Lecture Notes Basic Mathematics: Part 01 Jun 2017

Mathematics & Statistics for Managers: Part 01

1 Number System
We denote the set of integers by Z: {..., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
The system Z has two basic operations of addition and multiplication and these operations satisfy
the following properties.
1. Closure Law for Addition: For all a, b Z, a + b Z.
2. Associative Law for Addition: For all a, b, c Z, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
3. Commutative Law for Addition: For all a, b Z, a + b = b + a.
4. Identity for Addition: There exists 0 Z such that for all a Z, 0 + a = a.
5. Inverses under Addition: For all a Z there exists a Z such that a + (a) = 0.
6. Closure Law for Multiplication: For all a, b Z, ab Z.
7. Associative Law for Multiplication: For all a, b, c Z, (ab)c = a(bc).
8. Commutative Law for Multiplication: For all a, b Z, ab = ba.
9. Identity for Multiplication: There exists 1 Z such that 1 = 0 and, for all a Z, 1a = a.
10. Distributive Law: For all a, b, c Z, a(b + c) = ab + ac.
11. Cancellation Law: For all a, b, c Z, ab = 0 implies that a = 0 or b = 0.
In addition to the two binary operations the system Z has a subset N satisfying the following proper-
ties. This is the set {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} and it is called the set of natural numbers.
1. For all a, b N, ab N.
2. For all a Z, exactly one of a and a belongs to N.
3. For all a N, a + 1 N.
4. If S is a subset of N and:
(a) 0 S and
(b) a S implies that a + 1 S
then S = N.
We call the non-zero elements of N positive. All other numbers, except for zero, are called negative.
So, there are three basic sets of numbers according to this classification:
{negative numbers}, {0}, {positive numbers}.
Theorem 1.1. Principle of Induction: Suppose S(n) is a statement depending on some parameter n N. If
S(0) is true and for all n, S(n) implies S(n + 1), then S(n) is true for all n.
An integer m divides and integer n if n = mq for some integer q. We write this as m|n. Equivalently
we can say that n is a multiple of m.
When two numbers differ by a multiple of m they will leave the same remainder when you divide
by m and we say that they are congruent modulo m. The number m is called the modulus. If two
numbers are congruent modulo m, they are the same in some sense, even if they are not exactly the
same. So we use a variation on the equals sign. We write a b. But the modulus is important so we
write a b(mod m).
We therefore have lots of different ways of saying the same thing:

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Lecture Notes Basic Mathematics: Part 01 Jun 2017

a b(mod m),

a = b + mq for some q Z,

m|(ab),

a, b leave the same remainder when divided by m.

If the remainder is zero then m divides n. We denote the set of divisors of n by D(n) and the set of
multiples of n by nZ. The set of common divisors of m, n is simply D(m) D(n).
Suppose m, n are non-zero integers. Then D(m) D(n) is finite. An element of this set of largest
absolute value is called a greatest common divisor of m, n.
Let m and n be integers. We say that the positive integer l is the least common multiple of m and
n, if

1. l is a multiple of both m and n,

2. if l is a positive multiple of both m and n then l l .

We define a positive number to be prime if it has exactly 2 positive divisors. Note that this rules out
1. Numbers that are not prime, other than the three special numbers -1, 0, and 1, are called composite.
There are four basic sets of numbers according to this classification:

{0}, {1}, {prime numbers}, {composite numbers}.

A fraction is an expression of the form mn . The number on the top is called the numerator and the
number on the bottom is called the denominator. When the numerator and denominator are integers,
we call the fraction a rational number. The rational number set is denoted by Q. The irrational
numbers can not be represented in the form of m n , where m and n are integers and prime to each
other. The irrational number set is denoted by I. Collection of both rational and irrational numbers
constructs the set called real numbers. The real number set is donated by R.
To solve the problem of certain quadratic equations having no solution we invent the number i
with the property that i = 1. All the numbers of the form z = a + bi are called complex numbers
2

where a, b are real. These are made up of two parts, a real (Re(z) = a)and an imaginary number
(Im(z) = b). Geometric interpretation of complex number is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Complex plane.

The coordinates of the point that represents a complex number are its real and imaginary parts.
But theres another set of coordinates that is useful in many contexts polar coordinates. If r is the
distance of the point P (x, y) from the origin and is the angle between OP and the positive x-axis (O

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Lecture Notes Basic Mathematics: Part 01 Jun 2017

being the origin) then x = r cos() and y = r sin(). The polar coordinates of the point are (r, ). If this
point represents the complex number z = x + iy the modulus of z is defined to be r and the argument
of z is defined to be . We denote
the modulus of z by |z| and the argument of z by Arg(z).
If z = x + iy then |z| = x + y 2 and x = r cos(), y = r sin() where r = |z| and = Arg(z).
2

Theorem 1.2. If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then |z1 .z2 | = |z1 |.|z2 |.
The conjugate of the complex number z = x + iy is z = x iy. Geometrically its the mirror image
of z in the real axis.
Theorem 1.3. For a complex number z, z z = z2 and z + z = 2Re(z).
Theorem 1.4. For all complex numbers z1 , z2 , z:

z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 ;
z1 z2 = z1 z2 ;
z = z;
1 z
= .
z z2
Theorem 1.5. If the complex number z is a solution of the polynomial equation

an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a1 x + a0 = 0

and a0 , a1 , ..., an are all real then z is also a solution.

If z = x + iy and the modulus of z is r and the argument is then z = r cos() + ir sin() =
r(cos() + i sin()). Sometimes we abbreviate cos() + i sin() to cis(), so z = rcis(). This is called
the polar form.
Theorem 1.6. cis(1 + 2 ) = cis(1 ).cis(2 ).
Theorem 1.7. De Moivres Theorem (cos() + i sin())n = cos(n) + i sin(n) for all integer n.
( )
Theorem 1.8. The n-th roots of rcis(), for r > 0 are r1/n cis +2k
n for k = 0, 1, ..., n 1.

2 Basic Algebraic Identities, Operations, & Equations

Theorem 2.1. For all real numbers x, y:

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 ;
(x y)2 = x2 2xy + y 2 ;
x2 y 2 = (x y)(x + y);
x3 y 3 = (x y)(x2 + xy + y 2 );
x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 xy + y 2 ).
a
Theorem 2.2. If a, b, c and d are numbers such that b and d are non-zero and b = dc , then

a+b c+d
= ;
b d
ab cd
= ;
b d
a a + kb c + kd
For k = , = ;
b a kb c kd
b a a + kc
For k = , = .
d b b + kd

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Lecture Notes Basic Mathematics: Part 01 Jun 2017

A linear equation (in one variable) has the form ax + b = c. If a = 0 we can solve for x, and there
is just one solution.
A quadratic equation has the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c are constants (real numbers) and
where a = 0. A common way to solve a quadratic is to factorize the left-hand side.

Theorem 2.3. If b2 4ac 0, the solution to the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 are:

b b2 4ac
x=
2a
Theorem 2.4. If and are the roots of the quadratic ax2 + bx + c then:

b c
+ = and = .
a a
A surd is a square root, cube root etc. An equation involving surds can often be solved by squaring,
or raising to some other power, both sides of the equation to get rid of the surds. But beware! In the
process of squaring we may pick up solutions that do not satisfy the original equation.

3 Logarithm & Exponents

If x is any number, and n is a positive integer, we define the n-th power of x by xn .

Theorem 3.1. Index Laws: For all integers m, n and all real numbers x, y we have:

(xm )n = xmn ;
1
xn = n ;
x
(xy)n = xn y n ;
xm xn = xm+n .

If b > 1, the logarithm of x to the base b is defined to be that power of b which exactly equals x. It
is written logb x.

Theorem 3.2. For all b, c, x, y with b, c > 0:

logb (xy) = logb x + logb y;

( )
x
logb = logb x logb y;
y
logb (xy ) = y. logb x;
logc x
logb x = .
logc b

4 Geometry
The Euclidean plane, E, is defined by following rules or axioms

1. For any two distinct points there is exactly one line which contains them both.

2. To any two distinct points there corresponds a unique positive number. The unique positive
number corresponding to a pair of distinct points is called the distance between the points. The
distance between a point and itself is defined to be 0. The distance between any two points A
and B is denoted d(A, B) or |AB|.

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Lecture Notes Basic Mathematics: Part 01 Jun 2017

3. The points on a line can be placed into a one to one correspondence with the real numbers
such that the distance between two points is the absolute value of the difference between their
corresponding numbers.

An angle is the union of two rays having a common end point which are not contained in a single
line. The rays are called the sides of the angle and the common endpoint is called the vertex of the

angle. If the two sides of an angle are AB and AC we denote this angle as BAC. To each angle there
corresponds a unique real number strictly between 0 and 180.
A and B are called supplementary, if |A| + |B| = 180.
A and B are called complementary, if |A| + |B| = 90.
If A, B, C are non-collinear points then the union of the segments AB, BC, CA is called a triangle
and denoted ABC, i.e. ABC = AB BC CA. The segments AB, BC, CA are called the sides of
the triangle. The angles of the triangle ABC are BAC, ABC, and ACB.
In triangles ABC and A B C , if AB A B , BC B C , CA C A , A A , B
B , and C C then we say that triangle ABC and A B C are congruent triangles and write

ABC A B C .
If AB A B , BC B C , and B B then ABC A B C .
A polygon is any figure consisting entirely of segments A1 A2 , A2 A3 , ..., An1 An , An A1 having the
property that no two of these segments intersect except at their endpoints as specified, and no two
segments that intersect are collinear. The segments Ai Aj are called the sides of the polygon and the
points A1 , A2 , An are called its vertices.

obtuse angle: an angle whose measure is greater than 90

acute angle: an angle whose measure is less than 90

adjacent angles: two angles that share a common ray

isosceles triangle: a triangle with two congruent angles

equilateral triangle: a triangle with three congruent sides

scalene triangle: a triangle in which no two sides are congruent

quadrilateral: a polygon with exactly four sides

trapezoid: a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides

isosceles trapezoid: a trapezoid having two angles that share one of the sides in the parallel pair

parallelogram: a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides

rectangle: a quadrilateral with four congruent angles

rhombus: a quadrilateral with four congruent sides

square: a quadrilateral that is both a rectangle and a rhombus

regular polygon: a polygon with n sides having all sides and all angles congruent

Circle: a figure consisting of all points that are a fixed positive distance r from a given point O.
We if A is a point on the circle with center O and radius r we designate this circle as OA and write
| OA| = r.

center: the point O in the definition of a circle.

radius: any segment having the center and a point on the circle as endpoints. The length of any
radius is also referred to as the radius of the circle.

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circle congruence: two circles are congruent if and only if their radii are the same length. Every
circle is congruent to itself.

chord: a segment connecting two distinct points on a circle.

diameter: a chord that contains the center. The length of any diameter is also called the diameter
of the circle.

tangent: a line that intersects a circle at exactly one point.

tangent circles: two circles that intersect at exactly one point.

central angle: an angle whose vertex is the center of a given circle.

arc: the set of points on a circle that are in the interior of or on a central angle or the set of points
on a circle that are in the exterior of or on a central angle.

measure of an arc: the measure of the corresponding central angle if the arc is in the interior of
the central angle and 360 minus the measure of the central angle otherwise.

References
Lial, M.L., Hornsby, J. and McGinnis, T. (2012). Begining and Intermediate Algebra, Addison-
Wesley.

McKeague, C.P. (2008). Elementary and Intermediate Algebra, Thomsom.

Kaufmann, J.E. and Schwitters, K.L. (2012). Elementary and Intermediate Algebra, Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.

www.sosmath.com.

www.mathportal.org.

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