Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Duke University
Henri P. Gavin
Spring, 2015

This document describes free and forced dynamic responses of single

degree of freedom (SDOF) systems. The prototype single degree of freedom
system is a spring-mass-damper system in which the spring has no damping
or mass, the mass has no stiffness or damping, the damper has no stiffness or
mass. Furthermore, the mass is allowed to move in only one direction. The
horizontal vibrations of a single-story building can be conveniently modeled
as a single degree of freedom system. Part 1 of this document describes some
useful trigonometric identities. Part 2 shows how damped SDOF systems
vibrate freely after being released from an initial displacement with some
initial velocity. Part 3 covers the resposne of damped SDOF systems to
persistent sinusoidal forcing.
Consider the structural system shown in Figure 1, where:
f (t) = external excitation force
x(t) = displacement of the center of mass of the moving object
m = mass of the moving object, fI = dtd (mx(t)) = m
x(t)
c = linear viscous damping coefficient, fD = cx(t)
k = linear elastic stiffness coefficient, fS = kx(t)

x(t) k
f(t) 11
00
m 00
11
00
11
00
11 m f(t)
k, c 00
11
00
11 c x(t)
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
Figure 1. The proto-typical single degree of freedom oscillator.
2 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

The kinetic energy T (x, x),

the potential energy, V (x), and the external forc-
ing and dissipative forces, p(x, x),
are
1 2
T (x, x)
=
m(x(t)) (1)
2
1
V (x) = k(x(t))2 (2)
2
= cx(t)
p(x, x) + f (t) (3)
The general form of the differential equation describing a SDOF oscillator
follows directly from Lagranges equation,
d T (x, x)
T (x, x)
V (x)
+ p(x, x)
=0, (4)
dt x x x
or from simply balancing the forces on the mass,
X
F = 0 : fI + fD + fS = f (t) . (5)
Either way, the equation of motion is:
x(t) + cx(t)
m + kx(t) = f (t), x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo (6)
where the initial displacement is do , and the initial velocity is vo .
The solution to equation (6) is the sum of a homogeneous part (free
response) and a particular part (forced response). This document describes
free responses of all types and forced responses to simple-harmonic forcing.

1 Trigonometric and Complex Exponential Expressions for Oscillations

1.1 Constant Amplitude

and frequency can be de-

An oscillation, x(t), with amplitude X
scribed by sinusoidal functions. These sinusoidal functions may be equiv-
alently written in terms of complex exponentials eit with complex coeffi-
cients, X = A + iB and X = A iB. (The complex constant X is called
the complex conjugate of X.)
cos(t + )
x(t) = X (7)
= a cos(t) + b sin(t) (8)
= X e+it + X eit (9)

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 3

To relate equations (7) and (8), recall the cosine of a sum of angles,
cos(t + ) = X
X cos() cos(t) X
sin() sin(t) (10)
Comparing equations (10) and (8), we see that
cos() ,
a=X sin() ,
b = X and 2 .
a2 + b2 = X (11)
Also, the ratio b/a provides an equation for the phase shift, ,
b
tan() = (12)
a

period, T
6
- amplitude, X

4
response, x(t)

-2

-4

-6
0 2 4 6 8 10
time, t, sec

Figure 2. A constant-amplitude oscillation.

To relate equations (8) and (9), recall the expression for a complex exponent
in terms of sines and cosines,
X e+it + X eit = (A + iB) (cos(t) + i sin(t)) +
(A iB) (cos(t) i sin(t)) (13)
= A cos(t) B sin(t) + iA sin(t) + iB cos(t) +
A cos(t) B sin(t) iA sin(t) iB cos(t)
= 2A cos(t) 2B sin(t) (14)

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4 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

Comparing equations (14) and (8), we see that

B
a = 2A , b = 2B , and tan() =
. (15)
A
Any sinusoidal oscillation x(t) can be expressed equivalently in terms of equa-
tions (7), (8), or (9); the choice depends on the application, and the problem
to be solved. Equations (7) and (8) are easier to interpret as describing
a sinusoidal oscillation, but equation (9) can be much easier to work with
mathematically. These notes make use of all three forms.
One way to interpret the compex exponential notation is as the sum of
complex conjugates,
Xe+it = [A cos(t) B sin(t)] + i[A sin(t) + B cos(t)]
and
X eit = [A cos(t) B sin(t)] i[A sin(t) + B cos(t)]
as shown in Figure 3. The sum of complex conjugate pairs is real, since the
imaginary parts cancel out.

)
Im
( + i t
A sin t + B cos t xp
Xe
2
2 B
A +
+
A cos t B sin t
Re
A2
+B
2

A sin t B cos t X*
exp
(
i
t)

Figure 3. Complex conjugate oscillations.

of the oscillation x(t) can be found by finding the the

The amplitude, X,
sum of the complex amplitudes |X| and |X |.

X = |X| + |X | = 2 A2 + B 2 = a2 + b2 (16)

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 5

Note, again, that equations (7), (8), and (9) are all equivalent using the
and given in equations (11), (12), (15),
relations among (a, b), (A, B), X,
and (16).

1.2 Decaying Amplitude

The dynamic response of damped systems decays over time. Note that
damping may be introduced into a structure through diverse mechanisms,
including linear viscous damping, nonlinear viscous damping, visco-elastic
damping, friction damping, and plastic deformation. ll but linear viscous
damping are somewhat complicated to analyze, so we will restrict our atten-
tion to linear viscous damping, in which the damping force fD is proportional
to the velocity, fD = cx.

To describe an oscillation which decays with time, we can multiply the
expression for a constant amplitude oscillation by a positive-valued function
which decays with time. Here we will use a real exponential, et , where < 0.

4
-X e t
period, T
response, x(t)

-2

-4

-6
0 2 4 6 8 10
time, t, sec

Figure 4. A decaying oscillation.

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6 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

Multiplying equations (7) through (9) by et ,

(cos(t + ))
x(t) = et X (17)
= et (a cos(t) + b sin(t)) (18)
= et (Xeit + X eit ) (19)
= Xe(+i)t + X e(i)t (20)

= Xet + X e t
(21)

Again, note that all of the above equations are exactly equivalent. The expo-
nent is complex, = + i and = i. If is negative, then these
equations describe an oscillation with exponentially decreasing amplitudes.
Note that in equation (18) the unknown constants are , , a, and b. An-
gular frequencies, , have units of radians per second. Circular frequencies,
f = /(2) have units of cycles per second, or Hertz. Periods, T = 2/,
have units of seconds.
In the next section we will find that for an un-forced vibration, and
are determined from the mass, damping, and stiffness of the system. We
will see that the constant a equals the initial displacement do , but that the
constant b depends on the initial displacement and velocity, as well mass,
damping, and stiffness.

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 7

2 Free response of systems with mass, stiffness and damping

Using equation (21) to describe the free response of a single degree of

freedom system, we will set f (t) = 0 and will substitute x(t) = Xet into
equation (6).

x(t) + cx(t)
m + kx(t) = 0 , x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo , (22)
m2 Xet + cXet + kXet = 0 , (23)
(m2 + c + k)Xet = 0 , (24)

Note that m, c, k, and X do not depend on time. For equation (24) to be

true for all time,
(m2 + c + k)X = 0 . (25)
Equation (25) is trivially satisfied if X = 0. The non-trivial solution is m2 +
c + k = 0. This is a quadratic equation in which has the roots,
v
!2
c c k
u
u
1,2 = t . (26)
2m 2m m
The solution to a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equation
requires two independent initial conditions: an initial displacement and an
initial velocity. These two independent initial conditions are used to determine
the coefficients, X and X (or A and B, or a and b) of the two linearly
independent solutions corresponding to 1 and 2 .
The amount of damping, c, qualitatively affects the quadratic roots, 1,2 ,
and the free response solutions.

Case 1 c = 0 undamped
If the system has no damping, c = 0, and
q
1,2 = i k/m = in . (27)

This is called the natural frequency of the system. Undamped systems

oscillate freely at their natural frequency, n . The solution in this case
is
x(t) = Xein t + X ein t = a cos n t + b sin n t , (28)

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8 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

which is a real-valued function. The amplitudes depend on the initial

displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo .

Case 2 c = cc critically damped

If (c/(2m))2 = k/m, or, equivalently, if c = 2 mk, then the discriminant
of equation (26) is zero, This special value of damping is called the critical
damping rate, cc ,

cc = 2 mk . (29)
The ratio of the actual damping rate to the critical damping rate is called
the damping ratio, .
c
= . (30)
cc
The two roots of the quadratic equation are real and are repeated at

1 = 2 = c/(2m) = cc /(2m) = 2 mk/(2m) = n , (31)

and the two basic solutions are equal to each other, e1 t = e2 t . In order
to admit solutions for arbitrary initial displacements and velocities, the
solution in this case is

x(t) = x1 en t + x2 t en t . (32)

where the real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the initial dis-
placement, do , and the initial velocity, vo . Details regarding this special
case are in the next section.

Case 3 c > cc over-damped

If the damping is greater than the critical damping, then the roots, 1
and 2 are distinct and real. If the system is over-damped it will not
oscillate freely. The solution is

x(t) = x1 e1 t + x2 e2 t , (33)

which can also be expressed using hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine
functions. The real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the initial
displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo .

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 9

Case 4 0 < c < cc under-damped

If the damping rate is positive, but less than the critical damping rate, the
system will oscillate freely from some initial displacement and velocity.
The roots are complex conjugates, 1 = 2 , and the solution is

x(t) = X et + X e t , (34)

where the complex amplitude depends on the initial displacement, do ,

and the initial velocity, vo .

We can re-write the dynamic equations of motion using the new dynamic
variables for natural frequency, n , and damping ratio, . Note that
v
c k 1 c k c u k
u
= c = = 2 t = 2n . (35)
m k m m k m m 2 km m

mx(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = f (t), (36)
c k 1
+ x(t) =
x(t) + x(t) f (t), (37)
m m m
1
+ n2 x(t) =
x(t) + 2n x(t) f (t), (38)
m
The expression for the roots 1,2 , can also be written in terms of n and .
v
!2
c c k
u
u
1,2 = t , (39)
2m r 2m m
= n (n )2 n2 , (40)
q
= n n 2 1 . (41)

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10 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

Some useful facts about the roots 1 and 2 are:

= Im

1 + 2 = 2n 1 x d

n
1 2 = 2 n 2 1

n2 = 14 (1 + 2 )2 14 (1 2 )2
n = Re
n = 1 2

= (1 + 2 )/(2n )
2 x d

2.1 Free response of critically-damped systems

The solution to a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equa-

tion requires two independent initial conditions: an initial displacement and
an initial velocity. These two initial conditions are used to determine the
coefficients of the two linearly independent solutions corresponding to 1 and
2 . If 1 = 2 , then the solutions e1 t and e2 t are not independent. In fact,
they are identical. In such a case, a new trial solution can be determined as
follows. Assume the second solution has the form
x(t) = u(t)x2 e2 t , (42)
2 t

x(t) = u(t)x
2e + u(t)2 x2 e2 t , (43)
x(t) = u(t)x2 e2 t + 2u(t)
2 x2 e
2 t
+ u(t)22 x2 e2 t (44)
substitute these expressions into
+ n2 x(t) = 0 ,
x(t) + 2n x(t)
collect terms, and divide by x2 e2 t , to get
+ 2n2 (1 )u(t) = 0
u(t) + 2n ( 1)u(t)
or u(t) = 0 (since = 1). If the acceleration of u(t) is zero then the velocity
of u(t) must be constant, u(t)
= C, and u(t) = Ct, from which the new trial
solution is found.
x(t) = u(t)x2 e2 t = x2 t e2 t .

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 11

So, using the complete trial solution x(t) = x1 et + x2 tet , and incorporating
initial conditions x(0) = do and x(0)
= vo , the free response of a critically-
damped system is:

x(t) = do en t + (vo + n do ) t en t . (45)

2.2 Free response of underdamped systems

If the system is under-damped, then < 1, 2 1 is imaginary, and
q
1,2 = n in | 2 1| = i. (46)
q
The frequency n | 2 1| is called the damped natural frequency, d ,
q
d = n | 2 1| . (47)

It is the frequency at which under-damped SDOF systems oscillate freely,

With these new dynamic variables (, n , and d ) we can re-write the solution
to the damped free response,

x(t) = en t (a cos d t + b sin d t), (48)

= Xet + X e t . (49)

Now we can solve for X, (or, equivalently, A and B) in terms of the initial
conditions. At the initial point in time, t = 0, the position of the mass is
x(0) = do and the velocity of the mass is x(0)
= vo .

x(0) = do = Xe0 + X e 0
(50)
= X + X (51)
= (A + iB) + (A iB) = 2A = a. (52)


x(0) = vo = Xe0 + X e 0 , (53)
= X + X , (54)
= ( + id )(A + iB) + ( id )(A iB), (55)
= A + id A + iB d B +
A id A iB d B, (56)
= 2A 2B (57)
= n do 2 d B, (58)

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12 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

from which we can solve for B and b,

vo + n do vo + n do
B= and b= . (59)
2d d
Putting this all together, the free response of an underdamped system to an
arbitrary initial condition, x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo is
vo + n do
!
n t
x(t) = e do cos d t + sin d t . (60)
d

vo
6
do
4
-X e - n t
damped natural period, Td
response, x(t)

-2

-4

-6
0 2 4 6 8 10
time, t, sec

Figure 5. Free response of an under-damped oscillator to an initial displacement and velocity.

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 13

2.3 Free response of over-damped systems

If the system is over-damped, then > 1, and 2 1 is real, and the
roots are both real and negative
q
1,2 = n n 2 1 = d . (61)

Substituting the initial conditions x(0) = do and x(0) = vo into the

solution (equation (33)), and solving for the coefficients results in

vo + do (n + d )
x1 = , (62)
2d
x2 = do x1 . (63)

Substituting the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine expressions for the
exponentials results in
vo + n do
!
n t
x(t) = e do cosh d t + sinh d t . (64)
d

7 vo

do 5

4
response, x(t)

3
=5.0
2
over damped
1 =1.5 =2.0
critically damped
0

-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
time, t, sec

Figure 6. Free response of critically-damped (yellow) and over-damped (violet) oscillators to

an initial displacement and velocity.

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14 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

The undamped free response can be found as a special case of the under-
damped free response. While special solutions exist for the critically damped
response, this response can also be found as limiting cases of the under-
damped or over-damped responses.

2.4 Finding the natural frequency from self-weight displacement

Consider a spring-mass system in which the mass is loaded by gravity,

g. The static displacement Dst is related to the natural frequency by the
constant of gravitational acceleration.

Dst = mg/k = g/n2 (65)

2.5 Finding the damping ratio from free response

Consider the value of two peaks of the free response of an under-damped

system, separated by n cycles of motion

x1 = x(t1 ) = en t1 (A) (66)

x1+n = x(t1+n ) = en t1+n (A) = en (t1 +2n/d ) (A) (67)

The ratio of these amplitudes is

x1 en t1 en t1
2n/ 1 2
= (t +2n/ ) = t 2n / = e , (68)
x1+n e n 1 d e n 1e n d

which is independent of n and d . Defining the log decrement () as

ln(x1 /x1+n )/n,
2
() = (69)
1 2
and, inversely,

() = (70)
4 2 + 2 2
where the approximation is accurate to within 3% for < 0.2 and is accurate
to within 1.5% for < 0.1.

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 15

2.6 Summary

To review, some of the important expressions relating to the free response

of a single degree of freedom oscillator are:
cos(t + ) = a cos(t) + b sin(t) = Xe+it + X eit
X

=
X a2 + b 2 ; tan() = b/a; X = A + iB; A = a/2; B = b/2;

mx(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = 0
x(0) = do , x(0)
= vo
+ n2 x(t) = 0
x(t) + 2n x(t)

v
k c c
u q
u
n = t
= = d = n | 2 1|
m cc 2 mk

vo + n do
!
n t
x(t) = e do cos d t + sin d t (0 < 1)
d

1 x1
!
= ln () =
n x1+n 4 2 + 2 2

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16 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

3 Response of systems with mass, stiffness, and damping to sinusoidal forcing

When subject to simple harmonic forcing with a forcing frequency ,

dynamic systems initially respond with a combination of a transient response
at a frequency d and a steady-state response at a frequency . The transient
response at frequency d decays with time, leaving the steady state response
at a frequency equal to the forcing frequency, . This section examines three
ways of applying forcing: forcing applied directly to the mass, inertial forcing
applied through motion of the base, and forcing from a rotating eccentric
mass.

3.1 Direct Force Excitation

If the SDOF system is dynamically forced with a sinusoidal forcing func-

tion, then f (t) = F cos(t), where is the frequency of the forcing, in radians
per second. If f (t) is persistent, then after several cycles the system will re-
spond only at the frequency of the external forcing, . Lets suppose that
this steady-state response is described by the function

x(t) = a cos t + b sin t, (71)

then

x(t) = (a sin t + b cos t), (72)
and
x(t) = 2 (a cos t b sin t). (73)
Substituting this trial solution into equation (6), we obtain

m 2 (a cos t b sin t) +
c (a sin t + b cos t) +
k (a cos t + b sin t) = F cos t. (74)

Equating the sine terms and the cosine terms

(m 2 a + cb + ka) cos t = F cos t (75)

(m 2 b ca + kb) sin t = 0, (76)

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 17

which is a set of two equations for the two unknown constants, a and b,
k m 2 F

c a
= , (77)
c k m 2 b 0
for which the solution is
k m 2
a() = F (78)
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2
c
b() = F . (79)
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2
Referring to equations (7) and (12) in section 1.1, the forced vibration solution
(equation (71)) may be written

x(t) = a() cos t + b() sin t = X() cos (t + ()) . (80)

The angle is the phase between the force f (t) and the response x(t), and
b() c
tan(()) = = (81)
a() k m 2
Note that < () < 0 for all positive values of , meaning that the
displacement response, x(t), always lags the external forcing, F cos(t). The

ratio of the response amplitude X() to the forcing amplitude F is

q
X() a2 () + b2 () 1
= = . (82)
F F
q
(k m 2 ) + (c)2

This equation shows how the response amplitude X depends on the amplitude
of the forcing F and the frequency of the forcing , and has units of flexibility.
Lets re-derive this expression using complex exponential notation! The
equations of motion are

m + kx(t) = F cos t = F ()eit + F ()eit .

x(t) + cx(t) (83)

In a solution of the form, x(t) = X()eit + X ()eit , the coefficient X()

corresponds to the positive exponents (positive frequencies), and X () corre-
sponds to negative exponents (negative frequencies). Positive exponent coef-
ficients and negative exponent coefficients are independent and may be found

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18 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

separately. Considering the positive exponent solution, the forcing is ex-

pressed as F ()eit and the partial solution X()eit is substituted into the
forced equations of motion, resulting in

(m 2 + ci + k) X() eit = F () eit , (84)

from which
X() 1
= , (85)
F () (k m 2 ) + i(c)
which is complex-valued. This complex function has a magnitude
 
 X() 
 
1
  = q , (86)
 F ()  (k m 2 )2 + (c)2
 

the same as equation (82) but derived using eit in just three simple lines.
Equation (85) may be written in terms of the dynamic variables, n and
. Dividing the numerator and the denominator of equation (82) by k, and
noting that F/k is a static displacement, xst , we obtain
X() 1/k
= 
m 2
 , (87)
+ i kc

F () 1 k
F ()/k
X() =  2 !  , (88)

1 n +i 2 n
X() 1
= , (89)
xst (1 2 ) + i (2)

X() 1
= q , (90)
xst (1 2 )2 + (2)2
where the frequency ratio is the ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural
frequency, = /n . This equation is called the dynamic amplification
factor. It is the factor by which displacement responses are amplified due to
the fact that the external forcing is dynamic, not static. See Figure 7.

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 19

frequency response: F to X
10
=0.05
8
| X / Xst |

6
0.1
4
0.2
2
0.5
0 1.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

0
=0.05

-45
phase, degrees

-90

=1.0
-135

-180
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
frequency ratio, = / n

st , equation (89).
Figure 7. The dynamic amplification factor for external forcing, X/x

To summarize, the steady state response of a simple oscillator directly

excited by a harmonic force, f (t) = F cos t, may be expressed in the form
of equation (7)

F /k 2
x(t) = q cos(t + ) , tan = (91)
(1 2 )2 + (2)2 1 2

or, equivalently, in the form of equation (8)

F /k
x(t) = 2 2 2
[ (1 2 ) cos t + (2) sin t ] , (92)
(1 ) + (2)
where = /n .

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20 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

3.2 Support Acceleration Excitation

When the dynamic loads are caused by motion of the supports (or the
ground, as in an earthquake) the forcing on the structure is the inertial force
resisting the ground acceleration, which equals the mass of the structure times
the ground acceleration, f (t) = m z (t).

k
11
00
x(t) m 00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
m

111
000
k, c 00
11
00
11 c
000
111
000
111 00
11 z(t) x(t)
z(t)
Figure 8. The proto-typical SDOF oscillator subjected to base motions, z(t)

m ( x(t) + z(t) ) + cx(t)

+ kx(t) = 0 (93)
m + kx(t) = m
x(t) + cx(t) z (t) (94)
+ n2 x(t) =
x(t) + 2n x(t) z (t) (95)

Note that equation (95) is independent of mass. Systems of different masses

but with the same natural frequency and damping ratio have the same be-
havior and respond in exactly the same way to the same support motion.
If the ground displacements are sinusoidal z(t) = Z cos t, then the
2 cos t, and f (t) = mZ
ground accelerations are z(t) = Z 2 cos t. Using
the complex exponential formulation, we can find the steady state response
as a function of the frequency of the ground motion, .

x(t) + cx(t)
m 2 cos t = mZ() 2 eit + mZ () 2 eit (96)
+ kx(t) = mZ

The steady-state response can be expressed as the sum of independent com-

plex exponentials, x(t) = X()eit + X ()eit . The positive exponent parts
are independent of the negative exponent parts and can be analyzed sepa-
rately.

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 21

Assuming persistent excitation and ignoring the transient resposne (the

particular part of the solution), the response will be harmonic. Consider-
ing the positive exponent part of the forcing mZ() 2 eit , the positive
exponent part of the steady-state response will have a form Xeit . Substi-
tuting these expressions into the differential equation (96), collecting terms,
and factoring out the exponential eit , the frequency response function is
X() m 2
= ,
Z() (k m 2 ) + i(c)
2
= (97)
(1 2 ) + i(2)
where = /n (the forcing frequency over the natural frequency), and
 
 X() 
 
2
  = q (98)
 Z()  (1 2 )2 + (2)2
 

See Figure 9.
Finally, lets consider the motion of the mass with respect to a fixed
point. This is called the total motion and is the sum of the base motion plus
the motion relative to the base, z(t) + x(t).
X +Z X (1 2 ) + i(2) + 2
= +1 =
Z Z (1 2 ) + i(2)
1 + i(2)
= (99)
(1 2 ) + i(2)
and q
X + Z  1 + (2)2
 
 = = Tr(, ). (100)

 q
 Z  (1 2 )2 + (2)2
This function is called the transmissibility ratio, Tr(, ). It determines the
ratio between the total response amplitude X + Z and the base motion Z.
See figure 10.
For systems that have a longer natural period (lower natural frequency)

than the period (frequency) of the support motion, (i.e., > 2), the trans-
missibility ratio is less than 1 especialy for low values of damping . In
such systems the motion of the mass is less than the motion of the supports
and we say that the mass is isolated from motion of the supports.

CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin

22 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

frequency response: Z to X
10
=0.05
8
|X/Z|

6
0.1
4
0.2
2
0.5
0 1.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

0
=0.05

-45
phase, degrees

-90

=1.0
-135

-180
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
frequency ratio, = / n

Z,
Figure 9. The dynamic amplification factor for base-excitation, X/ equation (97).
transmissibility: Z to (X+Z)
10
=0.05
8
| (X+Z) / Z |

6
0.1
4
0.2
2 0.5
=1.0
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

-45 =1.0
phase, degrees

-90

-135
=0.05
-180
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
frequency ratio, = / n

Figure 10. The transmissibility ratio |(X + Z)/Z| = Tr(, ), equation (99).

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 23

3.3 Eccentric-Mass Excitation

Another type of sinusoidal forcing which is important to machine vibra-

tion arises from the rotation of an eccentric mass. Consider the system shown
in Figure 11 in which a mass m is attached to the primary mass m via a rigid
link of length r and rotates at an angular velocity . In this single degree of
freedom analysis, the motion of the primary mass is constrained to lie along
the x coordinate and the forcing of interest is the x-component of the reactive
centrifugal force. This component is mr 2 cos(t) where the angle t is the
counter-clockwise angle from the x coordinate. The equation of motion with

x(t) k
m 11
00
00
11 r
m
00
11
00
11

m
k, c 00
11
00
11 c x(t)
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
Figure 11. The proto-typical SDOF oscillator subjected to eccentric-mass excitation.

this forcing is
m + kx(t) = mr 2 cos(t)
x(t) + cx(t) (101)
This expression is simply analogous to equation (83) in which F = m r 2 .
With a few substitutions, the frequency response function is found to be
X 2
= , (102)
r (1 2 ) + i (2)

which is completely analogous to equation (97). The plot of the frequency

response function of equation (102) is simply proportional to the function
plotted in Figure 9. The magnitude of the dynamic force transmitted between
a machine supported on dampened springs and the base, |fT |, is related to
the transmissibility ratio.
|fT |
= 2 Tr(, ) (103)
kr
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24 CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2015 H.P. Gavin

Unlike the transmissibility ratio asymptotically approaches 0 with increas-

ing , the vibratory force transmitted from eccentric mass excitation is 0

when = 0 but increase with for > 2. This increasing effect is signifi-
cant for > 0.2, as shown in Figure 12.

transmission: 2(Z to (X+Z))

10
=0.05
8
2 | (X+Z) / Z |

6
0.1
=1.0
4
0.2
0.5
2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

-45 =1.0
phase, degrees

-90

-135
=0.05
-180
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
frequency ratio, = / n

Figure 12. The transmission ratio 2 Tr(, ), equation (103).

CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems 25

3.4 Finding the damping from the peak of the frequency response function

For lightly damped systems, the frequency ratio of the resonant peak,
the amplification of the resonant peak, and the width of the resonant peak
are functions to of the damping ratio only. Consider two frequency ratios
1 and 2 such that |H(1 , )|2 = |H(2 , )|2 = |H|2peak /2 where |H(, )|
is one of the frequency response functions described in earlier sections. The
frequency ratio corresponding to the peak of these functions peak , and the
value of the peak of these functions, |H|2peak are given in Table 1. Note that
the peak coordinate depends only upon the damping ratio, .
Since 22 21 = (2 1 )(2 + 1 ) and since 2 + 1 2,
2 1
(104)
2
which is called the half-power bandwidth formula for damping. For the
first, second, and fourth frequency response functions listed in Table 1 the
approximation is accurate to within 5% for < 0.20 and is accurate to within
1% for < 0.10.

Table 1. Peak coordinates for various frequency response functions.

H(, ) peak |H|2peak 22 21

1
1

2
(1 )+i(2)
1 2 2 4 (1 2 )
2 4 1 2

i 1

(12 )+i(2)
1 4 2
4 1 + 2

2 4 1 2
(12 )+i(2)
1 1
4 2 (1 2 ) 18 2 (1 2 )
12 2

1/2
1+i(2) ((1+8 2)1/21) 8 4
ouch.
(12 )+i(2) 2 8 4 4 2 1+ 1+8 2

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