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Chapter Two
Solar Photovoltaic Technology
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Chapter Two
Solar Photovoltaic Technology

2.1 Introduction

Photovoltaic offer consumers the ability to generate electricity in a

clean, quiet and reliable way. Photovoltaic systems are comprised of
photovoltaic cells, devices that convert light energy directly into

electricity. Because the source of light is usually the sun, they are often
called solar cells. The word photovoltaic comes from “photo” meaning
light and “voltaic” which refers to producing electricity. Therefore, the

photovoltaic process is “producing electricity directly from sunlight.

Photovoltaic are often referred to as PV [1].

This chapter discusses the fundamentals of PV cells and modeling of

a PV cell using an equivalent electrical circuit. The models are

implemented using MATLAB and Psim (Power simulation) software to
study PV characteristics and simulate a real PV module.

2.2 Photovoltaic Cell

Solar cells are made from semiconductor materials (pn junction,

usually silicon), which are specially treated to from an electric field,

positive on one side (backside) and negative on the other (towards the sun).
When solar energy (photons) hits the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose
from the atoms in the semiconductor material, creating electron-hole pairs.

If electrical conductors are then attached to the positive and negative sides,
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forming an electrical circuit, the electrons are captured in the form of

electric current Iph (photocurrent).

Figure (2.1): Photovoltaic cell [2].

A typical PV cell made of crystalline silicon is 12 centimeters in

diameter and 0.25 millimeters thick. In full sunlight, it generates 4 amperes

of direct current at 0.5 volts or 2 watts of electrical power[2].

2.2.1 Types of photovoltaic cells

There are essentially two types of PV technology, crystalline and

thin-film. Crystalline can again be classified into two types:

Mono crystalline Cells: These are made using cells cut from a single

cylindrical crystal of silicon. While mono crystalline cells offer the

highest efficiency (approximately 18% conversion of incident
sunlight), their complex manufacturing process makes them slightly

more expensive.

Polycrystalline Cells: These are made by cutting micro-fine wafers
from ingots of molten and recrystallized silicon. Polycrystalline cells

are cheaper to produce, but there is a slight compromise on efficiency

(approximately 14% conversion of incident sunlight).
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Thin film PV is made by depositing an ultrathin layer of photovoltaic

material onto a substrate. The most common type of thin-film PV is made
from the material a-Si (amorphous silicon), but numerous other materials

such as CIGS (copper indium/gallium selenide) CIS (copper indium

selenide), CdTe (Cadmium Teluride) [3].

The efficiency of this type varies approximately in the range from

2%- 10%.

a) mono-crystalline PV b) poly-crystalline PV c) amorphous PV

Figure (2.2): The main industrialized PV technologies [3].

2.3 Modeling of Photovoltaic Module by Matlab Simulink and Psim

The use of equivalent electric circuits makes it possible to model

characteristics of a PV cell. The method used here is implemented in

MATLAB and PSIM programs for simulations. The same modeling
technique is also applicable for modeling a PV module.

2.3.1 Ideal cell

Solar cells consist of a p-n junction fabricated in thin wafer or layer

of semiconductors, whose electrical characteristics differ very little from a
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diode represented by the equation of Shockley. Thus the simplest

equivalent circuit of a solar cell is a current source in parallel with a diode
as shown in Figure (2.2). The output of the current source is directly

proportional to the light falling on the cell (photocurrent IPV, cell) .So the
process of modeling this solar cell can be developed based on equation
(2.1), (2.2) and (2.3):

Figure (2.3): Equivalent model of a photovoltaic cell [4].

(2.1)

Where:

 IPV, cell: the current generated by the incident light.

 I diode: the Shockley diode equation.
 I0, cell [A]: the reverse saturation or leakage current of the diode [A].
 q: the electron charge [1.60217646 ・ 10−19C].
 k: the Boltzmann constant [1.3806503 ・ 10−23J/K].

 T [K]: the temperature of the p-n junction.

 : the diode ideality factor which lies between 1 and 2 for mono
crystalline silicon.
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The basic equation (2.1) of the elementary PV does not represent the
I-V characteristic of practical PV module. Practical module are composed
of several connected PV cells requires the inclusion of additional

parameters Rs and Rp is the equivalent series resistance of the module

and the equivalent parallel resistance respectively, with these parameters
equation (2.1) becomes equation (2.2).

(2.2)

The light-generated current of the array depends linearly on solar

irradiation and is also influenced by temperature according to equation

(2.3).

(2.3)

Where:

(in amperes): the light-generated current at the nominal condition

(usually 25 ◦C and 1000 W/m2).

∆T =T − Tn (T and Tn being the actual and nominal temperatures [in

Kelvin], respectively)

KI: the Temperature coefficient of ISC.

G: the irradiance (W/m²).

Gn: the irradiance at standard operating conditions.

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The diode saturation current I0 dependence on temperature can be

expressed as shown in equation (2.4).

(2.4)

Where:

: the band gap energy of the semiconductor .

: the nominal saturation current expressed by (2.5).

: the nominal saturation current expressed by equation

(2.5)

From equation (2.4) and (2.5) I0 can be expressed as shown in

equation (2.6).

(2.6)

Where:

open circuit voltage.

the short circuit current.

the thermal voltage.

Tn: the temperature at standard operating conditions.

the Temperature coefficient of ISC.

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the Temperature coefficient of VOC.

VT = Ns×kT/q is the thermal voltage of the module with Ns

cells connected in series. [Cells connected in parallel increase the

current and cells connected in series provide greater output voltages]. If
the module is composed of Np parallel connections of cells the

photovoltaic and saturation currents may be expressed as:

Ipv = Ipv,cell × Np (2.7)

I0 = I0,cell × Np (2.8)

In equation (2.2) Rs is the equivalent series resistance of the

module (unknown) and Rp is the equivalent parallel resistance

(unknown), so they have to be calculated. Equation (2.2) originates the I-

V curve seen in figure (2.4), where three remarkable points are highlighted:

a) Open- circuit (Voc, 0).

b) Short circuit (0, Isc).

c) Maximum power point (Vmp, Imp).

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Figure (2.4): Characteristic I-V, P-V curve of a practical photovoltaic device [4].

a) Open-circuit: This point is obtained when the terminals of the module

are disconnected. The module presents a voltage called (VOC).Expressed
analytically using equation (2.9).

(2.9)

b) Short-circuit: The terminals of the module are connected with an ideal

conductor, through which flows a current called (ISC). In this situation,
the voltage between module terminals is zero.

ISC = IPV = K G (2.10)

Where, K is a constant.

c) Maximum power point “MPP”:

Here the voltage versus current product is the maximum. VMP is

related to VOC through the relation (2.11):

VMP ≈ 0.8 × Voc (2.11)

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And IMP is related to ISC through the relation (2.12):

IMP ≈ 0.9 × ISC (2.12)

The best conditions, are the "standard operating conditions" happen

at irradiance equal to 1000W/m², cells temperature equals to 25°C, and

spectral distribution (Air Mass) AM is equal to 1.5 [4].

2.3.2 A real photovoltaic device

PV cells are the basic building blocks of PV modules. For almost all
applications, the one-half volt produced by a single cell is inadequate.
Therefore, cells are connected together in series to increase the voltage.

Several of these series strings of cells may be connected together in parallel

to increase the current as well.

So in a real photovoltaic model; must include the effects of series

and parallel resistance of the PV, so when the first Kirchhoff law is applied
to one of the nodes of the equivalent circuit, the current supplied by a PV,
at a specified temperature as shown in equation (2.2) [6]:

In (2.13) Rs is the equivalent series resistance of the module and Rp is

the equivalent parallel resistance [4].

2.3.3 Model of the photovoltaic module by Matlab and Psim (Power

Simulation)

MSX-50 solar PV module, pictured in Figure (2.5), is chosen for a

MATLAB and Psim simulation model. The module is made of 36 multi-
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crystalline silicon solar cells in series and provides 50W of nominal

maximum power. Table (2.1) shows its electrical specification and figure
shows its I-V characteristics from data sheet. The data sheet MSX-50 solar

PV module in appendix (A).

Figure (2.5): Picture of MSX-50 Photovoltaic Modules [4].

Table( 2.1): Electrical characteristics data of the MSX-50 solar module

at 25 ◦C, 1.5AM, 1000W/m2. Taken from the datasheet [4].
Electrical Characteristics
Maximum Power (Pmax) 50W
Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 17.1V
Current at Pmax (Imp) 2.92A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 21.1V
Short-circuit current (Isc) 3.17A
Temperature coefficient of Isc (0.065±0.015)%/°C
Temperature coefficient of Voc -(80±10)mV/°C
NOCT 47±2°C
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Figure (2.6): I-V characteristics at 1000W/m2, from data sheet with different
temperature.

The model of the photovoltaic panel has been implemented in

Simulink as shown in figure (2.7). The temperature and the irradiance are

specified. The simulation allows having the curve I-V and P-V
characteristics. The Simulink model and Psim uses a current source,
voltage source and the value of the resistance in series and parallel of the

PV [4].

Figure (2.7): PV module model in Simulink.

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Inside the block PV panel we can see a schematic circuit and some
blocks which represented the equation of PV module as figure shown in
(2.8), (2.9), (2.10) and (2.11).

Figure (2.8): Equivalent circuit of a practical PV

Figure (2.9) shows the Simulink model for the reverse current
saturation (Io) at the reference temperature which is given by the equation
(2.13) [5]:

(2.13)

Figure (2.9): Simulink modeling implementation for Io.

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Figure (2.10) shows the Simulink model for the light generated
current of the photovoltaic cell which depends linearly on the influence of
temperature and solar radiation as given by the equation (2.14) [5]

(2.14)

Figure (2.10): Simulink modeling implementation for IPV.

Figure (2.11) shows the Simulink model for the model current Im

which given by the equation (2.15) [5]:

(2.15)

Figure (2.11): Simulink modeling implementation for Im

In figure (2.12) shown the PV model built by Psim software.

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Figure (2.12): PV model in Psim.

2.3.4 Rs and Rp calculation

Two parameters remain unknown in equation (2.2), which are Rs

and Rp. A few authors have proposed ways to mathematically determine

these resistances. Although it may be useful to have a mathematical

formula to determine these unknown parameters, any expression for Rs and
Rp will always rely on experimental data. This procedure proposes a method

for adjusting Rs and Rp based on the fact that there is an only pair {Rs, Rp}

that warranties that Pmax,m = Pmax,e = VmpImp at the (Vmp, Imp) point of
the I-V curve, i.e., the maximum power calculated by the I-V model of

(Pmax,e) is equal to the maximum experimental power from the datasheet

(Pmax,e) at the MPP. Conventional modeling methods found in the literature
take care of the I-V curve but forget that the P-V (power versus voltage)

curve must match the experimental data too.

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The relation between Rs and Rp , the only unknowns of (2.2), may be

found by making Pmax,m = Pmax,e and solving the resulting equation for Rs,

as shown.

(2.16)

(2.17)

The equation (2.17) means that for any value of Rs there will be a

value of Rp that makes the mathematical I-V curve cross the experimental
(Vmp, Imp) point.

The goal is to find the value of Rs (and hence Rp) that makes the
peak of the mathematical P-V curve coincide with the experimental peak
power at the (Vmp, Imp) point. This requires several iterations until Pmax,m =
Pmax,e. Initial guesses for Rs and Rp are necessary before the iterative
process starts. The initial value of Rs may be zero. The initial value of Rp
may be given by:

(2.18)

Equation (2.18) determines the minimum value of Rp, which is the

slope of the line segment between short-circuit and the maximum-power

remarkable points. Although Rp is still unknown, it surely is greater than

Rp,min and this is a good initial guess.

We use a code by m-file in matlab to calculate the values of Rs and

Rp that makes the mathematical P-V curve coincide with the experimental
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peak power at the (Vmp, Imp ) point. The value of Rs and Rp are reached
when the iteration stopped for Pmax calculated is equal to Pmax estimated.
The iterative method gives the solution Rs=0.235Ω and Rp=350.90396Ω for
the MSX-50 solar module. Figure(2.13) Shows the I–V characteristic at
standard conditions where VMP, IMP, VOC and ISC values are shown using the
calculated values of Rs and Rp by Simulink and figure (2.13) Shows the I–
V, P-V characteristic by Psim at the same values[4]. The m-file code that
calculate Rs and Rp are in the appendix (B).

Figure (2.13): I-V characteristics at T=25° C, irradiance=1000W/ m2, after

calculation of Rs and Rp , by Simulink.

Figure (2.14): I-V, P-V characteristics at T=25° C, irradiance = 1000W/ m2, after
calculation of Rs and Rp, by Psim.
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2.3.5 Impact of solar radiation on I-V characteristic curve of

photovoltaic module

Standard sunlight conditions on a clear day are assumed to be 1000

watts of solar energy per square meter (1000 W/m2). This is sometimes
called "one sun," or a "peak sun." Less than one sun will reduce the current
output of the module by a proportional amount. For example, if only one-

half sun (500 W/m2) is available, the amount of output current is roughly
cut in half [6].

For maximum output, the front surface of the photovoltaic modules

should be pointed as straight toward the sun as possible.

Figure (2.15): P-V characteristics at T=25 C, by Simulink With different

irradiances[Y- axis: power(watt), X –axis: voltage(volt)].
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Figure (2.16): I-V characteristics at T=25° C, by Simulink with different

irradiances[Y- axis: current(A), X –axis: voltage(volt)].

Figure (2.17): I-V characteristics at T=25° C, by Psim with different

irradiances[Y- axis: current(A), X –axis: voltage(volt)].

2.3.6 Impact of temperature on I-V characteristic curve of photovoltaic

module

The temperature of the PV cell is an important parameter that has to

be taken into consideration in PV system operation. The PV cell has given
temperature coefficients for both the current and the voltage (α). The

current coefficient is mostly negligible; hence it is mainly the voltage

temperature coefficient that is considered during calculations. For silicon
based cells the coefficient (α) = 2mV/C°_ per cell ]6[.
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Figure (2.18): I-V characteristics at 1000w/m2, by Psim with different

temperature[Y- axis: current(A), X –axis: voltage(volt)].

2.3.7 Impact of shading on I-V characteristic curve of photovoltaic

module

Solar PV panel is a power source having non-linear internal

resistance. A major challenge in using a PV source containing a number of

cells in series is to deal with its non-linear internal resistance. The problem
gets all the more complex when the array receives non-uniform insolation.

Cells under shade absorb a large amount of electric power generated by

cells receiving high insolation and convert it into heat. This heat may
damage the low illuminated cells under certain conditions. To relieve the

stress on shaded cells, bypass diodes are added across the module[7]. In
figure (2.19) shows two PV module with series connection at variable
irradiance at 1000W/m2 and 500W/m2, and the figure (2.20), (2.21) shows
the effect of shading in the I-V,P-V characteristic curve .
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Figure (2.19): Two PV module with series connection at variable irradiance at

1000W/m2 and 500W/m2, by Matlab - Simulink.

Figure (2.20): I-V characteristics at variable irradiance at 1000W/m2 and

500W/m2, by Matlab – Simulink [Y- axis: current(A), X –axis: voltage(volt)].

Figure (2.21): P-V Characteristics at variable irradiance at 1000W/m2 and

500W/m2, by Matlab – Simulink [Y- axis: power(watt), X –axis: voltage(volt)].
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The first function of the by-pass diodes is the protection of the

module against Hot-Spot and destruction of cells. As a general rule, one
diode is required for about 18 to 24 cells. The second function of the by-

pass diode is to reduce the reverse voltage across the sub-module, therefore
limiting the shading voltage drop within the string to the normal voltage of
one sub-module (-0.7V) [8].

During the night, when none of the modules are illuminated, an

energy storage (like a battery) connected directly in series with the modules
makes the cells forward biased. This might lead to a discharge of the

energy storage. To prevent this from happening a blocking diode can be

connected in series with the module. But during normal illumination level
this diode represents a significant power loss[6].

The placement of bypassing and blocking diodes in the system is

shown in figure (2.22).

Figure (2.22): A PV module with bypass and blocking diodes.

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2.4 The Photovoltaic Array

If the output voltage and current from a single module is smaller than
desired, the modules can be connected into arrays. The connection method

depends on which variable that needs to be increased. For a higher output

voltage the modules must be connected in series, while connecting them in
parallel in turn gives higher currents. It is important to know the rating of

each module when creating an array. The highest efficiency of the system
is achieved when the MPP of each of the modules occurs at the same
voltage level [9].

Figure (2.23): Relation between the PV cell, a module and an array.

The simulation of the photovoltaic array is realized with Simulink

block. The input parameters required to modify the PV module to be an
array are:

Nser: number of modules in series.

Npar: number of modules in parallel.

In figure (2.24) shows the modification in the PV module to be an

array.
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Figure (2.24): PV array model, Nser is number of series of PV modules; Npar is

number of parallel PV modules.

If the array is composed of Npar parallel connections of PV modules,

the photovoltaic and saturation currents may be expressed as:

Ipv, array = Ipv, module × Npar (2.19)

I0, array = I0, module × Npar (2.20)

If the array is composed of Nser series connections of PV modules,

the output voltage may be expressed as:

V array = V module × Nser (2.21)

The resistance of a PV array may be expressed as:

Rs ,array = Rs,module × (Nser / Npar) (2.22)

Rp,array = Rp,module × (Nser / Npar) (2.23)

If we take as an example Nser = 2 and Npar = 15, just to verify the

validation of the array model we will have the results of simulation shown
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in figure (2.25) for I-V characteristic curve at T = 25°C and G =

1000W/m2, the Isc = 6.34A (3.17A× 2) as expected for Npar = 2, Voc =
316.5V (21.1V×15) as expected for Nser = 15. Figure (2.26) shows P-V

characteristic for the same conditions where the value of the peak power is
as expected to be 1500W = (15×2×50W).

Figure (2.25): I-V Characteristics at T=25°C, G=1000W/m2, by Simulink for Nser

= 15, Npar = 2 [Y- axis: current(A), X –axis: voltage(volt)].

Figure (2.26): P-V Characteristics at T = 25°C, 1000W/m2, by Simulink for Nser =

15, Npar = 2 [Y- axis: power(watt), X –axis: voltage(volt)].

2.5 Summary

In this Chapter, a MATLAB Simulink / Psim PV system simulator

based on an improved single-diode model is proposed. To reduce the
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computational time, the input parameters are reduced to four and the values
of Rp and Rs are estimated by an efficient iteration method. Furthermore the
inputs to the simulator are information available on standard PV module

datasheets. Simulation results show a matching between the Simulink

model, Psim model and the manufacturers published curves.