Bonding Aluminum (Sapa Group)
Bonding Aluminum (Sapa Group)
1
Sapa Technology (ST) is a research and development center
within Sapa.
Cover photo: The tonne Profilen (Profile), the worlds first sailing boat to be made using bonded
2 aluminum profiles. Developed and built by Sapa Profiler, Vetlanda.
Introduction Contents
Many designers know that adhesives are used to bond Introduction 3
load-bearing structures in aircraft. Double-sided sticky
tape is also used to join certain metal components in The bonding of structures an overview 4
aircraft. Between these two extremes, there are very
many different adhesives. Preconditions for bonding 5
Bonding as a jointing method offers wide possibilities The effect of the service environment 6
in a very broad area. However, the seemingly simple
jointing offered by bonding can be illusory if the joint is The effect of temperature 7
not designed with a knowledge of the basic factors that
affect the joints strength and service life. The effect of joint design 7
We hope that this guide helps to increase knowledge of The effect of mechanical loads 8
the possibilities and limitations inherent in the bonding
of aluminum. The text is based on studies of relevant The effect of adhesive type 9
literature and on the testing we carried out when
producing the first edition, published in July 1984. The effect of alloying elements and condition 9
This, the third edition, has been updated as regards, The effect of pretreatment 9
amongst other things, contents and adhesive
designations. How the bond is made 11
Choice of adhesive 12
Epoxy adhesives 13
Polyurethane adhesives 14
Hot-melt adhesives 16
Polysulphide rubbers 17
Anaerobic adhesives 18
Test methods 18
References 19
3
The bonding of structures an overview
Perhaps the main difference between bonding, on the one Adhesives that, at room temperature or above, can
hand, and soldering, brazing and welding, on the other, is appear elastic or soft can, at lower temperatures, become
that the filler material in bonding is a plastic rather than a hard and, perhaps, brittle.
metal. Below, an attempt is made to roughly rank adhesives
For bonding to take place, the adhesive and the material as regards the durability of the finished bonds at various
to be bonded must come closer to each other than 0.5 nm temperatures.
(1 nm = one millionth of a millimetre). This is only possible
if the adhesive not only wets the appropriate surface(s), but Bond durability at various temperatures:
also spreads and penetrates so that that the gaps and dips
A rough ranking of adhesive types, from most to least
in the surface(s) are filled out. temperature sensitive:
Wetting can only occur if the adhesive has a lower
Thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives
surface tension than the surface that has to be wetted.
So that there is sufficient contact between adhesive and Double-sided sticky tapes
material, the adhesive must have good liquid properties. Thermoplastic adhesives, drying
However, for the transmission of loads to be possible, it
Elastomers (rubber, contact adhesives)
must set into a load-transmitting material.
Broadly speaking, setting can be divided into three Curing elastomers
types drying, cooling and polymerisation. Different types Curing hot-melt adhesives
of adhesive set in different ways: Environment-curing adhesives
Two-component adhesives that cure at room temperature
Adhesive type: Setting via:
Solutions of plastics/elastomers Drying (evaporation) The same 2-component adhesives, but heat-curing
Dispersions of plastics/elastomers Drying (evaporation) One and two-component adhesives that require heat curing
Strength of the
aluminum alloy
5
A surface that may appear smooth and even (perhaps even The thicker and more fast-setting an adhesive, the
polished) is very uneven when viewed at high magnification greater the need to first apply a runny primer that saturates
(fig. 4). the surface before the adhesive is applied.
A viscid adhesive needs a very long time to take over
the space occupied by the air in such a surface. Complete
filling never take place.
Figure 4 a: An aluminum plate at 500x magnification Figure 4 b: The same plate at 25,000x magnification
Figure 5: Variously pretreated, unloaded joints kept outdoors in Figure 6: Unloaded joints kept outdoors in a coastal environment.
an industrial environment. Alloy 6061-T6. Ref. 3. Alloy 6061-T6. Ref. 4.
21,0 21,0
17,5 17,5
14,0 14,0
Strength in N/mm2
Strength in N/mm2
10,5 10,5
7,0 7,0
3,5 3,5
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96
Exposure in months Exposure in months
Key to figs. 5 and 6: Degreased in trichloroethylene vapour Blasting with silicon sand + vapour degreasing Chromating
Anodizing in sulphuric acid followed by sealing Pickled with chromic/sulphuric acid paste Pickling in phosphoric acid/ethanol
Pickling in chromic/sulphuric acid
6
and durability of the aluminum oxides that are being bon- must be carried out to increase the durability of the bonded
ded to. Through experience, the aircraft industry has long joint. See also The effect of pretreatment.
been aware of this. However, it is only in recent decades The graphs in figs. 5 and 6 give an idea of the effect
that scientific experiments have been carried out to provide that environment and pretreatment have on the strength
explanations of the observed phenomena (ref. 8). of a bonded joint. Testing was carried out on single lap
Bonding to a normally formed aluminum oxide does not joints (as per ASTM D 1002-72) with a 2-component, room-
give the best long-term strength. If there is water or high air temperature (RT) curing epoxy adhesive.
humidity in the service environment, a surface conversion
7
sive, torsional or tensile, such joints experience them as
shear stresses. However, any differences in coefficients of
thermal expansion should be taken into account here.
A joints edges are always exposed to the greatest
stress. Thus, especially when using a hard adhesive, it is im-
portant that the design spreads any load evenly throughout
the bonded joint. Fig. 10 shows various ways of reducing
edge effects.
1 2 3 4 5
choice of pretreatment has a large effect on results. See Figure 11: Differences in residual strength of differently loaded
also The effect of pretreatment. joints in moist heat (ref. 1)
8
The effect of adhesive type
To correctly understand the effect that different adhesives Through the electrolytes that can form in the presence
have on a bonded joint, the bonded joint should be viewed of water, different adhesives can also differently affect the
as an independent structural element in a composite struc- aluminum surface in the boundary layer.
ture. Naturally enough, this structural element can have Choice of adhesive and Tests of a few selected adhe-
various mechanical properties and be affected differently sives (table 5, page 18) present a selection of adhesives
by temperature, environment and chemicals. that are used for bonding aluminum.
10 nm 5,6
2,8
(7 dagar)
(7 Days) (69 Days) (694 Days)
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 6 10 7
Time (in minutes) until fracture
100 nm Key: Degreased in trichloroethylene vapour Anodized in sulphuric
100 nm acid, sealed Anodized in sulphuric acid, not sealed Pickled in chromic/
sulphuric acid Anodized in chromic acid Anodized in phosphoric acid
(ref. 7).
Table 3 gives some useful guidelines for selecting a pre-
treatment (in relation to what is required of the bonded joint).
The properties of a pretreated surface are rapidly impaired if
it is exposed to moist air or greasy, airborne contaminants.
40 nm
Similarly, it is sensitive to, for example, fingerprints during
handling. It is often appropriate to apply an adhesive primer
directly after pretreatment. The surface can then be stored
a long time without impairment.
7 nm The use of primer often brings increased green strength
Oxide and better corrosion protection/long-term strength. Adhesive
primers frequently have corrosion-inhibiting additives that
further improve the bonds chances of providing long-term
strength in difficult environments (ref 5).
Wash-primers are general primers that give good
Figure 12 b: Isometric sketch of the oxide layer of a phosphoric
acid anodized surface
results. They contain polyvinyl butyral with a phosphoric
acid hardener (curing agent). This type of primer can, for
example, be advantageously applied before bonding with
This surface is easily destroyed by mechanical contact a wide range of polyurethane adhesives. There are special
and must be directly coated with a primer or a runny primers for many special adhesives, e.g. those used in the
adhesive. aircraft industry (ref. 8).
Fig. 13 gives an idea of long-term strength when loaded Table 3: Useful guidelines for selecting a pretreatment (in
in moist heat. relation to what is required of the bonded joint)
Surface quality Unloaded or mildly Loaded Joint
loaded joint
Environment Environment
Dry Water Brine Dry Water Brine
Untreated
(as delivered) (+)
Vapour degreased + (+) + (+)
Mechanically processed +++ + +++ +
Dipped in hot water +++ ++ ++ ++
Primed with polyvinyl
butyral ++ ++ + ++ (+)+ +
Chromic acid pickled +++ +++ + +++ +++ +
Chromated ++ ++ + ++ + +
Sulphuric acid anodized
no subsequent sealing ++(+) ++(+) ++(?) ++ ++ (+)
Sulphuric acid anodized
subsequent sealing ++(+) ++(+) ++(+) + + +
Chromic acid anodized +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ (+)++
Phosphoric acid anodized +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
10
How the bond is made
The strength of an adhesive bond is very much determined subprocesses could be involved in a single bonded joint!
by the way in which it is made. At a first glance, it may seem To ensure consistently good bonding results, it is clearly
that this is largely a question of applying adhesive to the important that descriptions are drawn up detailing how a
parts and holding them together until the bond sets. bonded joint is to be made. Each subprocess can be further
Can there really be many other ways of doing it? divided into smaller steps.
If the process of making a bond is divided into subpro- Carrying out the subprocesses does, of course, require
cesses, it can be seen that there are rather a lot of points knowledge. Each subprocess also presents opportunities for
where each subprocess can have an effect on the end going wrong. Carrying out series bonding without detailed
results. work descriptions can hardly be appropriate.
Such a division could be as set out below. All these
The parts that are to be bon- Intermediate storage Making the bond:
ded Controlling joint thickness Subsequent
Conditioning The adhesive: Application storage/curing
Dimension checking Receiving inspection Waiting time before putting
storage of adhesives the components together Testing Checks
The surfaces that are to be Stirring of the components Time during which the Logging
bonded De-aeration of the adhesive mixture can be used
Cleaning components Assembly Further processing
Drying Dosing of adhesive and Fixing pressing
Surface conversion hardener Curing Packing
Priming Mixing Cooling after heat curing
Drying/curing of the primer De-aeration of the mixture Removal from jig/press Delivery
adhesive takes up, amongst other things, each adhesives Figure 14: Surface tension of several materials for wetting to occur, the
suitability for various materials. adhesive must be below (in the chart) the material that is to be bonded (ref. 7) 11
Choice of adhesive
The choice of adhesive is principally determined by three One way of using a drying adhesive is to employ it as a
different considerations: contact adhesive. Most of the solvent must here be allowed
The adhesive must wet the materials that are to be to disappear before the parts are brought together. However,
bonded. significant quantities are left in the joint after such compres-
In its final state, the adhesive must have material sion and, in principle, the problem remains.
properties that, in the intended service environment, are Drying adhesives are not excluded from use in the
sufficient to transmit the loads in question. bonding of thin, compliant and porous materials (mats, etc.)
It must be possible to use the adhesive in production of to aluminum. However, they are not discussed any further
the product. here.
There is no great difficulty in finding some 1,000 different
adhesives on the market. The difficulty is largely in obtaining Setting through cooling
sufficient knowledge about the adhesive (especially in its Some of the drying adhesives can be heat activated. The
final, set state). adhesive is applied to one or both joint surfaces and dried
One way of gaining an overview of the area may be completely. At jointing, the adhesive is activated (melted)
to consider the ways in which adhesives set. After all, ad- on one of the parts and quickly joined with the other. This
hesives do have to be liquid at some point in the bonding adhesive type facilitates rapid production, but does not
process. Essentially, there are only three ways of setting. give filled joints. It is only suitable if one of the materials is
However, combinations of these do occur. readily deformable (thin, soft). This bonding method is also
discussed no further in this text (however, see example 7
Setting through drying on page 24).
The solvent or water evaporates. Only 20 to 50% of the Hot-melt adhesives are applied hot, usually to room-
original adhesive remains (= shrinkage). Most of the drying temperature surfaces. They give filled joints and rapid fixing.
must take place through the material. Consequently, this This type of adhesive is discussed more fully on page 14.
adhesive type is not suitable for bonding aluminum to alu-
minum. The binder is based on thermoplasts or elastomers Setting through polymerisation (curing)
(rubber). Curing can take place through:
Mixing of two components (adhesives 1, 2, 4, 5 and 8
in tables 4 and 5 table 5 is on page 18).
Table 4: Overview of various curing adhesives
Adhesive Strength of Peel Handling/ Suitable Work Suitable Suitable for Misc.
type (tested single lap strength curing for large environment for thermo- thermoset-
adhesive joint (N)m* surfaces aspect plasts ting resins
no.) (N/m2)
Epoxy 16 - 29 4 - 6 Dosing + + + + + Many
2-comp. (1, 2) Mixing different
20 - 150C adhesives
Epoxy
1-comp. (3) approx. 35 approx. 9 Cures + + +
in heat
>90C
Polyurethane 6 - 20 2 - 6 Dosing + + + + + +++
2-comp. (4) (T-peel test) Mixing
20C -
Polyurethane approx. 2 approx. 7 Cured by + + + + + + Other curing
elastomer, atmospheric methods
1-comp (5) moisture exist
Hot melt approx. 7 approx. 10 Cooling - + + +++ +++
curing (6) cured If
reactivated
Polysulphide approx. 2 approx. 5 Dosing + + + () + + + + Slow
rubber (7) Mixing Benign smell curing
Acrylic 20 - 25 2,5 - 3,5 Adhesive + + + + + + + Short fixing
adhesive (T-peel test) & hardener Strong smell time
(SGA) (8) on own surface
Aerobic approx. 20 2,5 - 3,5 Adhesive + + + + + Short fixing
SGA (T-peel test) & hardener Strong smell time
adhesive (9) on own surface
Anaerobic 12.5 - 20 0,5 - 1,5 Cures by +
adhesive (10) (T-peel test) itself
* Roller drum peel tests give higher values than T-peel tests.
Strength values are taken from the manufacturers data sheets.
12
Contact between two components, each of which has regards the relationship between strength and test
been spread on its particular surface (adhesives 9 and 10 method, see Test methods.
in tables 4 and 5).
Temperature increase to at least 100C. Tested adhesive 1 EPOXY ADHESIVE ARALDIT AV
Environmental change for the adhesive, e.g. 106, HARDENER HV 953 U
- moisture contact (adhesive 6 in tables 4 and 5).
- absence of oxygen + metal ion contact (adhesive 10 in Components: 2
tables 4 and 5). Mixing ratios: 100:80 (weight), 100:100 (volume). The
- UV irradiation. mixing ratios can vary within comparatively wide limits. Ad-
From the large number of available curing adhesives, we ding more hardener (curing agent) gives a softer adhesive.
selected 10 for testing. These are detailed hereafter. Three However, it should be borne in mind that, besides serving
of them were epoxy adhesives. The remaining seven were as a softener, the surplus hardener will remain in a liquid
each typical of their group. All the adhesives were fairly unreacted form in the adhesive. The adhesives compara-
common and readily available. tively poor heat resistance then becomes even poorer. The
Table 4 gives an overview of the various adhesives. components should be mixed by weight.
Table 5 on page 18 gives the results of the aging tests that
we carried out. Function: The reaction starts when the components are
Clearly enough, adhesives other than those discussed mixed. Curing rate is not affected by the quantity of hardener.
here may be available and may be the best choice for a Owing to the heat generated during the reaction, large mixes
certain design. In addition, the tested adhesives have also cure more quickly.
been further developed and, in some cases, replaced by
others. Thus, the original test results are here given with Curing times: 25C 18 hours, 70C 50 minutes, 150C
any replacement products stated. 5 minutes
Various adhesive types Bondable materials: Aluminum and other metals and mi-
The presentation of various adhesive types takes up, nerals. Thermosetting resins such as Bakelite and polyester
amongst other things, each adhesives suitability for various laminates can also be bonded with good results. Nylon gives
materials. fair results. The adhesive is not otherwise especially suitable
When bonding dissimilar materials to each other, it for thermoplasts. This is because the latter normally have a
should be borne in mind that movement caused by moisture lower surface tension than does the adhesive.
or temperature will not be the same for each material.
Suitable areas of use: In the engineering industry, the ad-
hesive is regarded as an all-rounder. It gives filled joints and,
EPOXY ADHESIVES
where strength requirements at elevated temperatures are
Araldit AV 106/HV 953 U, Araldit Standard (from Ciba- small or moderate, can be used for bonds to the above cited
Geigy), is probably the most widely used metal adhesive materials. Previously, the adhesive was used for sandwich
there is. It is a comparatively old adhesive. We also structures. It has now, practically speaking, been completely
included a newer all-round epoxy adhesive (AV 144/HV replaced by polyurethane adhesives.
997 from Ciba-Geigy) in the tests. Both these adhesives
have relatively low heat resistance. Strength at room temperature
Two-component epoxy adhesives that cure at room Single lap joint, tensile speed 10 mm/min:
temperature can rarely be loaded at temperatures above After curing at 25C for 18 hours 16 N/mm2
80C. Epoxy adhesives with considerably higher heat After curing at 70C for 50 minutes 22 N/mm2
resistance are available. However, these require heat After curing at 150C for 5 minutes 29 N/mm2
curing. Unfortunately, the price paid for higher heat
resistance is usually lower peel strength. Peel strength: Roller drum peel test: 4 6 N/mm2
As an alternative to 2-component epoxy, we chose a
heat-curing 1-component adhesive, EC 2214 from 3M. Temperature range
This is an old, well known adhesive. The disadvantages -60 to +60C. At 60C, the adhesive has lost around 50%
of heat curing must be weighed against the advantages of its strength in respect of short-term loads. Creep strength
of not having to dose and mix adhesives. Furthermore, at this temperature is low.
as regards resistance to heat and environmental
stresses, the resultant bond is also stronger. Heat curing Durability/resistance: Good against petrol and mineral oil
gives a fully cured joint, something that can never be (SAE HD 30); otherwise moderate to poor. (Refer also to
achieved with a 2-component epoxy adhesive that has to the data sheets.)
cure at room temperature.
One-component epoxy adhesives are available as Work environment: Must be handled in such a way that
pastes and, in various thicknesses, films. The main the adhesive does not come into contact with the skin.
difference between film and paste adhesives is the ways Ventilation must be provided where handling is continuous.
in which they can be applied. Using epoxy adhesives, it is In Sweden, the use of epoxy adhesives is regulated by AFS
possible to fill joints that have large gaps. 1996:4, Hrdplaster (ordinance 1996:4 of the Swedish Work
Information about the various adhesives has largely Environment Authority, Thermosetting resins).
been taken from the manufacturers data sheets. As
Alternative suppliers
See under tested adhesive 2.
13
Function
Tested adhesive 2
Curing accelerates with temperature increases (it takes
EPOXY ADHESIVE ARALDIT AV 144, HARDENER
place slowly even at room temperature). The lowest curing
HV 997 temperature is 95C.
Components: 2 Curing times
95C 120 minutes, 120C 40 minutes (= best results),
Mixing ratios 204C 2 minutes
100:40 by weight. The mixing ratio should not be varied.
This adhesive is now available in packs that supply ready- Bondable materials
mixed adhesive direct from tubes or cartridges. The same as other epoxy adhesives, i.e. metals, minerals
and thermosetting resins. It should also be borne in mind
Function that the materials must tolerate the curing temperature.
Curing starts when the components are mixed. Pot life of a When bonding materials with different thermal expansion
100 gram batch at 23C is 50 70 minutes. coefficients, internal stresses may arise or, on cooling,
warping may occur.
Curing times
10C 24 hours, 20C 8 hours, 60C 45 minutes, Suitable areas of use
120C 5 minutes Primarily for bonding metals and other materials that have
Remark: Curing times are slightly shorter than for AV 106. equal thermal expansion coefficients. Uses include the bon-
Maintaining the same curing time, the curing temperature ding of body plates in the automotive industry and bonding
can be kept lower. cemented carbide tools in steel holders.
Bondable materials Strength
The same as for AV 106 Single lap joint, Al/Al, optimal curing:
-40C 21 N/mm2
Suitable areas of use 24C 35 N/mm2
The adhesive should be regarded as a development of AV 82C 35 N/mm2
106. All its properties are better than those of AV 106. The 121C 14 N/mm2
prime area of use is all-round bonding with metal as one or 177C 3.5 N/mm2
both of the materials. The adhesive is grey. The values are short-term at a tensile speed of 10 mm/
min.
Strength at room temperature
Single lap joint, AlMgSi alloy, ground surface: Peel strength
After curing at 20C for 24 hours 23 to 24 N/mm2 T-peel test with 0.9 mm steel sheet: approx. 9.5 N/mm2
After curing at 60C for 30 minutes 21 to 24 N/mm2 at 24C
After curing at 120C for 5 minutes 26 to 28 N/mm2
Temperature range
Peel strength -55 to +95C
Roller drum peel test: 6.0 6.5 N/mm2
Durability/resistance
Temperature range The same as that of the better of the 2-component epoxy
-60 to +80C, with approx. 50% of short-term strength adhesives
maintained at 80C
Work environment
Durability/resistance As there is no dosing and mixing of components with 1-com-
Considerably better than AV 106 throughout (refer also to ponent epoxies (the constituents of which also present a
the data sheets). lower vapour pressure), the health hazards are considered
to be less. However, it must be ensured that there is no
Work environment contact with the skin.
The same as for AV 106
Leverantrer av 2-komponent epoxilim: At curing, the air in the curing zone must be evacuated,
i.e. there should be underpressure in the curing oven.
Tested adhesive 3 Temperature rises increase the vapour pressure exerted by
EPOXY ADHESIVE EC 2214, 3M SWEDEN the adhesives constituents. This also increases the health
risks. See also AV 106.
14
When using epoxy, skin allergies are the greatest work
environment risk. For polyurethane adhesives, breathing Tested adhesive 4
difficulties and symptoms of asthma dominate the risks. In POLYURETHANE ADHESIVE CASCOBOND 1852,
the solvent-free 2-component adhesives now on the market, HARDENER 1853, CASCO NOBEL
the hardener is, as a rule, based on methylene diisocyanate
(MDI). This has a considerably lower vapour pressure than In practice, this adhesive has been replaced by 1849
toluene diisocyanate (TDI) types, and is thus less hazardous PUR 2K and hardener 1821. This combination gives
to work with. The occupational exposure limit for MDI and longer assembly times and shorter press times.
TDI is set as low as 0.005 ppm.
Components: 2
In Sweden, the use of polyurethane adhesives is regulated
by AFS 1996:4, Hrdplaster (ordinance 1996:4 of the Swe- Mixing ratios
dish Work Environment Authority, Thermosetting resins). 100:20 by weight (1849/1821, 100:22). The mixing ratio
must not be varied.
Polyurethane adhesives hardeners (isocyanates) react
readily with water. Carbonic acid is formed in this reaction. Function
This means that 2-component polyurethane adhesives Curing starts when the components are mixed. Mixing is not
always become fully cured if moisture is present. Surplus spontaneous and great care must be taken when dosing the
hardener that reacts with moisture makes the end product hardener into the adhesive. This adhesive has constituents
harder. However, this final curing takes a long time. When that have to take care of moisture before the hardener reacts
bonding diffusion-resistant materials and large surfaces (1 with any moisture. Normally, foaming as a result of carbonic
dm2 and above), it is not certain that this final curing will take acid formation does not have to be feared.
place. Thus, even for polyurethane adhesives, it is import
to dose and mix the components carefully. During storage, the adhesive component can sediment in
its packaging. Thus, for fully satisfactory results, stirring is
The hardeners moisture sensitivity means that many po- very important. The pot life of a 500 gram batch at 20C is
lyurethane adhesives have a slight foaming tendency when around 1 hour (approx. 25 minutes for 1849/1821).
mixed by hand. As there is normally some moisture in the
air in/on metal surfaces, such foaming can even occur in Curing times
the boundary layer. In more recent formulations of 2-com- At 20C, fixing times of approx. 12 16 hours are usually
ponent polyurethane adhesives, this foaming tendency has sufficient (around 3 4 hours for 1849/1821). It should be
been eliminated. noted that, at room temperature, full curing usually takes
several weeks and requires the presence of moisture.
The possibility of reacting with moisture has enabled the
formulation of 1-component polyurethane adhesives (e.g. Bondable materials
adhesive 6) that cure in moist environments. Here, the Hard PVC, polycarbonates and acrylic plastics are amongst
moisture is the curing agent (hardener). the thermoplasts that can be successfully bonded using
polyurethane adhesives. In sandwich structures, bonding
Curing temperature has less effect on the curing times of is between different cellular plastic cores.
polyurethane adhesives than it does on those of epoxy
adhesives. Curing temperatures as high as those for epoxy This adhesive adheres well to metals (aluminum included
adhesives cannot be used 70C is a practical upper limit. therein). Applies also to 1849/1821.
There are polyurethane adhesives that have very short cu-
ring times even at room temperature. However, once mixed, Suitable areas of use
the pot life of such an adhesive is also very short. In various sandwich structures and where a filled joint is
desired, often where plastics are involved. Polyurethane
Polyurethane adhesives have their widest use in the bon- adhesives can also be used for bonding corner joints in
ding of sandwich panels. frameworks made from profiles. They are also often used
when aluminum is to be bonded to other materials, e.g.
As a rule, polyurethane adhesives are considerably cheaper plastics.
than epoxy adhesives.
Strength
As regards use with plastics, polyurethane adhesives are, Single lap joint at 20C, tensile speed 10 mm/min:
broadly speaking, better than epoxy adhesives. This is be- Approx. 14 N/mm2 when bonding to aluminum
cause of the formers lower surface tension. They are often
used in various combinations that include plastics. Peel strength
T-peel test: Approx. 4.3 N/mm2
Using polyurethane adhesives, it is possible to fill joints that
have large gaps. Temperature range
-60C to approx + 80C
Before bonding with a 2-component polyurethane adhesive,
the application of a wash-primer (e.g. polyvinyl butyral + Durability/resistance
a phosphoric acid hardener) gives better filled surfaces Good against water, oil and certain solvents (refer also
and, consequently, improved long-term strength in moist to suppliers data sheets).
environments.
15
The application temperature for this adhesive type is high
Tested adhesive 5
(approx. 250C). At this temperature, the adhesive breaks
POLYURETHANE ELASTOMER SIKAFLEX 221 SIKA
down if it comes into contact with oxygen. Consequently,
SVERIGE
equipment for these adhesives is often provided with a
Components: 1 shielding gas.
Suitable areas of use Curing hot-melt adhesives are now available. These ad-
This is a very soft and elastic product. Less soft variants hesives are based on polyurethanes that cure on contact
of the product are available. For joints with little surface with moisture. The adhesive has a solid form even before
expansion and moderate requirements as regards load curing. The melt and, consequently, the application tem-
transmission, products of this type can be a good choice, perature is considerably lower than for the thermoplastic
especially where material movements are significant and/ hot-melt adhesives.
or there are high requirements in respect of impact and
vibration resistance. Because they exclude moisture, large There are also curing hot melts that, after application and
diffusion-resistant surfaces cannot be bonded. cooling, have a tape-like character for around one hour.
Thus, if a relatively high (momentary) press force can be
Strength Tensile strength is 1.4 N/mm2 applied, parts at room temperature can be assembled.
Remark Function
Sika has products that give similar final properties and The adhesive works like a hot melt, i.e. it is applied in its
can be heat cured (lowest at about 70C). There are also molten state and sets on cooling. The main difference
products that can be cured both with heat and moisture as compared with other hot melts is that, after setting, it also
well as 2-component products that cure after mixing. cures. The application temperature is relatively low, 100C
(as opposed to 200 250C for ordinary hot melts). As a
result, assembly times (i.e. the time before the adhesive
HOT-MELT ADHESIVES sets) are longer. Curing occurs on contact with moisture
For the most part, hot-melt adhesives (hot melts) are vari- in the air.
ous mixes of thermoplasts. Characteristically, hot melts must
be made runny at application. Many hot melts can be kept Curing times
molten for several hours at temperatures of between 150 The purely physical setting (cooling) depends on the thermal
and 250C. These adhesive are often ethyl-vinyl-acetate conductivity of the bonded materials. On aluminum, the
mixes. Despite the rather high application temperatures, setting time is about 10 seconds. To prolong the assembly
the heat resistance of these hot melts is low. It is unrealistic time when bonding aluminum to materials that have lower
to count on such adhesives being able to transmit loads, thermal conductivity, the adhesive should be applied to
even for moderate periods, if the temperature rises above the latter.
50C.
Curing depends on the presence of moisture. If the relative
There are also hot melts that are based on polyamides or air humidity is not too low and the diffusion paths not too
thermoplastic polyester. These thermoplasts have higher long, curing usually takes place within 12 hours. As with
service temperatures. However, strength when subjected other moisture-curing adhesives, curing times are long when
to long-term loads is already very low at 70 80C. bonding large diffusion-resistant surfaces.
16
Bondable materials Where a soft, rubber-like joint is required. As it does not
Aluminum and other metals, glass, thermosetting resins, depend on moisture for curing, this product enables the
PVC, polycarbonates, acrylics, woods, many rubbers, soft bonding of large surfaces.
PVC, etc.
Strength
Suitable areas of use Tensile strength, approx. 0.9 N/mm2; elongation at rupture,
Those where, for technical production reasons, hot melts approx. 100 %; hardness, approx. 55 Shore A
were the first choice but, because of their low heat resis-
tance, could not previously be used. The adhesive requires Temperature range
equipment that prevents it coming into contact with moisture. -30 to +70C
For test bonds, samples in metal tubes that can easily be
heated in an oven are often available. Durability/resistance
Excellent against water, moderate against oils
Strength
Single lap joint at 20C: Work environment
Al/Al, 7.4 N/mm2; PVC/PVC, 6 8 N/mm2; polycarbonates, Skin contact must be avoided.
9.4 N/mm2
SGA (SECOND GENERATION ACRYLIC) ADHESIVES
Peel strength
Ground rubber, 6 N/mm2 This adhesive type is characterised by the hardener being
Halogenated rubber, 13 N/mm2 spread on one surface and the adhesive on the other. Curing
Soft PVC, 10 N/mm2 to a handleable state occurs within one or several minutes.
This adhesive type is also very tolerant of oil on surfaces.
Temperature range Adhesive and hardener must be spread on their respective
At 70C, about 50% of the strength at room temperature. surfaces in such a way that they almost completely overlap
At 100C, approx. 2 N/mm2. each other when brought together. Uncured adhesive will
otherwise be left at the joints edges. The adhesive is best
For structures that are constantly loaded at elevated tem- suited for small to moderately large surfaces.
peratures, the creep strength should be investigated. This adhesive type is also available in 2-component
packs with a mixer tube. The adhesive emerges mixed
Durability/resistance and air-free directly from the packs. Curing times are then
When bonding anodized aluminum, water resistance is usually set to be a little longer.
good. Resistance to other media contact Bostik. As regards work environment, this adhesive type
requires contactless handling and good ventilation. The
Work environment components have a strong smell.
The adhesive contains isocyanates. In Sweden, work is
regulated by AFS 1996:4, Hrdplaster (ordinance 1996:4 Tested adhesive 8
of the Swedish Work Environment Authority, Thermoset- SGA ADHESIVE MULTIBOND 330, LOCTITE
ting resins).
Components
POLYSULPHIDE RUBBERS Two, which are spread separately, i.e. adhesive and har-
dener on their own surfaces.
Besides polyurethane, polysulphide rubber is one of the few
rubber materials that can be made to cure at room tempe- Function
rature and, at the same time, adhere to other materials. Its There is a very fast reaction when the adhesive and har-
widest use is in the manufacture of insulating glazing where dener come into contact. The press force needs to be
bonding is to aluminum profiles and as a joint compound in maintained between 1 and 3 minutes.
cladding elements (e.g. aluminum sections in buildings). The Curing times
material has low strength, but large elongation at rupture. Fifty percent strength is reached in around 20 30 minutes.
Full strength is achieved after 3 6 hours.
Tested adhesive 7
Bondable materials
POLYSULPHIDE RUBBER NAFTOTHERM M82 METALL-
Aluminum and other metals, glass, PVC, polystyrenes,
GESELLSCHAFT/YTTEKNIK
polycarbonates, acrylics, thermosetting resins
Components: 2 Suitable areas of use
Mixing ratios Small to moderately large bonding surfaces where short
100:10 by weight. Pot life is approx. 1 2 hours. fixing times and high impact and peel strengths are required.
Function On lightly oiled surfaces that cannot be cleaned.
Curing starts when the components are mixed. Strength
Curing times Single lap joint: Al/Al (AlCuMg alloys), 20 25 N/mm2; PVC/
Around 8 12 hours at room temperature PVC, 8.5 14 N/mm2
Bondable materials
Aluminum and other metals, minerals, thermosetting
resins
Peel strength
Suitable areas of use 17
T-peel test, Al/Al: 2.5 3.5 N/mm2 ions for curing.
Development of these locking fluids has been rapid
Temperature range and the group now has products that act as adhesives.
-40 to +100C. At 75C, about 70% of the strength at room The original curing system (air free + metal ions) has been
temperature remains. complemented by products that cure using ultraviolet light,
heat or activator.
Durability/resistance Anaerobic adhesives are suitable for small to moderately
Good against water and oils (contact the supplier for further large surfaces. They are widely used in the electronics indu-
details). stry. Anaerobic adhesives are not so suitable for plastics.
Test Methods
The most common test method is the single lap joint. This Adhesive strength is given in N/mm2, which is an ex-
most often provides the basis for adhesive suppliers data pression of average stress. Locally, there are both higher
sheets. The test is illustrated in fig. 15. and lower stresses in the joint. The stiffer the adhesive that
is used, the higher the stress peaks the test returns at the
25
edges (see Joint design).
1,6 The test is normally performed against aluminum. Ho-
wever, apart from the adhesive itself, it is not always stated
12,5
which materials make up the bonded joint. Because harder
140 materials normally give higher strength values for the joint,
this absence of information raises further questions.
Figure 15: Standard shear test, ASTM D 1002-99
18
The tensile speed when the test load is exerted is of great testing usually reveals clear differences between different
significance for the measured results. Before 1994, a con- adhesives and pretreatments.
stant tensile speed of 10 mm per minute was used. This At the conclusion of testing, the bonded joint is taken
gave short test times, but no idea of creep resistance in apart and the types of failure that have occurred are ana-
the joint. lysed. With heat-curing epoxy adhesives on pretreated
A tensile speed of 1.3 mm per minute is now used. aluminum, there is most often a cohesive failure (failure
However, this also does not give an idea of the adhesives in the adhesive) in the first five millimetres. The longer the
creep resistance. Where the adhesive is to be exposed to a crack then grows, the greater the ratio of boundary layer
constant load at elevated temperatures, data on the joints failures that arise.
creep strength must be compiled. This method has been used by the Institute for Metallic
As intimated in The effect of the service environment, Construction Materials at Chalmers University of Techno-
the composite stress exerted by temperature, environment logy to investigate the long-term strength of bonded joints to
and load is the only realistic test. aluminum that has undergone various pretreatments (refs.
In cyclic testing (water soaking-freezing-drying) of an 2 and 5). Such testing can be comparative or used as a
object, the thermal movements and the taking up of water production check (e.g. production parameters checking
induce stresses in the joint. This induced stress arises more of pretreatment baths, etc.).
rapidly than with soaking alone. Table 5 on page 18 shows, The method can be modified so that it is suitable for use
amongst other things, the results of this test carried out on with other materials bonded to aluminum.
the adhesives tested by Sapa Technology.
Storage in 100% humidity at 60C can give a quicker
idea of any degradation of the joint than can corresponding
storage in water.
The wedge cleavage test (ASTM D 3762-98) is com-
paratively easy to carry out and does not require special
equipment. This test enables load, environment and tem-
perature stresses to be combined.
Bonded test pieces are prepared (see fig. 16). When
the bond has cured, a 3 mm thick wedge is pressed into
one end of the test piece. The initial crack formed at the a a
wedge tip is marked out. Next, the test pieces are exposed
to 100% RH at 60C for 60 75 minutes. Crack propagation
Figure 16: Wedge cleavage test, ASTM D 3762-98
is then marked and measured again. This can be repea-
ted throughout the period available for testing. A week of
References
(1) Durability of Structural Adhesives (7) Handbook of Aluminum
A.J. Kinloch (editor), Applied Science Publishers Bonding Technology and Data
London (1983), ISBN 0-85334-214-8. J. Dean Minford. Marcel Dekker Inc, NY, Basel,
(2) Frbehandling fr limning mot aluminum Hong Kong, 1993 (744 sidor, 4686 referenser)
Tore Rnnhult och Bengt Nilssor, Institutionen fr ISBN 0-8247-8817-6.
Metalliska Konstruktions-material, Chalmers Tekniska (8) Adhesion in Bonded Alurninium
Hgskola, Gteborg (1982). Joints for Aircraft Construction,
(3) Effect of Surface Preparations on W. Brockmann, O-D Henneman, H. Kollek och C.
Adhesive Bonding of Aluminum, Matz. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesi-
J.D. Minford, Adhesives Age, July 1974. ves,.6(3), July 1986.
19
Tests of a few selected adhesives
Sapa Technology tested a number of different adhesives Test data
on aluminum that had either been ground or anodized in Tensile speed, 10 mm/min at 20C
sulphuric acid and then sealed.
For each of these two pretreatments, ten different adhe- Alloy condition
sives were tested. Some of the adhesives were comparati- SS 4104-06
vely common epoxy adhesives, others were chosen to give
a more rubber-like joint. These adhesives are presented in Surface treatments
more detail in the Choice of adhesive chapter. Anodizing in sulphuric acid + subsequent sealing (car-
After full curing, the adhesives were subjected to soaking ried out by Sapa). Washing in warm water to which Can-
or cyclical variations (moisture, cold, heat) and then tested. doeleane Al had been added, rinsing and drying before
The results were compared with reference samples stored bonding.
in dry air at 20C. Grinding with abrasive nylon (Scotch-Brite 7447, 3M
The test results are shown in table 5 on page 18. Sverige).
Pretreatment Results
The cladding is rich in magnesium. After vacuum soldering Sealed, durable fixing of the stub ends of the radiator
of the radiator unit, magnesium oxides make up most of units pipes. The adhesives thermal expansion coefficient
the surface. Even if it is clean, this is not a suitable sur- matches that of the plastic. Thus, variations in temperature
face to bond to if there is moisture/water in the service do not present problems.
environment.
Disadvantages
Radiator unit: Alkaline pickling + chromating (trials with a Comparatively long curing time at 130C; requires large
chromate-free alternative are in progress). Polyamide tank: oven capacity for large series.
Manufactured without release agents and not pretreated.
Remarks
When used as a component in vehicle production, any faults
have very serious consequences. For this reason, tested
methods and components are preferred to others that might,
for example, give shorter curing times.
21
Example 2 outside planking (boat)
Profilen is a tonne sailing boat that is some 10 metres to the preceding, underlying profile. The adhesive is now
long. It is built of extruded aluminum profiles (alloy AA 6063) available in a double cartridge that delivers ready-mixed
developed by Sapa. and air-free adhesive direct from the pack.
To make the boat rigid and watertight, the profiles are bon- The overlying profile is then fitted within 60 minutes and
ded to each other. secured by clamps. Curing takes place at room temperature
and lasts at least 16 minutes.
As with wooden boats, the skins of boats of this type are built
plank by plank. This requires an adhesive that gives long Results
handling times and which is able to fill comparatively large The first bonded sailing boat has competed successfully
gaps. The adhesive must cure at room temperature. in races and, during the period it was checked (around 10
years), remained perfectly watertight.
The service environment is the normal one for many bo-
ats water (often salt) in the summer and dry and cold in Disadvantages
the winter. The comparatively long curing time means that no more than
one plank per side can be bonded per 24 hour period.
Pretreatment
The profiles are anodized in sulphuric acid and then sealed. Alternative adhesives
A Sapa facility anodises the profiles in full lengths. Trans- The thick, hard, post-sealed, sulphuric acid anodizing can-
port, cutting and bending must then be carried out in a way not, without breaking, transmit high loads for a long time in
that causes the least possible fouling. This is because ef- corrosive environments. Softer adhesives could, therefore,
ficient cleaning of these long profiles is difficult to achieve be interesting.
simply. (Wiping with a rag and solvent does not remove all
contaminants.) Tests using polyurethane type rubber adhesives (adhesive
no. 5) and polysulphide (adhesive no. 7) were carried out
Adhesive in parallel with the epoxy adhesive actually used. The tests
Two-component, rubber-modified, slow curing epoxy adhe- were conducted on loaded joints in a brine environment.
sive (adhesive no. 2 in table 5).
Remarks
Bonding procedure Heat curing is not possible. Adhesives that cure more quickly
The adhesive used to be mixed in a suitable quantity for the at room temperature reduce the handling tolerances and
profile that was to be bonded. It was then applied as bead give poorer results.
Example 2: Profilen, a tonne sailing boat built from bonded, extruded aluminum profiles
22
Example 3 hatch for pleasure boats
Hatches (vents) for pleasure boats are made from aluminum better adhesion to plastic than does, for example, an acetic
profiles and 10 mm thick, smoked, acrylic plastic sheet. acid curing system.
Before assembly, the aluminum profiles are bent, welded The adhesive is very elastic with an elongation at rupture of
and anodized. around 500% and a breaking stress as low as 1 N/mm2.
The adhesive bond is exposed to its greatest loads at low After curing, a scalpel is used to cut away excess silicon.
temperatures. Here, because of the different coefficients
of thermal expansion, the acrylic glass window shrinks in Results
relation to the aluminum frame. The forces that arise are A sealed, elastic joint with good adhesion. The joint is elastic
on a par with each materials yield strength. even in the cold.
Example 3: Aluminum frame and acrylic glass for a boat hatch (before bonding)
23
Example 4 sandwich panels
Sandwich panels with an aluminum covering floor plate and Adhesive
a PVC cellular plastic core. Two-component polyurethane with an open time after
application of at least 45 minutes. The adhesive employed
The panels are used as floors in refrigerated vehicles. They resembles no. 4 in table 4.
can measure up to 2.4 x 15 metres and are made individually
for each vehicle. Bonding procedure
The adhesive used to be spread on both the core material
Panel and bonded joint must withstand temperatures of and the covering plate. This ensured, amongst other things,
from -40C to +80C. The high temperatures may arise on that the open time before application of press force was
internal washing. considerably extended.
Loads are exerted by cargoes and various fastening devi- The adhesive is applied using a hand applicator (roller
ces. They occur as vibrations, torsional stresses, impacts with reservoir). Nowadays, the adhesive is spread on only
during driving and static creep stresses while the vehicle one of the materials. Spreading is in tight beads, normally
is stationary. Not least, thermal movements are important. using automatic application equipment.
It is required that the adhesive must, in all positions, be
stronger than the core material and that it does not release A vacuum is used to apply pressing force. The panels are
contact. built up on a flat surface and are covered by a rubber sheet,
from beneath which the air is evacuated. Per m2, the press
Making panels of this size demands that the adhesive has a force is around 8 tonnes. This was usually held for 12 16
reasonably long open time. The adhesive should also have hours. With currently used adhesives of this type, the press
good filling properties. force need only be applied for 3 4 hours. The open time
is at least as long and may even be longer.
Pretreatment
At manufacture, the core material is calibrated in a cutter Results
and protected throughout transport and storage. No other A rigid panel that meets the imposed strength require-
pretreatment is undertaken. ments.
Adhesive
Two-component, rubber modified epoxy adhesive that
is moderately runny before setting at room temperature
(similar to adhesive no. 2 in table 4).
Bonding procedure
Using a toothed spreader, an approximately 1 mm thick
layer of adhesive is applied to 100 mm of the aluminum
sheets width. The honeycomb material is placed in a simple
wooden fixture.
Hexagonal pencils and rubber bands are used to fix the
adhesive-coated sheets to the honeycomb side.
25
Example 6 body panels for buses
Bus/coach bodies comprise a steel skeleton to which a Alternative adhesives
shell of aluminum cladding panels is added. Previously, Double-sided sticky tape (double-sided PSA tape) approx.
the panels were fitted using blind rivets. To distribute loads 1 mm thick and built up entirely of an adhesive compound
more evenly and minimise the number of rivets, adhesive is also used for this purpose.
bonding is now used. 2-component, acrylic rubber adhesives mixed or with
Moisture is the main environmental stress and the struc- a separately spread hardener.
ture must withstand temperatures of from -40 to +70C.
The loads are moderate. However, the panels must remain Remarks
in place in all positions. There are also 1-component polyurethane adhesives that
A design that uses sheet metal panels in this way re- give similar final properties. They cure in heat (min. 70C)
quires an adhesive that has good peel strength. or are applied hot (approx. 80 90C). After cooling for
around 1 hour, they have mastic-tape properties. Moisture
Pretreatment - The steel structure is degreased and primed.
is then responsible for final curing.
The aluminum panels are either primed or chromated.
Adhesive - One-component, moisture-curing, polyurethane
elastomer (gives a rubber-like joint resembling adhesive 5
in table 4).
Bonding procedure
The adhesive is applied to the steel structure; the panels
are lifted into place and fixed with the necessary number of
blind rivets (at least two per panel). Each panel is pressed
lightly against the adhesive so that there is contact with no
appreciable springback.
Thanks to air moisture, the adhesive cures to sufficient
strength in around 24 hours.
Results - With good peel strength, a rubber-like bonded
joint that deforms elastically and does not give rise to stress
concentrations.
Disadvantages Example 6: Coach with bonded cladding panels and glass windows.
Relatively long curing time if relative air humidity is low.
26
Example 8 aircraft
Aluminum in aircraft is largely joined using adhesives. Pro- Remarks
duction is meticulously controlled and all adhesive bonds Bonded joints delivering the performance and quality re-
are checked using, amongst other things, ultrasound. The quired of structural bonds in aircraft cannot be achieved
adhesive bonds have to withstand: very low temperatures in a simpler way.
without becoming brittle; and, at high temperatures, large
loads without creeping. They must be of an even and set
thickness and must also be free of air bubbles.
Pretreatment
Automated anodizing in phosphoric acid without subsequent
sealing. This is followed by drying in clean air and immediate
coating with a primer that is suitable for the adhesive. Long
used in Europe, anodizing in chromic acid also occurs. As
this leaves a more even surface, priming can then some-
times be omitted. Pure, clean cotton wool gloves must be
worn for any contact with the pretreated surfaces.
Adhesive
Epoxy-based adhesive films are the most common. Even
joint thickness is assured by the film format. Modification
through the use of rubber (for peel strength) or phenol (for
heat resistance) additives occurs. Load conditions deter-
mine the choice of adhesive.
Bonding procedure
All bonds of a structural nature are pressed and cured in
an autoclave at a press force of 1 3 N/mm2 at a tempe-
rature of 125 175C for 30 90 minutes (depending on
adhesive type).
Results
Aircraft that do not fall apart!
Disadvantages
Comprehensive programme of checks for the anodizing
bath. Length of curing time and the comparatively high
curing temperatures.
Alternative adhesives
Adhesive films based on phenolic nitrile are also used.
These were the first adhesives designed for use in the
aircraft industry (used since the 1940s).
Example 8: Saab 340 being assembled
27
Example 9 bonded brake linings
Brake linings on cast aluminum shoes. Alternative adhesives
The bonding of brake linings requires a joint that has Dried but not cured adhesive films are now available. These
very good heat resistance. can be placed dry between the surfaces. They are then
Pretreatment melted and cured in the same way.
An abrasive is used to lightly grind the friction material.
The aluminum shoes are blasted with sand or aluminum Remarks
oxide. Adhesive films for this use are a recent innovation and
should be regarded as providing an improvement in the
Adhesive work environment.
A phenolic-nitrile solution that is applied to both joint surfa-
ces and is allowed to dry completely.
Bonding procedure
The dry, adhesive-coated surfaces are put together and
subjected to pressure. They are then heated in an oven. As
the adhesive melts, it wets the surfaces. With the press force
maintained and continued heating, the adhesive cures.
Depending on the heat-resistance requirements placed
on the bond, curing temperatures and times can vary from
a few minutes at 120C to several hours at 180C.
Results
Brake linings that are securely attached, but the heat resis-
tance of which depends on curing time and temperature.
Disadvantages
As always when handling solvents, workplaces must be
well ventilated and the management of extracted vapours Example 9: Bonded brake linings
must be approved and checked.
Example 11: Bonded corner structure made from extruded aluminum profiles
29
Example 12 glass windows with aluminum frames
Windows for vehicles (buses, trains, loaders, trucks, etc.) Disadvantages
are made from extruded aluminum profiles and glass. Alu- The smell and work environment considerations associated
minum locks and fittings are bonded to the glass. Thermal with this adhesive type mean that work has to be carried
movements and service environments require an adhesive out in very well ventilated areas.
that does not become too hard and that, in wet environme- For the joint to cure at all points, the adhesive and har-
nts, does not lose adhesion with the glass. dener should be spread so that, on assembly, they always
The rather large production volumes mean that short come into complete contact with each other.
fixing times are desirable.
Alternative adhesives
Pretreatment Mixed acrylic rubber adhesives.
None. The chosen adhesive type is very tolerant of oil. One and two-component silicon adhesives. However,
these adhesives have considerably longer (hours) fixing
Adhesive times and give a softer joint.
SGA adhesive (acrylic rubber adhesives, correspond to
adhesive no. 8 in table 4). Remarks
Adhesives of this type are available in double cartridges that
Bonding procedure contain both hardener and adhesive. On being squeezed
The hardener is spread on the glass and the adhesive is out, the components pass through a mixing nozzle. This
spread inside the aluminum profile. Fixing/pressing takes avoids the need to apply to both surfaces. The risk of un-
around 5 minutes. cured adhesive also disappears.
Results
An elastic, strong joint that, both for mechanical loads and
for forces arising from thermal movements, gives excellent
stress distribution.
Example 12: Glass vehicle windows with aluminum frames and handles
30
The information in this text was considered correct at the time of publication. However, Sapa accepts no
legal liability for the correctness or completeness of any of said information.
31
Sapa Profiles, Inc.
Sapa Extrusions
Address 7933 NE 21st Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97211 USA
32
www.sapagroup.com/us/profiles