
1,000L 1kg
0.4(VSSkg / BODkg) 7,500(m3 / d) ( 200 10)(mg / L) 3

1m 1,000,000mg
1,000L 1kg
7,500(m3 / d ) (200 150)(mg / L) 3

1m 1,000,000mg
570(kg / day) 375(kg / day)
945(kg / day)
1,000,000
h. ExcessSludge Concentration (mg / L)
SVI
1,000,000

100
10,000(mg / L)
Excess Sludge (kg / day)

i. Excess Sludge Volume( m 3 / day)
Sludge Concentration (kg / m 3 )
945(kg / day)

1,000L 1kg
10,000(mg / L) 3

1m 1,000,000mg
94.5(m 3 / day)
Final Draft A-56

Microorganisms in Aeration Tank(kg) 16,800 (kg)

j. SRT(day) 29.4days
Microorganism Wasted (kg / day) 570 (kg/day)
Total MLSSin organisms in Aeration Tank (kg)

485
Total Sludge Wasted(kg / day)
1,000L 1kg
6,000(m3 ) 4,000(mg/L) 3

1m 1,000,000mg
25.3days
945 (kg/day)
k. Re turn Sludge Flow Rate Q r

V30 Q

1,000 ( ml ) V30
400 ( ml ) 7 ,500 ( m 3 / day )

1,000 ( ml ) 400 ( ml )
5,000 ( m 3 / day )
l. Oxygen Re quirement (kgO 2 / day) 1.47 mass of BOD removed(kg / day)

1.42 mass of organisms wasted(kg / day)
1.47 7,500(m 3 / day) (200 10)(mg / L)
1,000L 1kg
3
1.42 570(kg / day)
1m 1,000,000mg
2,094(kg / day) 809(kg / day)
1,285(kgO 2 / day)
Final Draft A-57

4.3.2 PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK

Characteristics of influent to and effluent from primary sedimentation tanks are as follows;
490 Flow rate =10,000 m3/ day
Influent BOD = 200 mg/L
Influent SS = 300 mg/L
Effluent BOD = 140 mg/L
Effluent SS = 100 mg/L
495 Find:
a. The BOD removal efficiency of the primary sedimentation tank, %

b. SS removal efficiency of the primary sedimentation tank, %
c. Dry sludge generated, kg/day
d. Volume of sludge generated, m3/day if sludge concentration is 40,000 mg/L.
500 Solution:
(Influent BOD Effluent BOD) 100%

a. BOD Removal Efficiency (%)
Influent BOD
( 200 140) 100

200
30 (%)
(Influent SS Effluent SS) 100%

b. SS Removal Efficiency (%)
Influent SS
(300 100) 100

300
66 (%)
c. Sludge Solid generated (kg / day) Flow(m 3 / day) (TSSin TSSout )(mg / L)
1,000L 1kg
10,000(m 3 / day) (300 100)(mg / L) 3

1m 1,000,000mg
2,000 (kg / day)
Sludge (kg / day)
d. Volume of Sludge generated
Concentration of sludge(kg / m 3 )
2,000 (kg / day)

1,000L 1kg
40,000(mg / L) 3

1m 1,000,000mg
50 ( m 3 / day)
Final Draft A-58

505 4.3.3 CIRCULAR SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION TANK

A circular secondary sedimentation tank has the following dimensions for treating the waste
with following characteristics;
Diameter =20m
Depth =3.5m
510 Inflow =10,000 m3/day
Return sludge flow=5,000 m3/day
MLSS =4,000 mg/L
Find:
a. Surface overflow rate,

515 b. Detention time,
c. Solids loading rate, and
d. Weir overflow rate.
Solution:
Flow (m 3 / day)
a.Surface Overflow Rate (day)
Surface Area (m 2 )
100,000(m 3 / day)
31.8m 3 / m 2 .day
3.14 10 10(m 2 )
Volume(m 3 )
b.DetentionTime (day)
Flow (m 3 / day)
3.14 10 10 3.5 (m 3 )
520
10,000(m 3 / day)
0.219(days) or 2.63(hrs)
(Inflow Re turn Sludge Flow )(m3 / day) MLSS(mg / L)

c.Solids Loading Rate(kg / m 2 .day)
Surface Area( m 2 )
1,000L 1kg
(10,000 5,000)(m3 / day) 4,000(mg / L) 3

1m 1,000,000mg

3.14 10 10(m 2 )
191(kg / m 2 .day)
Flow ( m 3 / day)
d. Weir Over Rate (m 3 / m.day)
Weir Length (m)
10,000 (m 3 / day)

3.14 20 ( m)
159 ( m 3 / m.day)
Final Draft A-59

APPENDIX 5.1 TROUBLESHOOTING IN SLUDGE TREATMENT FACILITIES

525 Table A5.1-1 Sludge thickening by gravity thickeners
Check the per day total of sludge If this fails to solve the problem,
volumes and dilution water pumped investigate a sludge flocculation
into the thickener. Compare with per system like the picket fence, etc. This
Any thickener will invariably produce day total of sludge withdrawn and may have given way below the liquid
Typical septic odour of
1. a typical odour. Do not try to disturb thickener overflow. Check for level. If the ampere of the motor is
hydrogen sulphide
the system because of this alone volume balance If the outlet is lesser, very low compared to design
sludge stays longer and is likely to consumption, call the equipment
choke and become septic. Withdraw supplier to attend to the system. Do not
more sludge attempt it by yourself
Typically a minimum detention time is Check volumes of sludge and
Even after this, if the problem persists,
needed for sludge solids to break free dilution water entering the tank from
Thickened sludge is not what the reason lies with the type of sludge
2. of bound water and thicken at the their flow meters. Reduce the flows
is designed for and not the thickener. Proceed to
bottom. If this is not occurring, the so they do not exceed design values.
clarifier sludge sections
thickened sludge will be very weak Check flocculator also
This is related to the escape velocity The simplest remedy is a daily
Biological growth over the Even after this, if the problem persists,
over the weir length and temperature scrubbing of the weir surface by a
3. outlet weir surfaces becomes remove the V notch plate and level the
conditions. Do not alter the process wire brush and a long handle while
very dense weirs as shown in Part-A , Figure 5-29
conditions if they are as per the design walking along the outer platform
As long as the inflow and outflow
Proceed to the sections on clarifiers.
rates are not exceeding the design Even after this, if the problem
Sludge solids are Sludge from secondary clarifier may
4. values, this problem has nothing to do continues, add polyelectrolyte to the
overflowing the outlet weirs be very loose and not settling down.
with the thickener. Do not alter the thickener feed well temporarily
Follow the remedy
process
Try increasing the sludge withdrawal Even after this, if the problem
Too much of sludge at the bottom or a
frequency temporarily for a day. continues, check the gearbox visually
5. Drive motor trips often foreign object is obstructing the free
Most probably this will solve the for any broken teeth and call the
movement of the flocculator paddles
problem equipment supplier
Top Layer may become dry as a result
6. Chocking of sludge pump Roof may be provided to protect from direct sunlight
of direct sunlight
Final Draft A-60

Table A5.1-2 Anaerobic sludge digesters

This is an identified high risk unit operation for any person trying to look into this unit or enter it. Sometimes strobe lights are installed inside the digester to light
up the inside so that it can be seen through a fixed glass plate on the cover slab and viewed from outside. This shall not be allowed as a simple spark at the cable
terminal can blow up the digester by igniting the methane gas inside it. All investigations of digester performance should be made indirectly by observing the
performance parameters and never by directly entering the digester. Persons smoking near the digester or while standing near the top dome are likely to cause
severe accident. There is at least one case of the operator and the dome getting blown up because of smoking.
In actual practice, there is not much an operator can do to correct the digester mechanism if it is not functioning because work on such equipment is a highly
specialized task requiring high skills in explosive zones. The operator can attend only to the pump and motor of externally circulated sludge mixing type digesters,
in which standard horizontal foot mounted centrifugal pumps are coupled to motors. All other types of equipment are prohibited from being repaired by the
operator and shall be attended to only by the equipment supplier or his service personnel.
Hence troubleshooting of digesters will be confined only to process control in this section
Gas production is a function of the
If the feed VSS is too low, then gas If the conditions are as per the design,
VSS and detention time and mixing
production will surely be very small. it is a clear case of mixing system
efficiency in the digester. Measure the
If the feed VSS is too high, then also failure. Call the equipment supplier.
VSS in feed sludge in the lab and
gas production will suffer. First Do not correct it except in case of
verify loading rate from feed flow.
check the value of VSS externally re-circulated pumped sludge
Compare with design values
Raising the pH to 6.8 - 7.2 is
required. Though lime solution is the
easier option, the use of sodium Even after these measures, if the
Gas production is less than hydroxide is preferable because it problem persists, the reason is not with
1. the process but with either the mixing
the designed output does not create problems of
equipment in the digester or the sludge
Sometimes, the pH of the digester may precipitates in the digester or the
sludge pipelines quality coming out of the clarifiers.
be less due to too much of
First check on the sludge quality as per
acidification. This can be checked in The feeding of the solution shall be earlier sections. If the quality is in
the lab and compared with past records by a solution tank and acid-alkali
order, call the equipment supplier to
proof dosing pump mounted at inspect the mixing equipment and
ground level. The delivery pipeline bring it to maximum efficiency. This
shall be thick walled UPVC pipeline shall not be attempted by operator
discharging into the sludge suction
sump
Final Draft A-61

Sometimes there is an auto toxicity
problem when high TDS waters are Check the sulphate content of the The way to reduce this toxicity is to
used by the habitation. The sulphate in digester feed and digested outlet. prevent the sulphates from getting
the water gets into sewage. This gets Estimate the sulphide produced as reduced to sulphide in the first place.
into digester liquid. The sulphate one third of the sulphate. Estimate But this is not possible inside a
reduces to sulphide. This is partly 40 % of this value as unreacted digester. A higher degree of mixing
2.
converted to hydrogen sulphide gas. sulphide. Also estimate sulphide in usually expels the hydrogen sulphide
The unreacted sulphide is toxic to the digested liquid by titration in the gas faster and thus promotes more
digesters in the range 50 mg/l in laboratory. Consult a process formation in the digester liquid. This
dispersed sludge and 250 mg/l in specialist on this further to establish reduces the unreacted sulphide
granular sludge. In digesters, it is sulphide toxicity as the reason remaining in the digester
usually dispersed sludge
Usually, a well digested sludge does
not smell offensive. If the digested
Follow the procedure for raising the pH of the digester by lime or preferable
3. Foul or sour odour sludge smells sour and foul, the
sodium hydroxide as described earlier
digester has probably become sour and
the pH may have dropped
Apply soap solution to all piping joints
Smell of hydrogen sulphide
to verify any leaky joints or cracked
when walking around the
4. pipes. It can also be the digester
base of the fixed dome on the
sidewalls which are above the sludge
digester Erect a sign board in local language
level but usually this is not the case Do not try to fix the problem by
and all familiar languages that gas is
Floating dome covers are usually yourself. Call the equipment supplier
leaking and persons shall not go to
Smell of hydrogen sulphide fabricated from steel or synthetic to attend to it
the top of digesters
when walking around the materials. The joints are the sources of
5.
base of the floating dome on the leak. It can also be the digester
the digester sidewalls which are above the sludge
level but usually this is not the case
Final Draft A-62

Usually these are inflatable gas
balloons made of synthetic material
and are of multi layered construction.
Smell of hydrogen sulphide Unless there is an external puncture,
The simple soap solution test will Do not try to fix the problem by
when walking around the these do not leak. The actual leak may
6. help in identifying the leak. If this is yourself. Call the equipment supplier
base of the inflatable gas occur at the base where the gas cover
the case, the fasteners are to be fixed to attend to it
holder on the digester is jointed with the digester which again
is through a piping. Thus, the fastening
around the joint piping should be
checked
Floating gas dome on the
The holding down weights on the rim Try small adjustments at a time by Once it becomes vertical, record the
7. digester is not truly vertical
are not properly adjusted adding or removing the weights work in the site register
but is tilted
Gas pressure in the gas line Gas is not being withdrawn regularly
8. from digester is higher than or gas production is more than the Use the flame trap to release and burn off the required volume of the gas
the design value design
Gas pressure in the gas dome
9. Gas production is not adequate Take no action but attend to the sludge section as discussed earlier
is less than the design value
10. Mixing systems Get an authorized agency to inspect, service and leave a report at regular intervals which can be monthly intervals
Table A5.1-3 Mechanical sludge dewatering devices
Metallic noise in moving May be due to worn out bearings or Refer bearing problems to equipment
1. Lubricate moving parts
parts absence of lubrication supplier
Final Draft A-63

Table A5.1-4 Sludge drying beds

This is due to methane gas in high Switch off electrical supply to the Erect a warning board that cell phones
summer months ignited by a spark drying bed zone. If there are people should be switched off for a distance
1. Fires occur in drying beds
from an electrical line or due to nearby ask them to switch off their of about 10 m from the edges of the
somebody smoking nearby cell phones and move away drying beds
If the F/M ratio is higher than 0.2 in
Cut off the sludge flow to the bed and
biological aeration, demand that a
Wet sludge is ponding for a The drying bed might have choked or allow it to filter through slowly. Till
2. digester be provided. If F/M is less and
long time and does not filter the sludge applied without digestion it lightly by a long boom crane from
tilling does not help, scrap out and
all sides and restart
restack
Drying beds are full of water
3. Nothing that can be done about this. If rainfall is frequent, demand mechanized dewatering facility
from rains
Final Draft A-64

APPENDIX 6.1 TYPICAL LEDGER AND RECORDS

530 Table A6.1-1 Operational record: Power receiving and transforming equipment
Date:
Transaction Receiving Wastewater pump transformer No.2 blower Lighting transformer Main building power trans
Contact: 463kW 3415V 150kVA 6600V 80kW 1210V 150kVA 3210V 300kVA
Time Center M102 M103 M102 M103 Center Center L101 Center Center L102 Center L105
Wattage-h Voltage Current Power Wattage Wattage-h Wattage-h Voltage Current Temperature Wattage-h Current Wattage-h Voltage Current Temperature Wattage-h Voltage Current Temperature
kWh V A % kW kWh kWh V A kWh A kWh V A C kWh V A
Reading Difference 6600 60 Reading Difference Reading Difference 210 714 140 Reading Difference 10.1 Reading Difference 210 714 140 Reading Difference 210 714 140
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Todays Reading
Yesterday's Reading
Difference
Multiplying ratio 720 10 10 10 10 10
Wattage
No.2 main No.2 main Blower for Instructions:

Grit chamber
Transaction wattage-h kWh Non-utility generation Wattage Time Power building building Reservoir water adjustment 1. Voltage is obtained by measuring RS
equipment
equipment equipment phase (RT phase in case of single
Max. wattage per hour Time kWh Today's reading Today's reading phase). Current is obtained by
measuring R phase.
Max. kWh/Contact kWh % Yesterday's reading Yesterday's reading
2. Indicate the max. wattage per hour by
Difference Difference transaction wattage.
Multiplying ratio 10 Multiplying ratio 10 10 10 10 10
Generated wattage-h Generated wattage-h
Final Draft A-65

Table A6.1-2 Monthly report: Electric power receiving

Main Grit Power by
Main Main Sewage Pump
Sewage No.2 building chamber Reservoir Blower for non-utility Hours of
For transaction Receiving building building treatment well
pump blower facility facility water adjustment power generation
power lighting power draining
power power generation
Contract: 463kW 150kVA 80kW 300kVA 150kVA 200kVA 178kW 91kW 91kW 30kW 11kW 500kW Summary
kWh Msx./h % kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh kWh h Transaction kWh
1 Pump kWh
2 %
3 Blower kWh
4 %
Contents
5 Power kWh
6 %
7 Lighting kWh
8 %
9 Others kWh
10 %
11 Max./h kWh
12 Max./Contract %
13 Electricity Charge INR
14 Effluent volume m3
15 Charge/ flow rate INR/m3
16 Non-utility power generation
17 Power kWh
18 Running hours h
19 Contents Failure h times
20 Inspection h times
21 Oil consumption L
22 Fuel ms/kWh
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Total
Max.
Min.
Ave.
Ratio
Source: JICA, 2011
Final Draft A-66

535 Table A6.1-3 Ledger for electrical equipment

Classification File No.
Location ( ) ( )
Name Related Ledgers
Capacity Voltage V Insulator type
Rotor
Insulation resistance
Number of poles Current A
allowance
Others
Phase Type Rotating direction
Items on name plate
Frequency Hz Rotation rate rpm Lead wire direction

Secondary
Voltage V V Impedance voltage

Primary
Current A A Specification Frequency
Mode1 Manufacturer Voltage
Test performance chart

Specification Lot No. Current
Date of mfg. Loss
Measuring
Mode1 ( ) ( ) Reduction ratio 1) mm 2) mm
position
Diameter ( ) ( ) Mode 1 3) mm 4) mm
Reducer
Sleeve
Length Name Chart No. Name Chart No.

Related charts
Type Manufacturer
Wire
Coil
Thickness Voltage V
No. of coils Current A

Starting resistor
Special notes
Total weight Resistance
Mode 1
Manufacturer
Source: JICA, 2011
Final Draft A-67

Table A6.1-4 Electrical facility ledger (Distributing board)

Classification No. File No.
Problem ( ) ( )
Related
Name
Ledgers
Indicating Specification Grade Mode1 Quantity Protective Adjustment Adjustment Mode 1 Lot No. Manufacturer Date of
Instrument instrument, range time mfg.
relay
( ) Breaker Disconnector Transformer
Mode 1 Specification kV A Mode 1 PT CT
Weight kg Oil quantity L Specification kV A Transforming ratio
Breaking capacity kVA at High-voltage soluble material Specification load
Input V A Mode 1 Mode

Operation power
Out put V A Specification A Lot No.
Lot No. Date of mfg. Receiving wire Manufacturer
Manufacturer Type Quantity
Other Thickness mm Others
Use Electromagnetic Electromagnetic

Knife-edge switch, NFB Soluble material Thermo Supply White PC
switch Connector
electric wire Load Indicator
Connecto (sq.m.) kW lamp
Specification
Voltage Pole Holder Element Mode1 Qty. Mode1 Qty. r (mm2) Red PC
A
Green PC
Size of distributing board
Height mm
Width mm
Depth mm
Operation switch
Distributing board
Date of mfg.
Manufacturer
Lot No.
Chart No.
Related ledger
Other items
Source: JICA, 2011
Final Draft A-68

APPENDIX 6.2 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

540 6.2.1 MOTOR
a. Daily
Check bearing temperatures
Check for any undue noise or vibration
b. Monthly
545 Nothing special other than the daily checks
c. Quarterly
Blow away dust and clean any splashes of oil or grease
Check wear of slip ring and brushes; smoothen contact faces or replace, if
necessary. Check spring-tension. Check brush setting for proper contact on the
550 slip-ring.
Check cable connections, terminals and insulation of the cable near the lugs:
clean all contacts; if insulation is damaged by overheating investigate and
rectify. All contacts should be fully tight.
d. Semi-annual
555 Check condition of oil or grease; and replace if necessary. While greasing avoid
excessive greasing.
Test insulation by megger.
e. Annual
Examine bearings for flaws, clean and replace if necessary.
560 Check end-play of bearings and reset by lock-nuts, wherever provided.
f. Bi-annual
Same as annual
6.2.2 PANEL, CIRCUIT BREAKER, STARTER
a. Daily
565 Check the phase-indicating lamps.
Note readings of voltage, current, frequency, and others.
Note energy-meter readings.
b. Monthly
Examine contacts of relay and circuit-breaker. Clean, if necessary.
570 Check setting of over-current relay, no-volt coil and tripping mechanism, and
oil in the dash-pot relay.
c. Quarterly
Check fixed and moving contacts of the circuit- breakers/switches. Check and
smoothen contacts with fine glass-paper or file.
575 Check condition and quantity of oil/liquid in circuit-breaker, auto-transformer
starter and rotor-controller.
Final Draft A-69

d. Semi-annual
*Nothing special.
e. Annual
580 All indicating meters should be calibrated.
f. Bi-annual
Same as annual.
6.2.3 TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION
a. Daily
585 Note voltage and current readings.
b. Monthly
Check the level of the transformer oil.
Confirm that the operation of the GOD (ground operated disconnection) is okay.
Check temperatures of the oil and windings.
590 Clean radiators to be free of dust or scales.
Pour 3 to 4 buckets of water in each earth-pit.
c. Quarterly
Check condition of the H.T. bushing.
Check the condition of the dehydrating breather and replace the silica-gel
595 charge, if necessary. Reactivate old charge for reuse.
d. Semi-annual
Check di-electric strength and acid test of transformer oil and filter, if
necessary.
Test insulation by megger.
600 Check continuity for proper earth connections.
e. Annual
Check resistance of earth pit/earth electrode.
f. Bi-annual
Complete examination including internal connections, core and windings.
605 Source: CPHEEO, 1993
Final Draft A-70

APPENDIX 6.3 TROUBLESHOOTING FOR ELECTRICAL FACILITIES

Table A6.3-1 Electric motors
Trouble Cause Remedy
Bent or sprung shaft Straighten or replace shaft
Excessive belt pull Decrease belt tension
Misalignment Correct coupling alignment
Bent or damaged oil rings Replace or repair oil rings
Use recommended oil. Use of oil of very light grade is likely to cause the
Oil too heavy or too light
bearings to seize
Insufficient oil level Fill reservoir to proper level when motor is at rest
Hot bearings Badly worn bearings Replace bearings
Bearing loose on shaft or in bearing housing Re-metal shaft / housing or replace shaft or bearing housing
Insufficient grease Maintain proper quantity of grease in bearing
Remove old grease, wash bearings thoroughly with kerosene and replace
Deterioration of grease or lubricant contaminated
with new grease
Reduce quantity of grease. Bearing should not be filled more than the two-
Excessive lubricant
third level
Broken ball or rough races Clean housing thoroughly and replace bearing
Ventilation passage blocked. Windings coated with
Dismantle entire motor and clean all windings and parts by blowing off
fine dust or lint (dust may be cement, sawdust, rock
dust, and if necessary, varnish
Motor dirty dust, grain dust and the like)
Bearing and brackets coated inside Clean and wash with cleaning solvent
Rotor winding coated with fine dust / cement Clean and polish slip ring. Clean rotor and varnish
Motor over loaded Check for excessive rubbing or clogging in pump
Low voltage Correct voltage to rated value
Motor stalls Open circuit Fuses blown, check overload relay, starter and push button
Dismantle and check bearings. Check whether any foreign matter has
Mechanical locking in bearings or at air gap
entered air gap and clean
No supply voltage or single phasing or open circuit or
Motor does not start Check voltage in each phase
voltage too low
Final Draft A-71


Motor may be overloaded Start on no load by decoupling. Check for cause for overloading
Examine starter and switch/ breaker for poor contact or open circuit. Make
Starter or switch/breaker contacts improper
sure that brushes of slip ring motor are making good contact with the rings
Rotor defective Check for broken rings
Examine overload relay setting. Ensure that the relay is set correctly to
about 140-150% of load current. Check whether dashpot is filled with
Motor runs and then stop Overload replay trips correct quantity and grade of oil
Consult manufacturer on suitability for design duty and load
Voltage too low at motor terminals because of line
Motor does not accelerate to Check voltage, change tapping on transformer
drop
rated speed
Broken rotor bars Look for cracks near the rings
Reduce load. (Note that if motor is driving a heavy load or is starting up a
Excess loading
long line of shafting, acceleration time will increase)
Motor takes too long to Check whether timer setting of star-delta or autotransformer starter is less
Timer setting of starter is incorrect
accelerate than acceleration time required for the torque of driven equipment
Correct the voltage by changing tap on transformer. If voltage is still low,
Applied voltage too low
take up the matter to power supply authority
If overloaded, check and rectify cause of over load. Overloading may be
due to system fault, for example, if pipeline bursts, the pump may be
Check for overload
operating at low head causing overload of motor. Vortices in sump also
may cause overload
End shields may be clogged with dust, preventing
Blow off dust from the end shields
proper ventilation of motor
Motor overheats while
running Motor may have one phase open Check to make sure that all leads are well connected
Unbalanced terminal voltage Check for faulty leads or faulty connections from transformers
Weak insulation Check insulation resistance, examine and re-varnish or change insulation
High or low voltage Check voltage of motor and correct it to the extent possible
Replace worn bearings
Rotor rubs on stator bore
Check for true running of shaft and rotor
Motor vibrates after Motor misaligned Realign
Final Draft A-72


connections have been made Weak foundations or holding down bolts loose Strengthen base plate/ foundation; tighten holding down bolts
Coupling out of balance Balance coupling
Defective ball or roller bearings Replace bearing
Bearings not in line Line up properly
Single phasing Check for open circuit in all phases
Excessive end play Adjust bearing or add washer
Resonance from supporting structure or foundation or
Consult expert
vibration of adjoining equipment
Fan rubbing air shield or striking insulation Check for cause and rectify
Scraping noise
Loose on bed plate Tighten holding down bolts
Motor may be over loaded Reduce the load
Brushes may not be of appropriate quality and may Use brushes of the recommended grade and fit properly in the brush
not be sticking in the holders holder
Motor sparking at slip rings
Clean the slip rings and maintain its smooth glossy appearance; ensure
Slip ring dirty or rough
they are free from oil and dirt
Slip rings may be ridged or out of turness Turn and grind the slip rings in a lathe to a smooth finish
Thrust bearing oil seal damaged Clean the spilled oil on winding. Replace oil seal
Leakage of oil or grease on
winding Reduce quantity to correct extent. Grease should be filled up to maximum
Excessive oil, grease in bearing
half space in bearing housing
Table A6.3-2 Capacitors
Leaking welds & solders Repair by soldering
Leakage of heclor*
Broken insulators Replace insulators
Arrange for circulation of air either by reinstalling in a cool and
Poor ventilation
Overheating of unit ventilated place or arrange for proper ventilation
Over voltage Reduce voltage if possible, otherwise switch off capacitors
Abnormal bulging Gas formation due to internal arcing Replace the capacitor
Cracking sound Partial internal faults Replace the capacitor
Final Draft A-73


Short external to the units Check and remove the short
Over-current due to over voltage and harmonics Reduce voltage and eliminate harmonics
HRC Fuse blowing
Short circuited unit Replace the capacitor
kVAR rating high Replace with bank of appropriate kVAR
Capacitor not discharging Discharge resistance low Correct or replace the discharge resistance
Unbalanced current Insulation or dielectric failure Replace capacitor unit
*Leakage of Heclor from terminals, insulators or lid etc. is not a serious trouble. After cleaning, the nuts should be tightened carefully, araldite shall be applied if necessary and the
610 capacitor should be put into circuit. If the leakage still continues, refer the matter to manufacturer.
Table A6.3-3 Starters, breakers, and control circuits

Non availability of power supply to the starter /
Check the supply
Starter/breaker not breaker
switching on Over current relay operated Reset the relay
Relay not reset Clean and reset relay
Starter / breaker not holding Relay contacts are not contacting properly Check and clean the contacts
on ON-Position Latch or cam worn out Readjust latch and cam
Over current relay setting incorrect Check and reset to 140-150 % of normal load current
Starter/breaker tripping Moderate short circuit on outgoing side Check and remove cause for short circuit
within short duration due to Check overcurrent setting
operation of over current Sustained overload Check for short circuit or earth fault
relay Examine cause of overload and rectify
Loosen connection Clean and tighten
Inadequate lubrication to mechanism Lubricate hinge pins and mechanisms
Starter / breaker not tripping Adjust all mechanical devices such as toggle stops, buffers, springs as
Mechanism out of adjustment
after overcurrent or short per manufacturers instructions
circuit fault occurs Failure of latching device Examine surface, clean and adjust latch. If worn or corroded, replace it
Relay previously damaged by short circuit Replace overcurrent relay and heater
Final Draft A-74


Heater assembled incorrectly Review installation instructions and correctly install the heater assembly
Relay not operating due to:
-Replace fuse
-Blown fuse
-Repair faulty wiring; and ensure that all screws are tight
-Loose or broken wire
-Replace damaged contacts
-Relay contacts damaged or dirty
-Replace coil
-Damaged trip coil
-Check and repair / replace
-C.T. damaged
Clean the contacts with smooth polishing paper or if badly burnt /pitted,
Contacts burnt or pitted. replace contacts. (Contacts should be cleaned with smooth polishing
paper to preserve faces. File should not be used)
Overheating Loose power connection Tighten the connection
Sustained overcurrent or short circuit / earth fault Check cause and rectify
Poor ventilation at location of starter / breaker Improve ventilation
Overheating of auto Winding design improper Rewind
transformer unit Transformer oil condition poor Replace transformer oil in auto-transformer unit
Check voltage condition. Check momentary voltage dip during starting.
Low voltage
Low voltage prevents magnet sealing. Check coil voltage rating
Check push button station, (stop button contacts), auxiliary switch
Contacts chatter contacts and overload relay contacts; test with test lamp
Poor contact in control circuit
Check for loose connections in control circuits
Defective or incorrect coil Replace coil. Rating should compatible for system nominal voltage
Check for grounds & shorts in system as well as other components such
Abnormal inrush of current
as circuit breaker
Contacts welding Low voltage preventing magnet from sealing Check and correct voltage
Remove short circuit fault and ensure that fuse or circuit breaker rating
Short circuit
is correct
Do not file silver tips. Rough spots or discolouration will not harm tips
Short push button and / or Filing or dressing
or impair their efficiency
over heating of contacts
Interrupting excessively high current Check for short circuit, earth fault or excessive motor current
Final Draft A-75


Discoloured contacts caused by insufficient contact Replace contact springs, check contact for deformation or damage. Clean
pressure, loose connections, etc. and tighten connections
Dirt of foreign matter on contact surface Clean with carbon tetrachloride
Short circuit Rectify fault & check fuse or breaker rating whether correct
Mechanical damage Examine and replace carefully. Do not handle coil by the leads
Coil open circuit
Burnt out coil due to over voltage or defect Replace coil
Magnets & other
mechanical parts worn Too much cycling Replace part and correct the cause of damage
out/broken
Replace magnet assembly. Hum may be reduced by removing magnet
Magnet faces not mating correctly
armature and rotating through 180
Noisy magnet (humming)
Dirt oil or foreign matter on magnet faces Clean magnet faces with carbon tetrachloride
Low voltage Check system voltage and voltage dips during start
Low voltage Check system voltage and voltage dips during start
Coil open or shorted Replace coil
Check coil voltage rating which must include nominal voltage and
Failure to pick-up and / or Wrong coil
frequency of system
seal
With power off, check for free movement of contact and armature
Mechanical obstruction
assembly. Remove foreign objects or replace contactor
Poor contact in control circuit Check and correct
Gummy substances on pole faces or in mechanism Clean with carbon tetrachloride
Worn or rusted parts causing binding, for instance
Failure to drop out Replace contactor
coil guides, linkages
Improper mounting of starter Review installation instructions and mount properly
Failure to reset Broken mechanism worn parts, corrosion, dirt, etc. Replace overcurrent relay and heater
Open or welded control
Short circuit in control circuit with too large rating of
circuit contacts in over Rectify short circuit in general. Fuses over 10A rating should not be used
protecting fuse
current relay
Final Draft A-76


Insufficient oil in breaker/
Leakage of oil Locate point of leakage and rectify
starter (if oil cooled)
Oil dirty Carbonisation of moisture from atmosphere Clean inside of tank and all internal parts. Fill fresh oil
Moisture present in oil Condensation of moisture from atmosphere Same as above
Table A6.3-4 Panels
Check and provide additional bars in combination with existing bus-bars
Bus bar capacity inadequate
or replace bus-bars
Overheating
Loose connection Improper ventilation
Improper ventilation Improve ventilation
Insulator cracked - Replace the insulator
Table A6.3-5 Cables
Provide a cable in parallel to existing cable or higher size cable
Over heating Cable size inadequate
Increase clearance between cables
Check size of lug. If not properly crimpled, correct it
Insulation burning at
Improper termination in lug termination Check whether all stands of cable are inserted in lug. Use a new or
Termination
higher size lug if necessary
Final Draft A-77

Table A6.3-6 Transformers

Trouble Trouble shooting procedure Cause Remedy
Listen to the noise at various points of
a) Tighten the fixing bolts and nuts and other
the transformer and find out the exact a) External Noise: A loose fixing
loose metallic parts
location by means of a solid piece of bolt/nut of the transformer
b) In the case of small transformer and if
wood or insulating material placed on b) Noise originating from the inside
such facilities are available, open the
Abnormal noise body of transformer tank at various of the transformer: In the case of
transformer and remove any slackness by
points. This helps in determining old transformer, possibly due to
placing shim made of insulated board.
whether the noise is from the inside of the windings having become
In case of large transformers, contact the
the transformer or is only an external slightly slack
manufacturer or transformer repairer
one
a) Reduce the load to the rated load
The temperature rise of transformer a) Transformer is over loaded b) Improve the ventilation of the transformer
during 10-24 hours of operation is b) Transformer room is not properly room to achieve effective air cooling
observed. The input current, oil ventilated c) Major repairs are necessary and should be
temperature are noted down at c) Certain turns in the winding are taken up in consultation with an
intervals of half an hour and tabulated short circuited experienced Electrical Engineer and
transformer repairer
The transformer becomes hot in a
Take action for major repairs in consultation
High Temperature relatively short period; transformer oil
The transformer has a major defect with an experienced Electrical Engineer and
escapes from the conservator or there
transformer repairer
is even appearance of gas
a) External contacts should be checked and
put in order especially those in the
Poor termination either inside or aluminium bus bars
Abnormal heating of one terminal
outside the transformer b) If heating persists, action for major repairs
should be taken in consultation with an
experienced Electrical Engineer
a) Short circuit in the windings Action for major repairs should be taken in
Tripping of circuit breaker
- b) Damage in the insulation of the consultation with an experienced Electrical
or blowing of fuses
winding or in one terminal Engineer and transformer repairer
Final Draft A-78

Trouble Trouble shooting procedure Cause Remedy

a) Breather leakage a) Replace packing
Frequent change of silica
- b) Breather oil level low b) Check oil seal. Top up oil
gel colour
c) Absorption of moisture c) Remove moisture completely
a) Defective packing a) Replace packing
b) Loose tightening b) Tighten properly
Oil leak at joints / bushing
- c) Uneven surface c) Check and correct it
/ drain valve
d) Bushing cracked d) Replace bushing along with washer
e) Drain, valve not fully tight e) Tighten valve and plug
a) Heat the windings, by operating

transformer on no-load, and check
a) Moisture absorption by winding whether insulation resistance improves. If
Low insulation resistance - b) Contaminated oil no-improvement is observed after
c) Presence of sludge operation for 5-6 hours, filter the oil
b) Replace with proper oil
c) Filter or replace the oil
a) Rectify the defect

a) Defects in joints
b) Drain water and dry the moisture in
b) Moisture condensation
Water inside tank - winding
c) Oil mixed with water when
c) Heat the winding on no-load. Recheck
topping up
dielectric strength and filter if necessary
Overheating of cable ends
- Loose connections Check and tighten the connections
and cable terminals
Neutral ground conductor a) Loose connections
- Replace the grounding conductor
(earth strip) burnt b) Large fault current
615 Source: CPHEEO, 2005
Final Draft A-79

APPENDIX 7.1 MINIMUM LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS NEEDED FOR

TESTS
Table A7.1-1 Minimum laboratory equipments needed for tests
Type of Plant
(A) (B)
Equipment For consent For plant
parameter operating
(BOD, SS, pH) parameter
Analytical Balance x x
Autoclave x
Centrifuge x
Chlorine comparator x
Colony counters x
Demineraliser x
Dissolved Oxygen sampler x
Drying oven (hot air) x
Fume cupboards x
Gas liquid chromatograph x
Hot plates x x
Incubator 20C/27C (BOD) x x
Incubator 30C (Bacteriological) x
Kjeldahl Digester Unit x
Magnetic stirrers x
Microscope, binocular with oil immersion and movable stage x
counting cell
Membrane Filter Assembly x
Muffle Furnace x
Orsat or equivalent gas analysis apparatus x
pH comparator (Colorimetric) x x
pH meter with reference & spare electrodes x
pH meter portable x x
Refrigerator x
Sedwick Rafter funnel x
Sludge sampler x
Soxhlet extraction unit x
Spectrophotometer (atomic absorption) x
Spectrophotometer with or without U-V rage or photo electric x
colorimeter
Total organic carbon analyser x
Turbidimeter x
Vacuum pump x
Water bath (thermostat controlled) x
Dessicator x
*NB: (1) For plant operating parameters, equipment as needed will also be provided in the
620 laboratory of STP.
(2) Equipment in column B may be in plant laboratory itself or in a regional laboratory to
serve multiple STPs.
Final Draft A-80

APPENDIX 7.2 SUGGESTED LABORATORY SERVICE INFRASTRUCTURE FOR MONITORING WATER QUALITY
Table A7.2-1 Suggested laboratory service infrastructure for monitoring water quality
S.No. Level Minimu Recommended Staff Remarks
1 Basic Laboratory 1. Lab. Assistant /Technician For routine bacteriological and physicochemical tests, the samples
a. Primary Health Centre / Village Level 2. Lab. Attendant should be sent to municipal / district level laboratory periodically
b. Municipal / District Level 1. Chief Analyst Whenever STP laborotory is existing
(Plant capacity > 50MLd) 2. Chemist
3. Bacteriologist
4. Assistant Chemist
5. Lab. Assistant / Technician
6. Lab. Attendants
7. Driver
8. Helper
2 State / Regional Level Laboratory 1. Chief Analyst (Higher Scale)
2. Chemist
3. Bacteriologist
4. Biologist
5. Assistant Bacteriologist
6. Assistant Biologist
7. Lab. Assistant / Technician
8. Lab. Attendants
9. Driver
10. Helper
625 Note: 1. Kindly refer to Manual on Water Supply and Treatment, III Edition, May 1999.
2. The level and the no. of the personnel shall be decided by the respective agencies depending on magnitude of
Final Draft A-81

APPENDIX 9.1 HEALTH AND SAFETY POLICY

The agencies involved in the project development such as the owner, consultant and contractor
630 jointly or separately shall have a written statement prescribing the health and safety policy of
the organisation.
The health and safety policy conveys the management commitment and intent of the
organisation towards health and safety, its organisation and arrangements to ensure that the set
objectives are met. It also provides a framework for establishing, maintaining and periodically
635 reviewing health and safety objectives and targets.
Health and safety policy shall meet the requirements of Building and other Construction
Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 and IS 18001.
The policy shall be communicated to all stakeholders through display and other means. The
policy shall be displayed in local language(s) which may be understood by majority of the
640 workmen.
Guidelines on operation and maintenance of sewerage and sewage treatment for operators to
help them in practicing their works in accordance with health and safety requirements specified
for sewerage works are presented below:
9.1.1 APPLICABLE FACTORS
645 The applicable factors under this important section will be the procedures to be followed by the
operator while working in confined spaces, type of shoes to be worn, personal hygiene and
climbing ladders plus a formal appreciation of first aid.
9.1.2 WORKING IN CONFINED SPACES
This category is the worst location for possible fatal accidents in the STP. A confined space is
650 defined as (1) Cramped entry and exit, (2) Absence of broad daylight and ventilation and (3)
Places meant for very limited persons like one or two only to go in. The dangers are caused by
Oxygen less situation
Flammable situation
Toxic gas presence
655 Engulfment hazards
Shouts not being heard outside
Wet and / or slippery surfaces
Loosely fitted objects that may fall down
The precautions to be taken before entry into these spaces when required are
660 Certifying by the plant superintendent in writing that it is free of H2S, CO and
Methane
Availability of a portable air compressor which draws free unpolluted air and
pumps in
Personal Respirator with adequate Oxygen cylinder and the Miners lamp
665 Availability of a strong rope tied to the person and rescue team in position
The person to have undergone training in safety with St. John Ambulance
The person to have comfortable and tight fitting garments
Final Draft A-82

The person to wear anti-skid shoes only

The person to have special goggles securely worn over the eyes
670 The person to complete his urination and toiletries before entry
The person to have been in continues duty for at least a week as on that date
The person not to have returned from medical leave within 7 days of the date of
entry
The person not to a be a known asthmatic or cardiac patient
675 The person not to be aged more than 35 years
Above all, a person who is not mentally scared to get in.
9.1.3 TYPES OF SHOES TO BE WORN
Very often, it is believed that any shoe in the market is good for working in a STP. This is not
correct. There are special anti-skid shoes with metal cladding over the fingers portion. These are
680 to be provided by the employer and the operator should not use it outside the STP.
9.1.4 PERSONAL HYGIENE
The following procedures should be followed by the operator scrupulously in and out of the
STP.
Keep the fingers of the hand away from ears, nose, eyes, mouth and unnecessary
685 scratching
While handling any equipment, wear gloves or poly bags slipped over the palm and
wrists
When there is an injury to the hand, do not handle any equipment or collect sample
Before and after food and work wash hands with Dettol , soap and fresh tap water
690 After the work, take a bath before leaving the STP
Ensure fingernails are cut properly and there are no deposits
Insist on two separate lockers one for formal cloths and one for STP cloths
Ensure you are vaccinated by the employer against Hepatitis, Typhoid, Rubella [for
women], Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pox and Measles.
695 Insist on mediclaim to be taken for you by your employer
Insist on personal accident policy to be taken by your employer
9.1.5 CLIMBING LADDERS
This is one location of accidents for want of certain simple precautions as follows.
Make sure the ladder is anchored to the floor securely and not simply resting
700 Ensure that the ladder is provided with non conducting shoes and not resting on
wet surfaces
Feel the firmness of each step before you put your whole weight on it
Tie the top of the ladder to a firm anchor once you climb there
Ensure that at least 3 steps are rising above the level where you are required to
705 work
Final Draft A-83

If it is simply resting, call an assistant to stand up and buttress it without slipping

Verify whether the horizontal clearance is minimum one fifth for one meter length
of ladder
Avoid doing any work by standing on the top 2 or 3 steps of the ladder
710 Do not use Bamboo Ladders. They may be weak and suddenly collapse
Never catch the sides of a ladder. Catch the upper steps
Do not catch any part of a steel ladder without at least a poly slip on cover over the
palm
Make sure nobody walks below the ladder while you are using it
715 Finally, do not climb unless you need to !
9.1.6 ELECTRICAL RELATED SAFETY
Unless you are qualified for the job, do not undertake it even to replace a fuse or
bulb
Ensure that you have the appropriate gloves, shoes and garments that fit reasonably
720 tight
Always use local circuit cut-outs before attending to repairs
Avoid metallic ladders and metallic tape measures near electrical systems
The best ladder is one made out of teakwood and preserved with anti-termite
treatment
725 Never work alone and keep an assistant with you all through the work
Always, de-energize and ground a circuit before venturing any repairs
Always use approved instruments like tong testers etc and not naked wire and bulb
Free hanging neck chains are to be removed and kept in pockets while on the job
All tools shall be insulted in their handles
730 Do not latch on to other metallic fittings like piping, etc., while on the job
If require to use flashlights, use those made of external non-metallic parts
If wires are found to be dangling, do not attempt to clamp them. Instead, try to
reroute them
9.1.7 FIRST AID KIT, SUPPORT FACILITIES & DISPENSATION
735 The first aid kit should minimally include the following
A leaflet explaining how to use the kit
Sterilized dressings of assorted sizes
Plaster casts for waterproof casts
Bandages of assorted sizes
740 Adhesive plasters of assorted sizes and a blunt edges stainless steel long scissors
Sterilized water of at least 2 liters
Eye protection pads
Final Draft A-84

Safety pins of assorted sizes

Disinfectant lotions
745 Unused sealed twin blade razor
Eyebaths with double showers focussing on the eyes
An easily identifiable and reachable shower bath with non-slip grip type flooring
Wall hung charts showing artificial resuscitation in both English and local language
Wall hung posters showing the telephone numbers, locations and names of medical
750 centers
Wall hung posters of ambulance centers, rickshaw stands and truck terminals
Brief history of previous accidents and lessons learned therefrom
A well ventilated rest room with a cot and mattress of standard height
A facility for accessing safe drinking water and an instant heater geyser
755 If the person is having breathing difficulty, check clothing around the chest and neck and loosen
them and then turn him flat on back and chin up and apply artificial resuscitation and later shift
his position sideways to the recovery position. If the person is having a cut wound, apply
pressure on the upper portion of the limbs and tie up the limb reasonable tight to prevent blood
loss. If the person has fainted, just check for breathing and whether he needs artificial
760 resuscitation and administer. In all cases, rush to a nearest medical center. . If the person is
frothing in the mouth, do not interfere and rush to the nearest medical center.
9.1.8 OPERATORS RESPONSIBILITIES
The responsibilities of the operator are most important and are as follows.
Familiarize with the wall charts, wall posters and telephone procedures to medical
765 centers
Do not go into a work unless you have observed the environment and understood it.
All water other than from tap water is to be considered as unsuitable for human
contact
Do not operate any equipment unless you are trained in it.
770 If you feel something unusual in a moving machinery, do not panic, call your
superintendent
Do not hide others unsafe practices from your employer. Please report discretely
Never hurry up in physical motion when on duty. Be safe and steady in your
movements
775 Never chit chat in working areas or while standing on structures of the STP
Never climb up or climb down cat ladders by facing the airside of the ladder. Face
the wall
Always use reasonably and conformably fitting dresses. Remove neck chains while
on duty
780 Smoke if you like, but only in the designated smoking room or yard and extinguish
the butt
Final Draft A-85

Ensure that you set an example to be followed not reported upon.

9.1.9 LEPTOSPIROSIS
This is strange disease caused by rats which fall into water source and spread the respective
785 viruses. The disease is normally noticeable only under advanced conditions and usually the
treatment and recovery is prolonged. Rats are a menace in sludge drying beds in hot climates as
they seek asylum from the heat and find food easier. The drinking water sump should be
checked by you every day in your shift to ensure that there is no ratfall into the sump. If you
detect it, immediately shut off all water connections to the STP and immediately alert your plant
790 superintendent and the chief executive officer. Also inform the health officer of the local
authority.
9.1.10 THE WATCHWORD
The watchword should be your own safety in the first place, so that alertness becomes automatic.
9.1.11 TESTS FOR CHLORINE
795 Chlorine is not recommended to be used with sewage under any circumstances on a continued
scale. However, under special circumstances, chlorine may be applied for a brief period like in
flood seasons when large quantities of sewage may be bypassed. During these times, some
knowledge of chlorination safety is necessary. The important points are as follows.
Chlorine gas has specific gravity of 2.49 (Air =1)
800 Normally chlorine is got in steel cylinders in gas form and depressurized for use
The gas may leak sometimes from the joints or the cylinders
The gas has a pungent smell
Dip a cotton swab in ammonia solution and move it near the cylinder and joints
If white fumes are observed, it shows chlorine is leaking there
805 The gas will be settling down at the ground level and sink into pits
As the gas spreads on the ground, the grass will be scorched leaving a tell-tale
Never bend low while testing for chlorine with a swab
Stand erect and use an extension twig or stick
Closing the valve of the cylinder may stop leaks at the joint in the cylinder
810 Closing the valve will also help in checking whether the cylinder is leaking
If the cylinder is leaking, try to douse the cylinder continuously with gentle water
shower
This will dissolve the chlorine and help in containing the quick spread of the gas
Call the supplier or the fire department immediately
815 Ensure nobody is working at ground level or in pits near the cylinder
Do not try to wrap any cloth etc. over the leaking cylinder. Closeness is to be
avoided.
The chlorine smell will anyway make it impossible to be near the cylinder
If available, locate a nearby pit into which the container can be gently rolled.
820 Carry out the rolling using long handled sturdy rods or bamboo ladders
Final Draft A-86

Once rolled into the pit, do not peed down into it. You are only containing the gas
there
In case someone swoons due to chlorine gas, rapidly remove him to the first floor
If first floor is not available, use at least an office table to elevate him
825 Allow fresh air and avoid crowding around him
Keep him facing up and the head well back and tongue not in the way
Apply artificial respiration mouth to mouth
Voluntarily carry out a monthly drill in artificial respiration
Always keep a cool head and never get perturbed
830 Never try to find out how this leak occurred before you have stooped the leak
Use plenty of common sense
Final Draft A-87

APPENDIX 9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON GASES CAUSING HAZARDS

Table A9.2-1 Characteristics of common gases causing hazards
Specific Maximum Likely
Exposure Explosive limit
SI Name of Chemical Common gravity or safe limit location of Most common
Physiological effects % ppm %
No Gas formula properties vapour % highest sources
density 60-minutes 8 hours lower upper concentration
1. Carbon CO2 Colourless, 1.53 Cannot be endured at 4.0 to 6.0 0.5 5000 At bottom Products of
dioxide odourless when 10 for more than few when heated combustion
breathed in large minutes even if subject may stratify sewer gas
quantities may is at rest and oxygen at points sludge gas also
cause odd taste, content is normal acts above bottom issued from
non poisonous on respiratory nerves carbonaceous
states
2. Carbon CO Colour less 0.97 Combines with 0.04 0.005 50 Neat top Manufactured
monoxide odourless, tasteless haemoglobin of blood especially if fuel gas, fuel
inflammable headache in few hours present with gas products
poisonous non at 0.02%, illuminating combustion
irritating unconsciousness in 30 gas products of
mins at 0.2 % to motor exhausts
0.25 %, and total fuel almost any
unconsciousness in few kind
minutes at 0.1%
3. Chlorine Cl2 Yellowish green 2.49 Irritates respiratory 0.0004 0.0001 1.0 At bottom Chlorine
colour detectable in tracts. Kills most cylinders and
very low animals in very short feed line leaks
concentration, non- time at 0.1 %
inflammable
4. Gasoline C2H2 to C8 Colourless, odour 3.0 to 4.0 Anaesthetic effect when 0.4 to 0.7 0.1 1000 1.3 6.0 At bottom Service
H25 noticeable at inhaled rapidly fatal at stations,
0.03% inflammable 2.4 % dangerous for garages storage
short exposure at 1.12
to 2.2 %
Final Draft A-88


5. Hydrogen H2 Colourless, 0.07 Acts mechanically to 4.0 74.0 At top Manufacture

odourless tasteless deprive tissues of fuel gas sludge
inflammable oxygen: does not
support life
6. Hydrogen H2S Rotten egg odour 1.19 Exposure for 2 to 15 0.02 0.001 10 4.30 46.0 Near bottom Coal gas,
sulphide in smell minutes at 0.01% but may be petroleum,
concentration impairs sense of smell above sewer gas,
odour not evident exposure to 0.07 to bottom. If air fumes from
at high 0.1% rapidly causes is heated and blasting sludge
concentration, acute poisoning highly humid gas
colourless paralyses respiratory
inflammable centre, death in few
minutes at 0.2 %
7. Methane CH4 Colourless 0.55 Acts mechanically to Probably 1.0 1000 5.0 15.0 Normally at Natural gas,
odourless tasteless deprive tissues of no limit top extending sludge gas
highly inflammable oxygen does not provided to a certain manufactured
non poisonous support life oxygen depth fuel gas, sewer
percentage gas in swamps
is or marshes.
sufficient
8. Nitrogen N2 Colourless tasteless 0.97 Physiologically inert Near top but Sewer gas,
non inflammable may be found sludge gas also
principal at bottom issues from
constituent of air some rock
(about 79%) strata
9. Oxygen O2 Colourless tasteless 1.11 Normal air contains Variables at Oxygen
odourless supports 21% of oxygen. different depletion from
combustion non Below 16% first signs levels poor
Final Draft A-89


poisonous of anoxia appears even ventilation and

in people who are absorption of
resting. chemical
Below 14% anoxia such combustion of
as faulty judgement available
even with minimal oxygen
exertion.
Below 10% dangerous
to life. Below 6% is
fatal.
10. Sludge About 60% May be practically 0.94 Will not support life Would 5.3 19.3 Near top of For digestion
Gas CH4 and odourless, vary structure of sludge in
40% CO colourless, widely Tanks
with small inflammable with
amounts compositio
H2, N2, H2S, n
O2
Final Draft A-90

835 APPENDIX 9.3 CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PROCEDURE

The following steps are recommended prior to entry into any confined space:
1. Ensure that all employees involved in confined space work have been effectively trained.
2. Identify and close off or reroute any lines that may carry harmful substance(s) to, or through,
the work area.
840 3. Empty, flush, or purge the space of any harmful substance(s) to the extent possible.
4. Monitor the atmosphere at the work site and within the space to determine if dangerous air
contamination and/or oxygen deficiency exists.
5. Record the atmospheric test results and keep them at the site throughout the work period.
6. If the space is interconnected with another apace, each space must be tested and the most
845 hazardous conditions found must govern subsequent steps for entry into the space.
7. If an atmospheric hazard is noted, use portable blowers to further ventilate the area; retest
the atmosphere after a suitable period of time. Do not place the blowers inside the confined
space.
8. If the only hazard posed by the space is an actual or potential hazardous atmosphere and the
850 preliminary ventilation has eliminated the atmospheric hazard or continuous forced
ventilation alone can maintain the space safe for entry, entry into the area may proceed.
The following must be observed before entry into a permit-required confined space:
1. Ensure that all personnel involved in confined space work have been effectively trained.
2. Identify and close off or reroute any lines that may carry harmful substances to, or through,
855 the work area.
3. Wear appropriate, approved respiratory protective equipment.
4. Ensure that written operating and rescue procedures are at the entry site.
5. Wear an approved harness with an attached line. The free end of the line must be secured
outside the entry point.
860 6. Test for atmospheric hazards as often as necessary to determine that acceptable entry
conditions are being maintained.
7. Station at least one person to stand by on the outside of the confined space and at least one
additional person within sight or call of the standby person.
8. Maintain effective communication between the standby person, equipped with appropriate
865 respiratory protection, should only enter the confined space in case of emergency.
9. The standby person equipped with appropriate respiratory protection, should only enter the
confined space in case of emergency.
10. If the entry is made through a top opening, use a hoisting device with a harness that
suspends a person in an upright position. A mechanical device must be available to retrieve
870 personnel from vertical spaces more than five feet (1.5meters) deep.
11. If the space contains, or is likely to develop, flammable or explosive atmospheric conditions,
do not use any tools or equipment (including electrical) that may provide a source of
ignition.
12. Wear appropriate protective clothing when entering a confined space that contains corrosive
875 substances or other substances harmful to the skin.
Final Draft A-91

13. At least one person trained in first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be
immediately available during any confined space job.
Source: EPA, 2008
Final Draft A-92

APPENDIX 9.4 CONFINED SPACE PRE-ENTRY CHECKLIST

880 Table A9.4-1 Confined space pre-entry checklist
CONFINED SPACE PRE-ENTRY CHECK LIST /CONFINED SPACE ENTRY PERMIT
Date and Time issued: Date and time expires:
Job Site space ID.: Job Supervisor:
Equipment to be worked on: Work to be performed:
Standby personnel:
Atmospheric checks:
Time:
Oxygen: %, Toxic: ppm
Explosive: % Carbon Monoxide: ppm
Tester's signature:
1.Source isolation (No entry): NA Yes No
Pumps or lines blinded, disconnected, ( ) ( ) ( )
or blocked
2.Ventilation modification: NA Yes No
Mechanical ( ) ( ) ( )
Natural ventilation only ( ) ( ) ( )
3.Atmospheric check after isolation and ventilation:
Time:
Oxygen: % > 19.5% Toxic: ppm < 10 ppm H2S
Explosive: % LFL < 10% Carbon monoxide: ppm < 35 ppm CO
Tester's signature:
4.Communication procedures:
5.Rescue procedures
6.Entry, standby, and backup persons Yes No
Successfully completed required training ( ) ( )
Final Draft A-93

Is training current ( ) ( )
7.Equipment: NA Yes No
Direct reading gas monitor tested ( ) ( ) ( )
Safety harnesses and lifelines for entry and standby persons ( ) ( ) ( )
Hoisting equipment ( ) ( ) ( )
Powered communications ( ) ( ) ( )
SCBAs for entry and standby persons Protective clothing ( ) ( ) ( )
*SCBA: Self-contained breathing apparatus
All electric equipment listed for Class I, Division I, Group D
and non-sparking tools ( ) ( ) ( )
8.Periodic atmospheric tests:
Oxygen: % Time: ; : %, : ; : %,: ; : %,
Explosive: % Time: ; : %, ; : %,: ; : %,
Toxic: % Time: ; : %, : ; : %,: ; : %,
Carbon-monoxide: % Time: ; : %, : : %,: ; : %,
We have reviewed the work authorised by this permit and the information contained herein. Written
instructions and safety procedures have been received and are understood. Entry cannot be approved if
any brackets ( ) are marked in the "No" column. This permit is not valid unless all appropriate
items are completed.
Permit prepared by (Supervisor): Approved by (Unit Supervisor):
Reviewed by (CS Operations Personnel):
This permit has to be kept at the job site. Return job site copy to safety office following job
completion.
Source: EPA, 2008
Final Draft A-94

APPENDIX 9.5 FIRST AID

9.5.1 TREATING WOUNDS
a. Caring for a skin tear
885 Expose and treat the part with the wound taking care to not move it unnecessarily.
Firstly, start removing clothes with no skin tear below and later, carefully remove
clothes with skin tear below.
Considering that bacteria may have entered the wound, first wash and disinfect
your hands and apply antiseptic solution over a width of 2 to 3 cm around the
890 wound. Using disinfected tweezers, apply disinfected gauze, and cover with
bandage to prevent infection.
Take the following precautions to prevent infection of the wound:
Always use paper, towel, cloth or hands that have been disinfected.
Disinfect the wound and remove debris in the wound using tweezers. Leave debris
895 that cannot be removed as-is; do not touch it with your finger.
Do not wipe or wash the wound. If there is slight bleeding, do not try to stop the
bleeding unnecessarily, since bacteria may be removed during initial bleeding.
Remove the dirt in the wound using aqueous hydrogen peroxide. If the wound has
oil or grease, wipe it off from around the wound to the outside using volatile oil or
900 benzene, etc., and disinfect the wound using ethanol.
Wound to the head, chest or stomach is generally a serious matter even if it looks
minor from the outside. Notify the doctor as soon as possible after the patient has
rested.
b. Care when there is no skin tear
905 Limbs
If the wound is minor, apply antiseptic solution. If swollen, apply cold compress; if
there is suspicion of fracture or dislocation, tie a splint and apply a bandage.
Head
Even if the injury is minor, treat with care. If the person has headache or nausea,
910 cool the head. If unconscious, or if there is bleeding from the ear, eye or nose, or if
the patient is agitated, internal wound in the cranium may be a possibility; in such a
case, let the patient lie down with the head kept high and immediately notify the
doctor.
Chest
915 If the chest pain is unbearable and patient coughs suddenly, or if the patients
breathing is laborious, or if blood is mixed with the sputum, allow the patient rest,
and then immediately summon the doctor.
Abdomen
In case of severe pain or swelling in the abdomen, or nausea, there is a possibility
920 of an internal injury. In such a case, ask the patient to fold his knees and lie down
so that the skin on the abdomen sags. Never give any drink to the patient. Summon
the doctor quickly.
c. How to stop bleeding
Stopping bleeding by applying pressure directly
Final Draft A-95

925 Place clean gauze or handkerchief on the wound and apply pressure directly with
your hand.
If the bleeding is from a large blood vessel, and if bleeding does not stop even after
you apply pressure using one hand, apply pressure with both hands leaning so that
your body weight also exerts pressure.
930 Take care not to touch the blood to prevent contamination when you try to stop the
bleeding.
How to use a tourniquet
If there is considerable bleeding from a large blood vessel such as an artery in the
arm or the leg, wrap a piece of cloth loosely around the part closer to the heart than
935 the wound, and insert a stick or similar hard item through the knot.
Insert a backing cloth between the stick and the arm so that the skin is not injured.
Gently rotate the stick until the cloth tightens over the artery and bleeding stops.
When the bleeding stops, fix the stick so that it does not move.
If the arrival of the first aid team is likely to be prolonged, loosen the tourniquet
940 once in 30 minutes to 1 hour so that blood just starts oozing; after blood flows for 1
to 2 minutes, tighten the tourniquet.
d. Treating electricity-related injury
When electric current enters from the left hand, it flows through the heart; therefore,
the symptoms are more pronounced when current enters from the left hand.
945 The injury is more serious at the part where the electric current leaves the body
than where it enters the body.
The following treatment is recommended:
Turn off the switch. Wear dry leather shoes or rubber shoes, and dry leather or
rubber gloves. Use bamboo or wood to isolate the person from the electric wire, or
950 use a piece of cloth or wool to grip the hand and the clothes to pull the person away
from the electric wire.
Do not touch the person with your bare hands or with a wet object or metal.
Place the person face up at a well-ventilated location; if the person has suffocated,
revive with artificial respiration. If the person is delirious or has cramps, try to cool
955 his head.
9.5.2 GAS POISONING
Occurs when inhaling simple asphyxiant gas (nitrogen, hydrogen, helium, methane,
ethane) and chemical asphyxiant gas (carbon dioxide, cyanide compound)
If considerable amount of gas has been inhaled, move the patient quickly to a
960 location with fresh air; if necessary, give fresh oxygen through oxygen supply kit,
and immediately summon a doctor.
9.5.3 CHLORINE
If chlorine gas has been inhaled
Immediately call for the doctor, follow the doctors instructions and take the
965 actions mentioned below.
Gently move the patient from the gaseous location to a safe place, preferably to a
Final Draft A-96

room of about 20C. Keep the patients head and back high while laying him to rest
and cover the body with a blanket.
If the patient has difficulty in breathing, give oxygen using oxygen supply kit.
970 If breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration by the prone, face-down method.
If chlorine has come in contact with the skin
Immediately wash the affected part with plenty of water. Quickly remove clothes
wetted by liquefied chlorine and summon the doctor for further treatment.
If chlorine has entered the eye
975 Immediately wash the eye with water keeping the water running for 15 or more
minutes and summon the doctor for further treatment.
Measures during leakage of chlorine gas
Wear protective gear such as breathing apparatus. Before checking the leakage
locations, wear protective gear and spray ammonia. Leakage is indicated at the
980 location where white fumes are emitted.
Roll leaking cylinders into the neutralization pit.
Thereafter, request experts to repair the leaking equipment.
If there is a unexpected leakage and a possibility that the scope of danger may
expand.
985 Contact the relevant department based on the contact system drawing in an
emergency determined beforehand.
If necessary, notify personnel nearby, and evacuate them to the windward side.
At the same time, neutralize the leaked gas.
9.5.4 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
990 Artificial respiration may be carried out to revive a person whose heart has stopped. The
procedure for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is given below.
Check consciousness
Ensure air passage is satisfactory
Check breathing
995 Start artificial respiration
Check for signs of circulation
Heart massage
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
Source: JSWA, 2003
1000
Final Draft A-97

APPENDIX 9.6 SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT ACCIDENT REPORT

Table A9.6-1 Sewage treatment plant accident report
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT ACCIDENT REPORT
Date of this report Name of person injured

Date of injury Tim Occupation
Home address
Age sex Check First aid case or disabling(lost time)injury
Employee or staff injury on duty or Off duty Visitor injury
Date last worked Date returned to work
Person reporting
DESCRIPTION OF ACCIDENT
1.Description of Accident (Describe in detail what happened) (Name machine, tool, appliance, part,
gears, pulley, etc.):
2.Accident occurred where? If vehicle accident, make simple sketch of scene of accident.
3.Describe nature of injury and part of body affected (Amputation of finger laceration of leg, back
strain, etc.):
4.Were other persons involved? (If yes, give names and addresses)
5.Names and addresses of witnesses.
6.If property damage involved, give brief description.
7.Name and address of physician.
8.Treatment given for injures
Source: EPA, 2008
Final Draft A-98

APPENDIX 10.1 MECHANICAL CLEANING OF SEPTIC TANKS

1005 The requirement of suction machines for emptying septic tanks in the towns where septic tanks exists (full or partial) for a specified population is
calculated based on the following assumptions.
1. No. of households in a town having population of 1 Lac (@ 5 persons in an household) - 20000 household i.e. 20000 Septic tanks
2. Septic tanks need to be cleaned once in 2 years. Hence the requirement septic tanks to be cleaned per year will be about 10000.
3. To clean 10000 septic tanks in a year, the requirement of lorries is 8 numbers
1010 4. Septic tank cleaning is by ordinary vacuum tugs which can hold only 6000 liters maximum. The regular jet rodding cum suction machines must
not be used for septic tank cleaning because the jet rodding portion of the machine is wasted. As such 10,000 septic tanks to be cleaned means
sewer lorries (not jet rodding cum suction machines) shall alone be used. Cost wise 5 such sewer lorries can be purchased instead of a single jet
rodding cum suction machine.
Number of septic tanks to be cleaned 10,000

1015 Size of a typical septic tank 2m * 1m * 1.2m
Volume to be sucked out 2.5 cum
Sewer lorry capacity 6 cum
Number of septic tanks that can be cleaned in one trip 2 numbers
Time taken for onward, suction and return 4 hours
1020 Hours available for day shift 8 hours
Number of trips per day per lorry 2 trips
Number of septic tanks sucked out per day per lorry 2*2 = 4 numbers
Lorry maintenance and down time days per year 30 days
Effective days per year per lorry 365-30=335 days
Final Draft A-99

1025 Number of septic tanks sucked by lorry per year 335*4 = 1340
Number of lorries needed per year 10000 / 1340 = 8 lorries
Sewer lorries are to be barred from operating in other than general shifts because the noise nuisance it will create to the neighbours in the night and the
risk of the lorry operator discharging surreptitiously in the nights at various places plus security concerns.
Final Draft A-100

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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(2) CMWSS Board, Chennai.
(3) CPCB (2009). Status of Water Supply, Wastewater Generation and Treatment in
Class-I Cities and Class-II Towns of India. Central Pollution Control Board, New
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Environmental Pollutants Part-A : Effluents
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Development, Government of India, Delhi.
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Development, Government of India, Delhi.
(8) CPHEEO (2005). Manual on Operation and Maintenance of Water Supply Systems.
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, Delhi
(9) CSE (2011). Policy Paper on Septage Management in India. Centre for Science and
Environment, New Delhi, India.
(10) Gastec Corporation
(11) GVT Engineering
(12) Hiren Industrial Corporation
(13) Hioki E.E. Corporation
(14) http://inst.bact.wisc.edu/inst/index.php
(15) http://www.mrwa.com
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(17) IJOEM (2008). Occupational health hazards in sewage and sanitary workers.
(18) I S: 10500 of 1991
(19) IS14489:1989 Code of Practice on Occupational Safety and Health Audit.
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of Sewerage and Sewage Treatment. JSWA, Tokyo
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(26) JICA (2007).Capacity building project related to O&M of sewerage facilities in
Final Draft A-101

India.
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Management Systems.
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Final Draft A-102

(54) UNDP, World Bank (1992). Technical Guideline on Twin Pit Pour Flush Latrine.
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Final Draft A-103

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MANUAL ON

SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

PART B : OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

CENTRAL PUBLIC HEALTH AND

MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 1-1

1.7.1 Preparation of Sewerage Ledger ........................................................................... 1-8

2.3.1.8 Velocity Cleaners (Jetting Machines)........................................................ 2-33

Final Draft iii

2.10.4 Rehabilitation ...................................................................................................... 2-49

3.5.1 Preventive Maintenance ...................................................................................... 3-17

4.7 Activated Sludge Process (ASP) ................................................................................ 4-5

4.9.1 Operation ............................................................................................................. 4-34

Final Draft vii

4.17 Advanced Treatment................................................................................................. 4-50

Final Draft viii

5.3.2 Configuration....................................................................................................... 5-10

5.6 Preventive Maintenance ........................................................................................... 5-33

6.4.7 Motor Protection Equipment ............................................................................... 6-22

CHAPTER 7 Monitoring of Water Quality ...................................................................................... 7-1

Final Draft xii

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 8-1

Final Draft xiii

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 9-1

Final Draft xiv

9.5.5 Training Assessment............................................................................................ 9-31

10.6.3.1 General .................................................................................................... 10-12

Final Draft xvi

Appendix 1.1 Monitoring Through Information Control Technology ................................................. 1

Final Draft xvii

Final Draft xviii

Table 6.4 Vibration frequencies and likely causes ............................................................... 6-19

Final Draft xix

Figure 2.34 Cures-in-place pipe installation procedure ....................................................... 2-37

Final Draft xxi

Figure 4.10 Typical air distribution system in aeration tank................................................ 4-14

Final Draft xxii

Figure 6.14 Acoustic level-sensor installation ..................................................................... 6-24

Final Draft xxiii

Figure 10.1 On-site sewage treatment system...................................................................... 10-1

Final Draft xxiv

A2O Anaerobic, Anoxic and Oxic process

ESP Exchangeable Sodium Percentage

Final Draft xxvi

NPSHR Net Positive Suction Head Required

Final Draft xxvii

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

Final Draft xxviii

WOR Weir Overflow Rate

Final Draft xxix

Collection System including house service connections and manholes

Utilization of biological sludge and containment of chemical sludge

Most of the towns are only partially sewered

20 Most of generated greywater continues to flow in road side drains

Per capita water usage is practically only 25 to 30 % as used in advanced countries

The sulphates are an agent of corrosion of concrete in sewers

25 Detergent powders have significant grit content

Volumes of water usage are only about 30 to 40 %