Earth

$28.95 U.S.
Practical
Guide To
Electrical
Grounding
An
Publication W. Keith Switzer

Practical Guide to Electrical Grounding
Library Of Congress Catalog

Card Number: 99-72910
Electrical Protection Products

34600 Solon Road Copyright © 1999 ERICO, Inc.
Solon, Ohio 44139
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the
W. Keith Switzer, Senior Staff copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any
form or by any means – graphic, electronic, or
Engineer Phone: (440) 248-0100 mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping,
Fax: (800) 677-8131 or information storage and retrieval systems – without
E-mail: kswitzer@erico.com written permission of ERICO, Inc.
Practical
Guide To
Electrical
Grounding
An
Publication W. Keith Switzer

First Printing, First Edition, August 1999
ii Practical Guide to Electrical Grounding
Table of Contents
Chapter Description Page

1 Building and Service Entrance Grounding - 1
The grounding of buildings and facilities where people work.

Building Grounding
Ground Resistance
Electrical Service Grounding
Ufer Grounding
2 Building Lightning Protection - A critical extension of grounding. 21
3 Building Interior Bonding and Grounding - The bonding and 47
grounding of building steel, electrical panels and other power

systems equipment.
Introduction
Bonding
Grounding
Ground Bars & Ground Bus
4 Transients & Other High Frequency Bonding and “Grounding” Requirements 65
The bonding and grounding of electronic systems.

5 Selection of Components Used in Grounding 79
Grounding Conductors
Connectors
Grounding Electrodes
6 Special Grounding Situations - Areas not covered elsewhere 89
Airports
Corrosion and Cathodic Protection
Radio Antenna Grounding
Static Grounding
Wire Mesh
Fences and Gates
7 Application of Surge Protection Devices 113
Definitions 119
References and Bibliography 121

WHY DO WE NEED ANOTHER Preface iii
BOOK ON GROUNDING?
This book is designed for the contractor who finds that
WHY GROUND?
installing grounding systems, which are in compliance with
all relevant codes and standards, is a complex and
somewhat mystifying assignment. While in larger facilities, There are several important reasons why a grounding
the design of a proper grounding system is certainly system should be installed. But the most important
complex and should be left to a qualified engineer, the reason is to protect people! Secondary reasons include
everyday grounding installations and applications covered protection of structures and equipment from
in this text are well within the scope of the qualified unintentional contact with energized electrical lines. The
contractor. In most facilities, a thoughtful contractor can grounding system must ensure maximum safety from
follow the guidelines and techniques in this book and be electrical system faults and lightning.
reasonably ensured that he has done a competent and code
compliant job. This book is not written for the casual A good grounding system must receive periodic
contractor who was in the painting business last week. It is inspection and maintenance, if needed, to retain its
for the electrical contractor who intends to be in business effectiveness. Continued or periodic maintenance is
next week, next year, and in the years to come. Design and aided through adequate design, choice of materials and
installation of electrical grounding systems is one of the proper installation techniques to ensure that the
most important aspects of any electrical distribution system, grounding system resists deterioration or inadvertent
yet it is all too often misunderstood and subsequently destruction. Therefore, minimal repair is needed to
installed improperly. Some detailed knowledge of the retain effectiveness throughout the life of the structure.
facility is needed, and the contractor who intends to do the
job correctly must make the investment in time and tools - The grounding system serves three primary functions
or hire someone to do these things for him. Guesswork which are listed below.
won’t do! The subject is too serious and complex for that
kind of approach. We hope you find our recommended Personnel Safety. Personnel safety is provided by low
approaches helpful and cost-effective. impedance grounding and bonding between metallic
equipment, chassis, piping, and other conductive objects
Article 250 of the National Electrical Code (NEC) so that currents, due to faults or lightning, do not result
contains the general requirements for grounding and in voltages sufficient to cause a shock hazard. Proper
bonding of electrical installations in residential, grounding facilitates the operation of the overcurrent
commercial and industrial establishments. Many people protective device protecting the circuit.
often confuse or intermix the terms grounding, earthing
and bonding. To use simple terms: Equipment and Building Protection. Equipment and
building protection is provided by low impedance
Grounding is connecting to a common point which is grounding and bonding between electrical services,
connected back to the electrical source. It may or may protective devices, equipment and other conductive objects
not be connected to earth. An example where it is not so that faults or lightning currents do not result in
connected to earth is the grounding of the electrical hazardous voltages within the building. Also, the proper
system inside an airplane. operation of overcurrent protective devices is frequently
dependent upon low impedance fault current paths.
Earthing is a common term used outside the US and is the
connection of the equipment and facilities grounds to Mother Electrical Noise Reduction. Proper grounding aids in
Earth. This is a must in a lightning protection system since electrical noise reduction and ensures:
earth is one of the terminals in a lightning stroke.
1. The impedance between the signal ground points
Bonding is the permanent joining of metallic parts to throughout the building is minimized.
form an electrically conductive path that will ensure
electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct safely 2. The voltage potentials between interconnected
any current likely to be imposed. A comprehensive equipment are minimized.
review of grounding and bonding requirements 3. That the effects of electrical and magnetic field
contained in the NEC appears in Chapter 3 of this text. coupling are minimized.
NEC is a copyright of NFPA. Another function of the grounding system is to provide a

reference for circuit conductors to stabilize their voltage to
ground during normal operation. The earth itself is not
iv Practical Guide to Electrical Grounding
essential to provide a reference function. Another Designers of electrical grounding systems also should find
suitable conductive body may be used instead. this a handy guide because we have included extensive
references to the National Electrical Code (NEC)
The function of a grounding electrode system and a ground (NFPA70), ANSI and IEEE Standards as well as other
terminal is to provide a system of conductors which ensures NFPA Standards. It is not the purpose to be a guide to the
electrical contact with the earth. Two Fine Print Notes NEC but we will not make recommendations that disagree
(FPN) that appear in Section 250-1 of the NEC provide a with it. Keep in mind that Section 90-1 (c) of the NEC
good summary of the reasons for grounding systems and states that the Code is not intended to be used as a design
circuit conductors and the conductive materials which specification. Still, it is difficult to imagine how personnel
enclose electrical conductors and equipment. design and construct electrical systems in the USA without
referencing the NEC. Also keep in mind that the NEC
contains minimum requirements only. In some cases,
TYPES OF GROUNDING minimum standards are not sufficient or efficient for the
design project. For example, existing standards do not
As noted above, grounding and bonding are not the same. cover the need to maintain the operational reliability of
In addition, not all grounding is the same. Each chapter or modern electronic equipment - especially
section in this book will describe one or more of the various telecommunications and information technology
types of grounding and bonding that are widely used in the (computer-based) systems. We will cover these situations in
electrical industry. Topics of primary interest are: this book. Where no standards exist, the ERICO
engineering staff can make recommen-dations based on
• Power System Grounding more than 58 years of successful experience.
Including The “Service Entrance”
• Bonding While written primarily for readers in the U.S. and Canada,
readers from other nations also will find this work useful
• Grounding Electrical Equipment because it concentrates on cost-effective, proven solutions.
This book is written around U.S. standards with references
• Lightning Protection
to Canadian Standards. The standards in your country may
• Protection Of Electronic Equipment be different. We welcome your comments. ERICO operates
(Shielding Is Not Discussed) in 23 countries around the globe. We are familiar with most
commonly referred standards. If you contact us, we will try
Grounding is a very complex subject. The proper instal- to assist you in any way.
lation of grounding systems requires knowledge of soil
characteristics, grounding conductor materials and
A fundamental fact is that electricity ALWAYS flows back
compositions and grounding connections and terminations.
to its source. Some designers and installers who accept and
A complete guide to proper grounding is often part of
use this fact in their designs of power systems, seem to
national and international standards. For example, IEEE Std
forget it when designing and installing grounding systems.
80, Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, is a
Our job is to ensure that electricity, including faults,
comprehensive and complex standard for only one
lightning and electronic noise, return to their source with a
particular grounding application. This standard is needed
maximum of safety to people while maintaining the
for proper substation design in an electric power
reliability of equipment. This means that we must be sure
transmission facility or the power feed to a very large
to route the current back to its source with a minimum
factory. Smaller facilities can use these design guides also,
voltage drop. In many individual situations there are no
but such an approach may be too costly. This book takes
specific NEC requirements to accomplish this so we will let
“conservative” shortcuts that allow the design of the
theory and experience be our guide.
grounding system to proceed without undue design effort.
We emphasize that the approaches in this book, in order to
be conservative and correct, may trade a small increase in ERICO is publishing this book as a service to our
grounding components in order to avoid a large engineering customers and other industry professionals who realize that
expense. Remember that any electrical instal-lation is, and grounding, bonding, lightning protection and overvoltage
properly should be, subject to a review by the authority protection are an integral part of a modern electrical design.
having jurisdiction over the electrical installation. Electrical We have referenced many of our products in the midst of a
design and installation personnel are encouraged to discuss comprehensive technical paper. We acknowledge that there
and review the electrical installation with the authority are other good products one could use. ERICO’s 70 plus
having jurisdiction PRIOR to beginning any work on the years of experience in designing and manufacturing
project. bonding and grounding products has led us to what we feel
are some of the best, long lasting and cost effective Preface v
products available. Here we combine these with our
knowledge of methods to assist the industry professional in
sound choices. It is most often an electrician or electrical
Many thanks to Michael Callanan, Frank Fiederlein,
worker who is affected by poorly designed ground systems.
Warren Lewis, Dick Singer and Dr. A.J (Tony) Surtees
for their input to this book.
All of the drawings (non shaded versions) in this book
®
are available in AutoCAD .DWG files. These are
available through the ERICO CAD-Club™. Please write
for information on this no-cost shareware program. We DISCLAIMER
encourage you to join.
While the staff of ERICO and the outside contributors to this
This book is designed to be useful immediately. We book have taken great pains to make sure our
know, however, that no work is ever really complete. We recommendations, pictures and list of references are accurate
look forward to your comments (both favorable and not- and complete, we may have missed something. We do not
so-favorable) and suggestions so that future editions may assume responsibility for the consequential effects of these
be improved. errors or omissions. The designer is still completely
responsible for his own work regarding fitness of the design
and adherence to applicable laws and codes. In the same
ABOUT THE AUTHOR manner, the contractor is responsible for following the design
and for the installation in a workmanlike manner.
The primary author of this book is Keith Switzer, who
has over 40 years of technical and managerial experience
in the electrical industry. He has a BSME degree from
Pennsylvania State University. Switzer joined ERICO,
Inc. in 1958 and has worked in various engineering
departments. He is currently Senior Staff Engineer in the
Electrical/Electronic Engineering Section at the ERICO
headquarters in Solon, Ohio.
Switzer is a member of IEEE Power Engineering

Society, Substations Committee, Working Groups D7
(Std 80, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation
Grounding), D9 (Std 837, IEEE Standard for Qualifying
Permanent Connectors Used in Substation Grounding),
D4 (Std 1246, IEEE Guide for Temporary Protective
Grounding Systems Used in Substations), and E5 (Std
998, Direct Lightning Stroke Shielding of Substations.)
He is a member of the Technical Advisory Committee

(TAC) of the National Electrical Grounding Research
Project (NEGRP), investigating the long-term reliability
of various electrodes in various types of soils. He is also
a member of the USNG/IEC TAG reviewing proposed
IEC standards. Switzer is also a member of American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Armed
Forces Communications and Electronics Association
(AFCEA), Insulated Conductors Committee (ICC),
International Association of Electrical Inspectors (IAEI),
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE),
National Electrical Manufacturers Associate (NEMA),
and Society of American Military Engineers (SAME).
vi Practical Guide to Electrical Grounding
Chapter 1: Building and Service Entrance Grounding 1
Chapter 1
Building and Service
Entrance Grounding
Building Grounding
Ground Resistance
Electrical Service Grounding
Ufer Grounding
2 Practical Guide to Electrical Grounding
BUILDING GROUNDING — With these thoughts in mind, let’s look at the

AN OVERVIEW components of the building grounding system and see
how these individual components impact the overall
Despite the electrical designers’ best efforts, electrical ground effectiveness of the grounding system.
faults, short circuits, lightning and other transients can and
often do occur in building electrical distribution systems.
ERICO believes that, besides attempting to minimize the GROUND RESISTANCE
occurrence of these faults, designers and installers of electrical
grounding systems should design these systems to clear these While many factors come into play in determining the
faults in the quickest possible manner. This requires that the
overall effectiveness of the grounding system, the
grounding system be constructed to achieve the lowest
resistance of the earth itself (earth resistivity) can
significantly impact the overall impedance of the grounding
practical impedance. Many factors determine the overall
system. Several factors, such as moisture content, mineral
impedance of the grounding system. Building components,
content, soil type, soil contaminants, etc., determine the
such as structural steel and interior piping systems, can be used
overall resistivity of the earth. In general, the higher the soil
to create an effective grounding system. The manner in which
moisture content, the lower the soil’s resistivity. Systems
these components are installed and interconnected can have a
designed for areas which typically have very dry soil and
dramatic effect on the overall effectiveness of the grounding
arid climates may need to use enhancement materials or
system. One of the primary factors that can increase the
other means to achieve lower soil resistivity. ERICO has
impedance of the grounding system is the type and manner in
products available which help to reduce earth resistivity
which the electrical connections to the grounding system are
and maintain a low system impedance. See the discussion
made. ERICO has a complete line of connectors which can be
on GEM™ on page 14.
used to make grounding connections without affecting the
integrity of the grounding system. Contractors and others who
install these systems cannot underestimate the importance of Ground resistance is usually measured using an instrument
ensuring that each grounding connection is made in a manner often called an earth resistance tester. This instrument
that is efficient and effective. includes a voltage source, an ohmmeter to measure
resistance directly and switches to change the instrument’s
resistance range. Installers of grounding systems may be
required to measure or otherwise determine the ground
Interconnected electronic equipment, such as
resistance of the system they have installed. The National
telecommuni-cation systems and computer systems, also
Electric Code (NEC), Section 250-84, requires that a single
require a low-impedance grounding system. Specific
electrode consisting of rod, pipe, or plate that does not have
bonding and grounding techniques are available and are
a resistance to ground of 25 ohms or less shall be
covered in Chapter 4, which will help to enhance the
augmented by one additional electrode of the type listed in
operation of this sensitive electronic equipment.
Section 250-81 or 250-83. Multiple electrodes should
always be installed so that they are more than six feet (1.8
Designers and installers of these systems will do well to m) apart. Spacing greater than six feet will increase the
include all aspects of facilities protection in the initial rod efficiency. Proper spacing of the electrodes ensures
design. The figure below includes the major subsystems of that the maximum amount of fault current can be safely
facilities grounding. Any omission of these subsystems by discharged into the earth.
design personnel is risky at best. Later additions and/or
modifications to the system can be very costly.
To properly design a grounding system, the earth resistivity
must be measured. Several methods can be used to measure
earth resistivity: the four-point method, the variation in-
Fault Protection Subsystem depth method (three-point method) and the two-point
method. The most accurate method and the one that ERICO
Lightning Protection Subsystem recommends is the four-point method. The details of
making these measurements and the set-up for the
Signal Reference Subsystem measurements are included with the testing equipment.
Earth Electrode Subsystem

BUILDING GROUNDING
Typical Installation
Weld At Column Base.
Electrical design and installation professionals need to
consider several different building grounding systems First Floor
for any building or structure on which they may work.

3'-0"
Building grounding components can be broken down
into several subdivisions: Grade
• The building exterior grounds
2'-0"
• The electrical service grounding
• The building interior bonding
• Equipment grounding and bonding
• Lightning protection
Typical Down Conductor
Fig. 1-1
This chapter will look at the first two items. Lightning
protection will be covered in Chapter 2, interior bonding
and grounding will be covered in Chapter 3 and cases, an electrical design requires ground rods to be
equipment grounding and bonding in Chapter 4. installed in addition to the perimeter ground ring. The use
of ground rods helps to minimize the effects of dry or
frozen soil on the overall impedance of the perimeter
BUILDING EXTERIOR GROUNDS ground system. This is because the ground rods can reach
It is important to keep in mind that the requirements deeper into the earth where the soil moisture content may
contained in the NEC constitute minimum electrical instal- be higher or the soil may not have frozen. ERICO offers a
lation requirements. For many types of installations, the complete line of ground rods from 1/2 inch to 1 inch in
requirements listed in Article 250 of the NEC do not go far diameter to meet the needs of the designer and installer. It
enough. These minimum requirements cannot ensure that is recommended that the ground ring and ground rods be
the equipment operated in these buildings will perform in a copper or copperbonded steel and installed at least 24 inch
satisfactory manner. For these reasons electrical design from the foundation footer and 18 inch outside the roof drip
personnel often will require additional grounding line. This location will allow for the greatest use of the
components. One of the most common of these consists of a water coming off of the roof to maintain a good soil
copper conductor that is directly buried in the earth and moisture content.
installed around the perimeter of the building. The steel
building columns are bonded to this conductor to complete Although less common than in the past, “triad” ground rod
the grounding system. arrangements (rods placed in a triangular configuration) are
sometimes specified, usually at the corners of the building
The columns around the perimeter of the building are or structure. Figure 1-2 shows possible conductor/ground
excellent grounding electrodes and provide a good path into rod configurations. Triad arrangements are not
the earth for any fault currents that may be imposed on the recommended unless the spacing between the ground rods
system. The electrical designer, based on the size and usage is equal to or greater than the individual ground rod length.
of the building, will determine whether every column or Three rods in a straight line spaced at least equal to the
just some of the columns are bonded. ERICO recommends length of the individual ground rods are more efficient and
that at least one column every 50 feet shall be connected to result in a lower overall system impedance.
the above described ground ring. (Fig. 1-1)
Installers of these perimeter ground systems need to
When grounding large buildings, and all multiple building provide a “water stop” for each grounding conductor that
facilities, perimeter grounding provides an equipotential passes through a foundation wall. This is especially
ground for all the buildings and equipment within the important when the grounding conductor passes
building that are bonded to the perimeter ground. The through the foundation wall at a point that is below the
purpose of this perimeter grounding is to ensure that an
water table. The water stop ensures that moisture will
equipotential plane is created for all components that are
not enter the building by following the conductor
connected to the perimeter ground system. The size of the
ground ring will depend upon the size of the electrical strands and seeping into the building. A CADWELD Type
service but is seldom less than 1/0 AWG copper. In some SS (splice) in the unspliced conductor and imbedded
into the concrete wall provides the required water stop
(Fig. 1-3).
When “inspection wells” are required to expose points

from which to measure system resistance, several
methods are available. Inspection wells are usually PVC Pipe with
Screw End Cap
placed over a ground rod. If the grounding conductors do
not have to be discon-nected from the rod, the
conductors can be welded to the rod, and a plastic pipe, Cut Slots to Match
Conductor Size
Figure 1-4, a clay pipe, Figure 1-5, or a commercial box, and Configuration
ERICO T416B, Figure 1-6, can be placed over the rod.
The plastic pipe also works well when an existing

connection must be repeatedly checked, since it can be
custom made in the field to be installed over an existing Fig. 1-4 Fig. 1-6
connection. If the conductors must be removed from the rod
5/16'' Hot Dip
to enable resistance measurements to be made, either a Galvanized Steel
Cover
1'' Dia. Lift Hole at
bolted connector or lug may be used (Fig. 1-7). Center of Cover
Grade
®
CADWELD Type TA
Connection Copperbonded
Copperbonded
Ground Rod Ground Rod
Typical for 3 Typical for 3 CADWELD
CADWELD CADWELD Type GT
12'' Dia.x 24'' Ground Rod
Vitrified Connection
Type GT Clay Pipe
Type GT
Connection
Connection
Bare Copper
Bare Copper Ground Cable
Ground Cable CADWELD Type TA Ground Grid
Connection Conductor
Scheme 1 Scheme 2
Gr
ou
Copperbonded
nd
Ground Rod
Ro
Typical for 3 d
Fig. 1-5
CADWELD
Type GR CADWELD Connection
Connection
CADWELD CADWELD Type Gl Lugs

Type TA
Connection
Bare Copper
Ground Cable
Scheme 3 At Building Corner 9/16" D.
1-3/4 B542C003
“Triad” Ground Rod Details
Fig. 1-2 1/4X3X6-1/2"
1-1/4 Copper
Rod
CADWELD
Type SS
Connection
Fig. 1-7
Disconnect for attaching 1 to 8 1” wide lugs.
Where a stranded conductor enters a building

through a concrete wall below grade, a waterstop
may be made on the cable by installing a
CADWELD Type SS on the conductor where it
will be buried inside the wall.
Fig. 1-3
When the required resistance is not achieved using the grounding shall be designed to limit touch, step and
usual grounding layouts, ERICO prefabricated wire mesh transferred voltages in accordance with industry practice.
can be added to lower the overall grounding impedance The NESC requires that the grounding connection be made
(Fig. 1-8). ERICO offers a complete line of prefabricated either to the grounding system of the enclosed equipment
wire mesh products in sizes ranging from No. 6 to No. 12 or to a separate ground. In addition, the NESC in Section
AWG solid conductors. Another method which can be used 92E, lists six separate requirements for fences:
to lower the grounding system impedance is ground
enhancement materials. These materials can be added 1. Where gates are installed, the fence shall be
around ground rods or other conductors to enhance system grounded at each side of the gate or similar
performance. See the discussion on GEM™ on page 14 and opening (Fig. 1-11).
see Fig. 1-9, Fig. 1-10 and Fig. 1-35.
The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) recommends

that where fences are required to be grounded, such
ERICO GEM
Ground Rod
Fig. 1-9
CADWELD Connection (Typical)
Fig. 1-8
Ground bushing
Copper Ground Conductor ERICO Pipe Bonding Strap
in 1 Inch Conduit (Locate Within 5 Feet of

PipeEntrance Into Building)
Grounding Bushing
CADWELD Connection (Typical) 3 Inch or Larger
Metal Cold Water
Equipment Ground Bus Pipe, 10 Linear Feet
Minimum Undergroung
Enclosure in Direct Contact with
CADWELD Connection (Typical) Earth and Electrically Continuous
Concrete Pad to Bonding Connection in
Accessible Location
CADWELD
Connection
Asphalt Neutral Bus
Pavement
Grounding Bushing
with Bonding Conductor
Same Size as Grounding
Copper Electrode Conductor
Bonded
Ground Rod
Conduit Grounding Bushing
CADWELD Connection Copper Ground
ERICO GEM Conductor in Conduit
Ground
Enhancement
Material
Fig. 1-10
2. If a conducting gate is used, a buried bonding

jumper must be installed across the opening (Fig.
1-11).
3. Where gates are installed, they shall be bonded to
the fence, grounding conductor or other bonding
jumper (Fig. 1-12).
4. If the fence posts consist of a conducting material,
the grounding conductor must be connected to the
fence posts with a suitable connecting means (Fig.
1-13). CADWELD Type VS Connection
5. If the fence contains sections of barbed wire, the Fig. 1-13
barbed wire must also be bonded to the fence,
grounding conductor or other bonding jumper (Fig.
1-14).
6. If the fence posts consist of a nonconducting
material, a bonding connection shall be made to the
fence mesh strands and barbed wire strands at each
grounding conductor point (Fig. 1-14).
ERICO offers a complete line of welded connections
suitable for use with various shaped fence posts. (Fig. 1-
15). Any fence around a substation on the property should
be grounded and tied into the substation ground system. If a
facility fence meets the substation fence, it is recommended
to isolate the two fences to prevent any fault in the
substation from being transferred throughout the facility
Split Bolt Connectors
using the fence as the conductor (Fig. 1-16). For further
Fig. 1-14
discussion on fence grounding, see Chapter 6.
Fig. 1-15
Insulated section of
Fig. 1-11 fence supported on suitable
post type insulators
see detail "A"
(6 per insulated section)
10"-0" Barbed Wire (Typ.)

x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x xx x x
2"
Detail A Grade
Bottom of fence must be above grade.

(Typ for insulated fence sections)
ERICO Flexible Jumper With
CADWELD Connections. Typical Perimeter Fence Isolation Section
Fig. 1-12 Fig. 1-16
Other items that are located on the outside of the building

that should be considered are lighting fixture standards, pull
box covers and rails. Handhole, manhole and pull box
covers, if conductive, should be bonded to the grounding
system using a flexible grounding conductor (Fig. 1-17).
The NEC Section 370-40 (d) requires that a means be
provided in each metal box for the connection of an
equipment grounding conductor. Metal covers for pull Bare Copper Conductor
CADWELD
boxes, junction boxes or conduit bodies shall also be
grounded if they are exposed and likely to become
energized. The NEC in Section 410-15 (b) Exception, Type GR or GT Finished Grade
permits metal poles, less than 20 feet (6.4 m) in height to be To Copperbonded Rod
installed without handholes if the pole is provided with a

hinged base. Both parts of the hinged base are required to
be bonded to ensure the required low impedance
connection. Lighting standards in parking lots and other
areas where the public may contact them should be
grounded (Fig. 1-18). Keep in mind that the earth cannot
serve as the sole equipment grounding conductor. Light
Copperbonded
standards which are grounded by the use of a separate Ground Rod
ground rod must also be grounded with an equipment Driven 10 Feet CADWELD Type RD To All Vertical Rebars At
Or Near Unstressed End Of Rebars
grounding conductor to ensure that the overcurrent Light Pole Grounding
protective device will operate. Rails or sidings into
Fig. 1-18
hazardous locations such as grain storage facilities,
ammunition dumps, etc., should also be properly bonded CADWELD Type CADWELD Type
and grounded (Fig. 1-19). Designers and installers must not ST Connection TP Connection
forget that distant lightning strikes can travel through the

rails for many miles. In northern climates suitable bonding
jumpers should be applied across slip joints on water pipes
to enable thawing currents to be applied without burning A Far Rail Near Rail
—
the joint gasket (Fig. 1-20). CADWELD Type CADWELD Type
ST Connection TP Connection
Bare Stranded Copper Wire
CADWELD Connection
To Main Ground Grid Section A

3/16 Bronze Flexible Cable
Rail Siding Grounding
Fig. 1-19
1/16" x 1" x 20 " Copper Bond CADWELD
Connect To Ground
Connection
Pull Box Cover Grounding

Fig. 1-17
Slip Joint Ductile Iron Pipe
600 AMP Bond
Bond P/N: CAA817A16
Welder P/N: CACHA-AEC- "Pipe Size"
W/M: CA32XF19
Water Pipe Bonding

Fig. 1-20
Grounding conductors shall be protected against The requirements for grounding electrical services are
physical damage wherever they are accessible (Fig. 1- contained in Article 250 of the NEC. Section 250-23(a)
21). Grounding conductors installed as separate requires that a grounded electrical system, which
conductors in metal raceways always must be bonded at supplies a building or structure, shall have at each
both ends to ensure that current flow is not choked off by service a grounding electrode conductor connected to
the inductive element of the circuit. See page 15 for a the grounding electrode system. In addition, the
discussion of how to accomplish the required bonding. grounding electrode conductor shall also be connected to
the grounded service conductor. This connection may
occur at any accessible point from the load end of the
ELECTRICAL SERVICE GROUNDING service drop or service lateral to the grounded conductor
(neutral) terminal block in the service disconnecting
Article 230 of the NEC contains the requirements for
means. (Fig. 1-22 and Fig. 1-23) Keep in mind that the
installing electrical services for buildings and dwellings.
service disconnecting means is often the heart of the
Contractors, however, should keep in mind that local
electrical system. This is frequently the point at which
authorities, including local electrical utilities, often have
the required grounding connections occur (Fig. 1-24).
requirements which supersede or augment the NEC.
Contractors should contact the local authorities and
determine if requirements for electrical services exist Phase Conductors
Power
which differ from the NEC. Company Grounded Conductor (Neutral)
Transformer
Service
Entrance
Cabinet
Plastic Conduit Main

Bonding
Protection Jumper N
Conductor Size E P
per NEC 250-94
U H
Grounding T A
Electrode R S
Conductor A E
L
Electrode System
NEC 250-81 or 83
May consist of:
GROUND
Water Pipe
Structural Steel
Ring Ground
Concrete Electrode
Rod or Pipe
Fig. 1-21
Grounding Of AC Power Per NEC 250-23
Exception 5 Fig. 1-23
Phase Conductors
Power
Company Grounded Conductor (Neutral) To Electrical
Transformer Service Service Equipment
Service
Entrance AB C Enclosure
Cabinet Grounded Circuit Grounding
Conductor Electrode
Main MBJ Conductor
Bonding 250-92
250-53(b)
Jumper N
Conductor Size E P
per NEC 250-94 Grounded
U H Neutral Bar
Grounding T A
EGC
Electrode R S
250-50(a)
Conductor A E
To Branch
L
Circuit Load
Electrode System
NEC 250-81 or 83
May consist of:
GROUND
Water Pipe
Structural Steel
Ring Ground Grounded
Concrete Electrode
Rod or Pipe Electrode
250-81
Grounding Of AC Power Per NEC 250-23

Fig. 1-22 Fig. 1-24
The grounding electrode system is designed to provide connected to each clamp unless the clamp is listed for
multiple electrical paths into the earth. As stated in the multiple connections (Fig. 1-26). One final consideration
Preface, grounding of electrical systems helps to ensure when connecting the metal water piping to the grounding
personnel safety, provide equipment and building electrode system: the point of connection must be located
protection and achieve electrical noise reduction. Section within the first 5 feet of the point of entrance of the metal
250-81 requires that four components, if available, be water pipe into the building. This is to ensure that
bonded together to form the grounding electrode system. downstream alterations of the piping system, such as the
Notice the words “if available.” Contractors are not installation of plastic fittings, doesn’t result in isolation of
given the choice of which components they want to bond the grounding electrode system. The NEC does not permit
together. If they are available, all four must be used. metal water piping beyond the first 5 feet into the building
(Fig. 1-25) to be used as part of the grounding electrode system or as a
conductor to interconnect parts of the grounding electrode
system. Contractors should be aware that, because of the
Structural
uncertainty of the metal water pipe construction, the metal
Steel water pipe is the only grounding electrode which must be
NEC 250-81 (b)
supplemented by an additional electrode. If the other
Grounding Electrode
Conductor, NEC 250-94 electrodes are not available, a “made” electrode will need
To AC Service Entrance
Grounded Conductor (Neutral) to be installed by the contractor to supplement the metal
Metal Underground water piping. Made electrodes are discussed on page 14.
Water Pipe, NEC 250-81 (a)
(Must Be Supplimented)
Water
Water Supply (Street Side) Water Supply (House Side)
Meter
Bonding Jumper
NEC 250-80 (a)
Ring Ground, NEC 250-81 (d) Rod/Pipe Electrode

NEC 250-83 (c)
Fig. 1-26
Typical Electrodes
The second component of the grounding electrode
Fig. 1-25
system is the metal frame of the building. If the metal
frame of the building is effectively grounded, meaning it
The first component is the metal underground water pipe. is intentionally connected to the earth by means of a
Metal water piping that is in direct contact with the earth
low-impedance ground connection, it must be bonded
for 10 feet or more must be part of the grounding electrode
system. Contractors should be aware that, with the to the grounding electrode system. Once again the
increasing presence of plastic in water piping systems, these connection of the grounding electrode conductor to the
systems may not be suitable as grounding electrodes. Note, building steel must be accomplished by the use of
however, that under the bonding requirements of Section exothermic welding (CADWELD), listed lugs, listed
250-80 (a) all interior metal water piping shall be bonded to pressure connectors, listed clamps or other listed
the service equipment enclosure or other permissible means. See Section 250-115. If the building steel is dirty
attachment points as listed in the section. When connecting or contains nonconductive coatings, contractors are
the grounding electrode conductor to the metal water pipe,
required by the NEC to remove coatings, such as paint,
use a UL listed clamp or other listed means to make the
lacquer and enamel, from contact surfaces to ensure
connection. Ground clamps shall be listed for the materials
of which the metal water pipe is constructed and not more good electrical continuity. See Section 250-118. ERICO
than one grounding electrode conductor shall be has a full line of horizontal and vertical cable to steel or
cast iron connections that can meet any installation
requirements (Fig. 1-27).
The third component of the grounding electrode system is

concrete-encased electrodes. These are usually referred to
as “rebar,” which is short for reinforcing bar (Fig. 1-28 and
1-29). Rebar is used to add strength to poured concrete
VS
HA installations and by its nature tends to be an excellent
grounding electrode. This is because the rebar is
surrounded by concrete which has a lower resistivity than
the earth. This, coupled with the fact that concrete absorbs
moisture from the surrounding earth, makes the concrete-
encased electrode an excellent grounding electrode. See the
discussion on page 17 on “Ufer” grounding. The NEC
requires that the concrete-encased electrode be covered by
at least 2 inch (50 mm) of concrete and consist of at least
HB
VS 20 feet (6.4 m) of reinforcing bars of not less than 1/2 inch
in diameter (No. 4 rebar) located near the bottom of a
concrete footing or foundation. Contractors should look
closely at the material used for the reinforcing bars. The
rebar is often covered with a nonconductive coating, such
as epoxy, which do not make them suitable for grounding
VF
VN electrodes. The NEC also permits at least 20 feet (6.4 m) of
bare copper, not smaller than No. 4 AWG, to be used as a
substitute for the rebar for a grounding electrode. (Fig. 1-
30) Connections of the grounding electrode are critical to
maintaining the integrity of the grounding system. Section
250-115 requires that where the grounding
HA VB
Concrete
Foundation
Finished
Surface Foundation Rebar
(See Note Below)
HS
CADWELD Type RR or RD
VG
Foundation Rebar Ground Connection

Fig. 1-28
HC VT
HT
VV
Fig. 1-29
Fig. 1-27
Copper Wire As Concrete
Encased Electrode
Fig. 1-30
electrode conductor is connected to buried electrodes the The last component of the grounding electrode system is a
clamp or fitting must be listed for direct soil burial. ground ring. The NEC requires that if a ground ring is
CADWELD offers the best solution for contractors available it shall be bonded to the grounding electrode
trying to meet the NEC requirements for connecting to system. A ground ring should consist of at least 20 feet (6.4
rebar. CADWELD offers a full line of connections in m) of No. 2 AWG bare copper or larger which encircles the
various configurations for welding of grounding building. The ground ring should be in direct contact with the
conductors to reinforcing bars (Figure 1-31). Contractors earth at a depth below the earth surface of at least 2 1/2 feet
should select the point of attachment for such (0.75 m). Contractors should note that while the ground ring is
connections by locating the weld away from areas of frequently not “available,” it is becoming more and more
maximum tensile stress, such as near the free end of the prevalent as a supplemental grounding system component,
bar in a lap splice, to avoid harmful stresses in the rebar. especially when highly sensitive electronic equipment is
Note, where rebar mat is required to be bonded, bar to installed within the building. As noted above, the connection to
bar bonds should be made with a copper conductor the ground ring will more than likely be a direct burial
jumper (Fig. 1-32). CADWELD connections cannot be connection so the ground clamps or fittings must be listed for
used to make direct rebar to rebar electrical connections. direct soil burial. ERICO has a full line of cable-to-cable
connections that can meet any installation or application
If a foundation with rebar is used as part of the grounding requirement (Fig. 1-34).
electrode system, it is recommended that the anchor bolts
be bonded to the main rebars and a conductor extended
from the rebar to an outside electrode to minimize possible
damage to the foundation. See (Figure 1-33) and the
discussion on “Ufer” grounding on page 17.
RR
RC
Fig. 1-33
RD RJ PC XB
XA
Fig. 1-31
TA PT
PG SS
See Detail "A"
PG
PG
PH
Detail "A Type
Cadweld Connection
Fig. 1-32 Fig. 1-34

4"
30"
Trench 1"
GEM
1 4
Soil
4"
GEM 1"
5
2 Soil Backfill
Ground Conductor
GEM
3 6
GEM Trench Installation
3" or Larger
Augered Hole 6" GEM packed

6" shorter than around Ground Rod
Ground Rod
1 3
6" Ground Rod
Soil Backfill
12"
2 GEM Ground Rod Installation 4
Fig. 1-35
Section 250-83 contains requirements for other (frequently

referred to as “made”) electrodes. These electrodes can be used
to supplement the grounding electrode system or are to be used
when none of the grounding electrodes covered previously are
available. Local metal piping systems, such as water wells, can
be used but metal underground gas piping systems shall not be
used as the grounding electrode. The most common made
electrodes consist of rod, pipe or plates. Ground rods can be GR GT
constructed of iron or steel, of at least 5/8 inch in diameter.
Nonferrous ground rods, such as copperbonded steel or
stainless steel can also be used, provided they are not less than
1/2 inch in diameter and are listed. Design life of the facility
being protected should be considered when choosing ground
rod material. Galvanized steel ground rods are often used for
grounding structures such as a telephone booth with an
anticipated service of 10 years or less. A UL Listed NX NT
copperbonded steel ground rod with a copper thickness of 10
mils (0.25 mm) will last 30 years or more in most soils. A 13 ®
mil (0.33 mm) copper thickness copperbonded steel rod will CADWELD One-Shot Connections
last 40 years or more in most soils. Unusual soil conditions Fig. 1-36
demand additional considerations. Contractors should be aware
of the many factors that influence the impedance of grounding
systems that utilize ground rods. The dimension of the ground
rod does have some affect on its resistance. Typically, the
larger the diameter of the ground rod, the lower its resistance,
but to a very minor extent. A far more important factor in
determining the resistance of the ground rod is the depth to
which it is driven. Usually, the deeper the ground rod is driven,
the lower its resistance. Another very important and frequently GR
unknown factor is the resistivity of the soil where the ground GT
rod is driven. As stated above, the higher the moisture content
of the soil, the lower its resistivity. ERICO GEM TM, Ground
Enhancement Material, is the answer in situations where
reducing earthing resistance and maintaining low resistance
permanently is required. GEM reduces the resistance of the
electrode to the earth and performs in all soil conditions. GEM
can be used around ground rods in an augured hole or installed GY
in a trench as permitted by Section 250-83 (c) (3), of the NEC.
See Figure 1-35 (Page 13). As with all of the grounding
electrodes, the connection is critical to maintaining the
integrity of the grounding system. While listed clamps or
fittings are permitted, exothermic welding provides the best
solution to the contractor needs. ERICO offers a complete line
of cable to ground rod connections, including the CADWELD GB
NC
®
ONE-SHOT connection, which can be used for both plain or
threaded copperbonded and galvanized steel or stainless steel
rods. See (Figures 1-36 and 1-37).
ND
CADWELD Ground Rod Connections

Fig. 1-37
Also fitting into this category are chemical type ground The NEC requires that the ground rods be installed such
electrodes consisting of a copper tube filled with salts. that at least 8 feet (2.5 m) of length is in contact with the
Moisture entering the tube slowly dissolves the salts, earth. If rock is encountered, the ground rod can be driven
which then leach into the surrounding earth thru holes in at an angle, not to exceed 45° from vertical, or buried in a
the tube. (Fig. 1-38) This lowers the earth resistivity in trench which is at least 2 1/2 feet (0.75 m) below the earth.
the area around the electrode, which reduces the The point of connection of the grounding electrode
electrode resistance. conductor shall be below or flush with grade unless it is
suitably protected against physical damage.
For maximum efficiency, we recommend back-filling the
electrode with bentonite for the lower 1 to 2 feet and then The remaining type of “made” electrode permitted by the
ERICO GEM to the level marked on the electrode. NEC is the plate electrode. Section 250-83 (d) permits plate
Alternatively, the electrode can be back-filled only with electrodes that offer at least 2 square feet (0.19 sq. m) of
bentonite for a less efficient installation or only with earth for surface area which is in contact with the earth to be used.
an even lower efficient installation. Long term (over five years) The plates may be constructed of iron or steel of at least 1/4
tests comparing 10-foot chemical type electrodes back-filled inch (6.4 mm) in thickness or other nonferrous materials of
with bentonite to 8-foot copper bonded rods back-filled with at least 0.06 inch (1.5 mm) in thickness. ERICO provides
ERICO GEM indicated that the two are nearly equal with the copper plate electrodes with CADWELD pigtails that meet
GEM back-filled rod slightly better. the requirements of the NEC. CADWELD horizontal and
vertical steel surface connections can be used to connect
The chemical ground electrode system is available from the grounding electrode conductor to the plate electrodes.
ERICO. Chemical electrodes are available in both vertical and Wherever possible, the plates should be installed below the
horizontal configurations. All ERICO chemical electrodes are permanent moisture or frost line. As with all electrode
provided with a pigtail welded to the electrode using the connections, any nonconductive coatings shall be removed
CADWELD process. Standard pigtail sizes include 4/0 AWG before making the connection. Recent testing indicates that
and #2 AWG tinned solid copper conductors. plate electrodes are the least-efficient type of grounding
electrode for power system grounding. Plate electrodes do,
however, provide large surface area for capacitive coupling
(high frequency) required in lightning protection.
Downconductor No matter which grounding electrode or electrodes are used

the NEC requires that the grounding electrode conductor,
which connects to these electrodes, be suitably protected.
Section 250-92 (a) of the Code permits the grounding
Ground electrode conductor (GEC) to be securely fastened directly
Well to the surface of a building or structure. A No. 4 AWG or
smaller copper or aluminum GEC, which is exposed to
CADWELD
severe physical damage must be protected. While there is
Connection no definition provided for “severe”, it is safe to assume that
GEM Ground locations subject to vehicular traffic, forklifts or lawn
Chemical
Enhancement Rod mowers would be such locations. A No. 6 AWG GEC that
Material
is free from exposure to physical damage can be installed
on the surface of a building or structure without any
mechanical protection. Smaller conductors shall be
installed in rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit,
Bentonite
rigid nonmetallic conduit, electrical metallic tubing or cable
armor.
Installers of electrical systems should be aware that Section

250-92 (b) of the NEC requires that any metal enclosures or
raceways for the grounding electrode conductor shall be
electrically continuous from the electrical equipment to the
grounding electrode. If the metal enclosures are not
electrically continuous they shall be made so by bonding
Fig. 1-38
each end of the enclosure or raceway to the grounding

conductor. IEEE paper No. 54 and other studies have shown
Building Steel
that, in cases where such bonding is omitted, the impedance of CADWELD Connections
the conductor is approximately doubled. Bonding in these
2/0 GEC
cases is essentially to ensure proper operation of the grounding
electrode system. Bonding can be accomplished by connecting Metal Raceway
each end of the GEC enclosure or raceway to the electrical Bonding Jumper, Grounding
equipment enclosure and the actual electrode. Section 250-79
(d) requires that the size of the bonding jumper for GEC
2/0 or Larger Electrode
raceways or enclosures be the same size or larger than the Conductor
enclosed grounding electrode conductor (Fig. 1-39). Another Neutral
Ground Bus
possible solution to protecting the grounding electrode Electrical
conductor from physical damage is to use a nonmetallic
Service
raceway. Such raceways are permitted and, because they are Panelboard
constructed of nonmetallic materials, they do not require Main Bonding
bonding (Fig. 1-40).
Jumper
Occasionally during construction, a grounding conductor

may be damaged where it is stubbed through the concrete.
Installers should note that ERICO features a full line of Fig. 1-39
CADWELD connections that can be used to repair the
conductor without any loss of capacity in the conductor.
Bare Copper Ground Wire
Repair splices are available for both horizontal and vertical #6 AWG and Larger Note 2
Support
conductors. A minimum amount of concrete may need to be
chipped away in order to make the splice (Fig. 1-41).
Installers may also encounter applications where the GEC Strap
8'-0"Minimum
Wall or
needs to be extended to a new service location or for a
modification to the electrical distribution system. Section
250-81 Exception No. 1 permits the GEC to be spliced by
3/4" Schedule 80-PVC
means of irreversible compression-type connectors listed Column Conduit
(Typ.)
for this use or by the exothermic welding process. Support Strap (Typ)
CADWELD offers a complete line of connections suitable
for splicing the full range of grounding electrode
conductors.
Grade or Floor
All of these components, when installed, comprise the

Max. 6"
grounding electrode system for the building or structure
served. All of these must be bonded together and when they
are installed where multiple grounding systems are present,
such as lightning protection systems, they shall be installed
at a point which is not less than 6 ft (1.8 m) from any other
electrode of another grounding system. Section 250-54 Fig. 1-40
requires that when an AC system is connected to a
grounding electrode system, as described above, the same
electrode shall be used to ground conductor enclosures and
equipment in or on that building. Separate grounding a single grounding electrode system.
electrode systems are not permitted within the same
building. In the event that a building is supplied by two or
more services as permitted by Section 230-2 Exceptions, Contractors must understand that these grounding
the same grounding electrode system shall be used. Two or connections are critical to the overall electrical power
more electrodes which are bonded together are considered distri-bution system and they must take great care
when they make these connections.
CONCRETE ENCASED ELECTRODES,

“UFER GROUNDING”
3-1/2"
Herb Ufer reported on probably the first use of concrete-

encased electrodes at a bomb storage facility at Davis-
1/2"
3- Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona which he inspected
early in World War II. The grounding system was to
protect against both static electricity and lightning. He
later reinspected the installation and made further tests,
proving that concrete-encased electrodes provide a
lower and more consistent resistance than driven ground
3-1/2"
rods, especially in arid regions. Due to this early usage,
the use of a wire or rod in the concrete foundation of a
structure is often referred to as a “Ufer ground.”
The concrete electrode, however, was never tested under

3-1/2" high fault conditions until 1977 when Dick and Holliday
of the Blackburn Corp. published an IEEE paper
discussing high-current tests on concrete-encased
electrodes. They concurred with the previous tests that
concrete-encased electrodes do provide a low resistance
ground, both before and after high current faults. But
Weld Collar
they also found that a high current fault (500 to 2600
amperes) usually caused damage to the concrete - from
Broken Cable Stub
CADWELD
minor damage to complete destruction.
In a 1975 survey of 1414 transmission towers, a large

electrical utility found 90 fractured foundations that
were grounded using the Ufer method. They believed
Spliced Cable
the fractures were the result of lightning strikes on the
1" Min. static wires. Verbal reports have discussed leakage
currents causing disintegration of the concrete (which
turns to powder) if a break in the metallic path occurs
Typical Horizontal Repair Splice
within the current path in the concrete. This could also
be the case if the anchor bolts were not connected to the
rebar cage in the foundation.
Repair Splices Without Current Derating With Cadweld
Only 1 Inch of Conductor Need Be Exposed From Concrete
Based on the above and other reports, the latest edition

Horizontal Splice Vertical Splice
Conductor Mold Weld Mold Weld Weld (1986) of IEEE Std 80 (substation grounding guide)
Size P/N Metal P/N Metal Collar* discusses both the merits and problems of the Ufer ground.
1/0 SSR2C001 #45 SVR2C001 #90 B3452C The document also points out that it is practically
2/0 SSR2G001 65 SVR2G001 90 B3452G impossible to isolate the rebar from the grounding system.
4/0 SSR2Q005 90 SVR2Q001 115 B3452Q
250 SSR2V002 115 SVR2V001 150 B3452V The lower resistance of the Ufer grounding system can
350 SSR3D002 150 SVR3D001 200 B3453D be explained by both the large diameter or cross section
500 SSR3Q003 200 SVR3Q001 250 B3453Q of the concrete as compared to a ground rod and the
*One required per weld, horizontal or vertical splice. lower resistivity of the concrete as compared to the
L160 handle clamp required for above molds. earth. Concrete is hygroscopic (absorbs moisture from
Contact factory for other sizes. the surrounding earth). This aids in lowering the
Fig. 1-41 resistance, even in arid regions.
Finished Grade
Foundation Near
Electrical
Service Entrance
The damage to the concrete can be explained due to its
non-homogeneous character and moisture content. CADWELD
During a fault, one path from the rebar to the outside soil To Other
Available
through the concrete will have a lower resistance than Electrodes
any other. The fault current following this path will
cause heating and vaporization of the water (moisture).
The expansion, as the water turns to steam, can cause the Rebar Meeting
concrete to crack or spill. Requirements
of N E C 250-81
CADWELD To Rebar Bare Copper:

The Ufer grounding system is an excellent method for Size Per N E C
low fault currents (housing, light commercial, etc.),

especially in arid regions where driven rods are less
effective. But when high current faults are possible,
including lightning, care must be exercised in designing
the system, especially since it is impossible to isolate the
foundations from the rest of the grounding system.
“UFER “ Ground Detail
Fig. 1-42
We recommend that the current path into the foundation
must be connected (wire ties between rebars as a
minimum) and a metallic path should be provided from
the rebar to the earth. This metallic path should be
connected to an external ground electrode. See Figure 1-
42, “Ufer” ground detail.
Chapter 2: Building Lightning Protection 21
Chapter 2
Building Lightning
Protection
A Critical Extension Of
Grounding
LIGHTNING - AN OVERVIEW about 100 amperes extends down from the cloud, jumping
in a series of zigzag steps, about 100 to 150 feet (30 to 45
Lightning is an electrical discharge within clouds, from m) each, toward the earth. As the leader or leaders (there
cloud to cloud, or from cloud to the earth. Lightning may be more than one) near the earth, a streamer of
protection systems are required to safeguard against opposite polarity rises from the earth or from some
damage or injury caused by lightning or by currents object on the earth. When the two meet, a return stroke
induced in the earth from lightning. of very high current follows the ionized path to the
cloud, resulting in the bright flash called lightning. One
Clouds can be charged with ten to hundreds of millions of or more return strokes make up the flash. Lightning
volts in relation to earth. The charge can be either negative current, ranging from thousands to hundreds of
or positive, although negative charged clouds account for thousands of amperes, heats the air which expands with
98% of lightning strikes to earth. The earth beneath a explosive force, and creates pressures that can exceed 10
charged cloud becomes charged to the opposite polarity. As atmospheres. This expansion causes thunder, and can be
a negatively charged cloud passes, the excess of electrons in powerful enough to damage buildings.
the cloud repels the negative electrons in the earth, causing
the earth’s surface below the cloud to become positively
The National Weather Services of the National
charged. Conversely, a positively charged cloud causes the
Atmospheric Administration (NAA) keeps records of
earth below to be negatively charged. While only about 2%
thunderstorm activity. This data is plotted on maps
of the lightning strikes to earth originate from positively
showing lines of equal numbers of thunderstorm days
charged clouds, these strikes usually have higher currents
(days in which there was at least one occurrence of
than those from negatively charged clouds. Lightning
thunder is heard). Such isokeraunic charts show a wide
protection systems must be designed to handle maximum
geographic variation of thunderstorm activity, from
currents.
more than 90 days per year in central Florida to less than
5 on the West Coast. (Fig. 2-1) Such charts cannot
The air between cloud and earth is the dielectric, or predict the lightning activity at any location, but make it
insulating medium, that prevents flash over. When the possible to judge the extent of exposure and the potential
voltage withstand capability of the air is exceeded, the air benefits of a lightning protection system. However, the
becomes ionized. Conduction of the discharge takes place overriding concerns in protection must be the protection
in a series of discrete steps. First, a low current leader of of people and the reliability of equipment.
10
20 30
40 30
30 20
10
30
30
50 30
5 40 20
20
20 30
50 30 20
40 50
10 40 50
60 50 40
5
40 30
70 50 40
50 60
50
10 50 50 50
20 50 60 60
30 40 40 70 70
40
80
30 80 80
30 60 70 70
50 90
5 40
6 30 90 60
1 80
9
70 60
5
5
49
Isokeraunic Map
Fig. 2-1
This isokeraunic map shows mean annual number of days with thunderstorms in the United States.
The highest frequency is encountered in south central Florida.
New detection devices have been installed around the U.S.

ACTIVE ATTRACTION SYSTEMS
which count the total number of lightning strokes reaching On the left we have systems that are designed to attract the
the earth. This data results in precise occurrence of the total lightning strike. The theory behind this practice is to attract
strokes for a particular period of time for any particular area the lightning to a known and preferred point therefore
rather than thunderstorm days per year. protecting nearby non-preferred points. The most common
way this is done is to have an air terminal that initiates a
Lightning is the nemesis of communication stations, signal streamer that will intercept the lightning down stroke leader
circuits, tall structures and other buildings housing with a pre-ionized path that will be the most attractive for
electronic equipment. In addition to direct strike problems, the main lightning energy to follow.
modern electronics and circuitry are also highly susceptible
to damage from lightning surges and transients. These may
arrive via power, telecommunications and signal lines, even PASSIVE NEUTRAL SYSTEMS
though the lightning strike may be some distance from the
The middle of the continuum represents the conventional or
building or installation.
traditional theory of direct strike protection. Conductors are
positioned on a structure in the places where lightning is
LIGHTNING PROTECTION most likely to strike should a strike occur. We have labeled
these systems as neutral since the air terminal or strike
Lightning protection systems offer protection against termination devices themselves aren’t considered to be any
both direct and indirect effects of lightning. The direct more attractive or unattractive to the lightning stroke then
effects are burning, blasting, fires and electrocution. The the surrounding structure. They are positioned where they
indirect effects are the mis-operation of control or other should be the first conductor in any path that the lightning
electronic equipment due to electrical transients. strike takes to the structure.
The major purpose of lightning protection systems is to

conduct the high current lightning discharges safely into ACTIVE PREVENTION SYSTEMS
the earth. A well-designed system will minimize voltage
The right third of the continuum is where we find the systems
differences between areas of a building or facility and
that are designed to prevent the propagation of a direct stroke
afford maximum protection to people. Direct or electro-
of lightning in the area where they are positioned. There are
magnetically induced voltages can affect power, signal
and data cables and cause significant voltage changes in two theories as to how preventative power occurs. The first is
the grounding system. A well-designed grounding, the “bleed off” theory mentioned previously. The second is that
bonding and surge voltage protection system can control the sharp points on the prevention devices form a corona cloud
and minimize these effects. above them that makes the device an unattractive path to the
lightning stroke.
Since Ben Franklin and other early studiers of lightning, There are some commonalities in these three approaches.
there have been two camps of thought regarding the Each system’s design requires the following:
performance of direct strike lightning protection systems.
Some believe that a pointed lightning rod or air terminal 1. The air terminal or strike termination device must
will help prevent lightning from striking in the immediate be positioned so that it is the highest point on the
vicinity because it will help reduce the difference in structure.
potential between earth and cloud by "bleeding off" charge
2. The lightning protection system must be solidly
and therefore reducing the chance of a direct strike. Others
and permanently grounded. Poor or high resistance
believe that air terminals can be attractors of lightning by
connections to ground is the leading cause of light-
offering a more electrically attractive path for a developing
ning system failure for each one of these systems.
direct strike than those other points on the surface of the
earth that would be competing for it. These two thought To go further in our comparison, we must separate the
"camps" form the two ends of a continuum upon which you prevention systems from the other two. Obviously, if
can place just about any of the direct strike lightning you are counting on preventing a lightning stroke from
protection theories. The continuum could be represented as arriving near you, you don’t have to worry about how to
shown below. deal with the lightning current once you have it on your
Active Passive Active
lightning protection system. None of these systems
Attraction Neutral Prevention
Early Streamer Emission Franklin/Faraday Cage Streamer Delay
claims to protect against 100% of the possibility of a
Dynasphere Blunt Ended Rods Sharp Pointed Rods Spline Balls lightning stroke arriving near you. A compromise must
be made between protection and economics.
There is general agreement that the best theoretical 2. Conduct the strike to ground safely through
lightning system is a solid faraday cage around whatever purpose designed down conductors.
it is that is being protected. An airplane is an example of
this. But even in the case of the airplane, there are 3. Dissipate the lightning energy into the ground with
incidents reported of damage from direct lightning minimum rise in ground potential.
strokes. On the ground, a complete faraday cage solidly 4. Eliminate ground loops and differentials by creating a
tied to ground is an attractive protection scheme, but is low impedance, equipotential ground system.
expensive to accomplish. If it is a general area, and not a
structure that you are trying to protect, the faraday cage 5. Protect equipment from surges and transients on
approach is very impractical. incoming power lines to prevent equipment damage
and costly operational downtime (See Chapter 7).
This book will dwell basically on the passive “Franklin 6. Protect equipment from surges and transients on
Rod” theory for lightning protection. While lightning incoming telecommunications and signal lines to
cannot be prevented, it is possible to design a lightning prevent equipment damage and costly operational
protection system that will prevent injury to people and downtime (See Chapters 4 and 7).
damage to installations in the majority of lightning strikes.
Standards and codes for passive lightning protection
materials and installations that ensure safety and minimize My thanks to Dr. A. J. (Tony) Surtees, Manager - Facility
damage and fire hazards in the great majority of lightning Electrical Protection, North / South America, ERICO, Inc.
strikes are published by Underwriters Laboratory (UL96 & who greatly assisted in the following section.
96A), the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 780)
and the Lightning Protection Institute (LPI-175). Protection A NEW APPROACH TO LIGHTNING
for 100% of the lightning strikes is usually cost prohibitive. PROTECTION
Meeting the codes and standards does not necessarily The overall purpose of a lightning protection system is to
provide protection to sensitive electronic equipment and protect a facility and it's inhabitants from the damage of a
data interconnections. These can be damaged or affected by direct or nearby lightning strike. Since ERICO believes that
voltage levels below those that will harm people or start trying to prevent a lightning strike is unreliable, the best
fires. A well-designed lightning system exceeds the way to protect is to shunt the lightning energy “around” the
minimum code requirements, providing not only safety to vital components/inhabitants of the facility and dissipate
people and protection against fire, but also providing that energy into the earth where it wants to go anyway. The
protection for equipment and the integrity of data and first step in that process is to make sure that lightning,
operations. Manmade structures of steel, concrete or wood when approaching the facility, is attracted to the strike
are relatively good conductors compared to the path of termination devices that have been installed on the structure
lightning through the ionized air. The impedance of a for that purpose. The role of a lightning strike termination
structure is so low compared to that of the lightning path system is to effectively launch an upward leader at the
that the structure has virtually no effect on the magnitude of appropriate time so that it, more so than any other
the stroke. As a result, lightning can be considered a competing feature on the structure, becomes the preferred
constant current source. The current may divide among attachment point for the approaching down leader
several paths to earth, along the outside walls, sides and (lightning strike).
interior of a structure, reducing the voltage drop to ground.
Better protection is provided by multiple paths to ground, As the down leader approaches the ground, the ambient
including the many paths through the steel building electric field rapidly escalates to the point where any point
structure. All structural metal items must be bonded. Bolted on the structures projecting into this field begin to cause air
joints in steel columns are usually adequately bonded as are breakdown and launch upward streamer currents. If the
properly lapped and tied or mechanical rebar splices. ambient field into which such streamers are emitted is high
enough, the partially ionized streamer will convert to a
Effective lightning protection involves the integration of fully ionized up-leader. The ability of the air termination to
several concepts and components. In general, lightning launch a sustainable up-leader that will be preferred over
protection can be indexed as follows: any other point on the structure, determines it’s
effectiveness as an imminent lightning attachment point.
1. Capture the lightning strike on purpose designed
lightning terminals at preferred points. The Franklin Rod or conventional approach to lightning
protection has served the industry well, but since its
inception over 200 years ago, the nature and scope of The Dynasphere CLT is a passive terminal, which requires no
lighting protection has changed considerably. Lightning external power source, relying solely on the energy contained
protection then was principally a defense against fire. in the approaching leader for its dynamic operation. This
Wooden buildings, when struck by lightning, would remarkable terminal has the ability to concentrate only that
often burn. Barns and churches were the main facilities electric field which occurs in the millisecond time slots as the
seeking this protection due to their height. Today, fire is leader charge approaches the ground. The principle of
still a concern, but not always the main concern. A operation of this terminal relies on the capacitive coupling of
modern facility of almost any kind contains electronic the outer sphere of the terminal to the approaching leader
equipment and microprocessors. Facility owners are charge. This in turn raises the voltage of the spherical surface
concerned about avoiding downtime, data loss, to produce a field concentration across the insulated air gap
personnel injury & equipment damage as well as fire. between the outer sphere and grounded central finial. As the
leader continues to approach, the voltage on the sphere rises
The materials used to construct facilities have changed until a point is reached where the air gap between the central
dramatically also. Steel columns and the steel in reinforced finial and outer surface breaks down. This breakdown creates
concrete compete as low impedance conductors for lightning local photo-ionization and the release of excess free ions.
energy. The myriad of electrical/electronic equipment and These then accelerate under the intensified field to initiate an
conductors that crisscross every level of the facility are at risk avalanche condition and the formation of an up streamer
just by being near conductors energized from nearby lightning begins.
strikes. The lightning codes of the past don’t adequately
address these issues. Bonding of downconductors to electrical The DYNASPHERE CLT is designed to ensure that it only
apparatus within 3 to 6 feet is required and can add substantial launches an up-streamer when it has sensed that the electric
wiring to a facility if there are a lot of downconductors. field ahead of it is high enough to ensure propagation. This
Further, the need for lightning protection for these electrically is unlike the way in which many other so called Early
sophisticated facilities is growing. Streamer Emission terminals operate. It was developed
through research and test equipment that wasn't available to
The amount of knowledge about lightning has increased earlier designers, but also developed by building on the
dramatically also. Information about the behavior of wealth of knowledge created by those that came before us.
leaders, the changing of electrical fields leading up to a
strike, the effects of impedance of various competing Spark Gap
downconductors, and diagnostic equipment has all
increased dramatically. This gives today's designers of
Corona Drain
lightning protection systems a large advantage over Impedance
those of just 20 years ago.
Insulated
These technological advances and market demands for Aluminum
Sphere
more cost effective lightning protection systems have
prompted many new and novel approaches to lightning pro-
tection. One such system is the ERICO System 3000 ™ .
This system’s components are Dynasphere ™ Controlled
FRP Support
Leader Triggering (CLT) air terminals typically used with Mast
Ericore™ low impedance, insulated downconductor. This

system enables the facility owner to use fewer air terminals
with fewer downconductors. The result is:
Conductor
• fewer conductors to bond to nearby electrical apparatus. Termination
• the ability to run downconductors down through

the middle of a building.
• less congestion on the roof of a building (this
is especially important when reroofing).
• a safer building roof for workers.
• the ability to protect open spaces as well as buildings.
• an overall more cost effective lightning
protection system. Fig. 2-2 Dynasphere™ Controlled Leader Emission
(CLT) Air Terminal
Calculation of the Protective Coverage where I is measured in kA and Q in coulombs. From

offered by an air terminal Table 2 a discharge having a peak current of 5kA would
correspond to a leader charge of approximately 0.5
Collection Volume Design Method
coulombs. Further calculation and extrapolation from
A more efficient air terminal demands a new design Table 1 are shown in Table 2.
philosophy and discipline. ERICO has developed an
alternative design method matched to the performance of Leader Peak Percent Protection
Charge Current (I) Exceeding Level
the System 3000™ lightning protection system. This
(Q) Value
method is based on the work of Dr. A. J. Eriksson, the
0.5C 6.5kA 98% High
noted lightning researcher. A detailed description can be
0.9C 10kA 93% Medium
found in the Australian Lightning Protection Standards
1.5C 16kA 85% Standard
NZS/AS1768-1991, section A8.
Table 2 - Statistical probability of a down-leader
The Collection Volume method provides an empirical and exceeding the peak current indicated
quantitative method based on design parameters such as, the
structure height, field intensification of structural projections, Figure 3 shows a downward leader approaching an
leader charge, site height and relative propagation velocities of isolated ground point. A striking distance hemisphere is
the intercepting leaders. The model can be developed for three set up about this point. The radius is dependent on the
dimension structures and offers a more rigorous approach to charge on the leader head and corresponds to the
lightning protection design. distance where the electric field strength will exceed
critical value. That is, the field strength becomes
Item Lightning Percentage of events having Unit adequate to launch an intercepting upward leader.
Characteristic value of characteristic
99 90 75 50 25 10 1
Lightning
1 Number of 1 1 2 3 5 7 12 Leader
component
strokes
2 Time Interval 10 25 35 55 90 150 400 ms
between
strokes
3 First stroke 5 12 20 30 50 80 130 kA Spherical
current Imax Surface
4 Subsequent 3 6 10 15 20 30 40 kA Striking
stroke peak
current Imax Distance B
5 First stroke 6 10 15 25 30 40 70 GA/s
between
strokes (dI/dt)max
6 Subsequent 6 15 25 45 80 100 200 GA/s Ground C
stroke (dI/dt)max
7 Total charge 1 3 6 15 40 70 200 C
delivered
8 Continuing 6 10 20 30 40 70 100 C
Fig. 2-3 Spherical Surface with
current charge
9 Continuing 30 50 80 100 150 200 400 A Striking Distance radius about point A
current Imax
10 Overall duration 50 100 250 400 600 900 1500 ms
of flash The striking distance hemisphere reveals that lightning
11 Action integral 102 3x102 103 5x103 3x104 105 5x105 A2.s leaders with weak electric charge approach much closer to
the ground point before achieving the critical conditions for
initiation of the upward leader. The higher the magnitude of
Table 1 (Table A1 NZS/AS1768-
charge, the greater the distance between leader and ground
1991) Distribution of the Main
point when critical conditions are achieved. For design
Characteristics of the Lightning
purposes a hemisphere radius can be selected which relates
Flash to Ground
to a desired level of protection. The Collection Volume
Table 1 (taken from NZS/AS1768-1991) illustrates the method takes into account the relative velocities of the
statistical distribution of lightning parameters. Item 3 in upward and downward leaders. Not all leaders that enter a
the table can be used in determining the statistical levels striking distance hemisphere will proceed to interception.
of protection. Using the equation below, protection Leaders entering the outer periphery of the hemispheres are
levels directly relating to peak current discharge, I, and likely to continue their downward movement and to
the corresponding leader charge, Q, are derived: intercept a different upward leader (issuing from an
I = 10.6 Q0.7
alternative structure or feature on the ground). This leads The larger collection volumes of enhanced air terminals
to the development of a limiting parabola. The enclosed means that fewer such terminals are required on a
volume is known as the Collection Volume. A downward structure. They should be positioned such that their
progressing leader entering this volume is assured of collection volumes overlap the natural small Collection
interception. Figure 4 shows how the velocity parabola Volumes of the structure projections.
limits the size of the Collection Volume.
This method is visually more attractive and convenient
to apply by consultants in lightning protection design.
Equal Spherical Lightning
Figure 5 shows the Collection Volume Concept when
Probability Leader applied to a structure.
Locus Surface
Strike 1
Collection
Volume
Striking
Distance
B
Strike 2
A
A
Ground C
Fig. 2-4 Collection Volume formed

by equal-
probability locus and spherical Fig. 2-5 The Collection Volume Design Concept
surface
The design discipline employed in lightning protection
Designing with Collection Volumes using statistically design is critical to reliable systems. Erico’s system has
derived lightning parameters as in Table 2 will provide been tested and has been used in the accomplishment of
designers with better risk analysis. Magnitudes of over 7000 successful installations around the globe over
Collection Volumes are determined according to peak the past 15 years. Many of these installations are on high
current. That is, if the designer desires a high level of risk structures in some of the most active lightning
protection (peak current 6.5kA), 98% of all lightning environments on the planet.
exceeds this value. Discharges of greater magnitude will
have larger Collection Volumes that create greater overlap LIGHTNING PROTECTION
in the capture area of air terminals. A design based on COMPONENTS
lightning with small peak current can be considered conser-
vative. The design performed to 98% High level does not A lightning protection system is comprised of a chain of
mean that all lightning less than that level will miss an air components properly specified and properly installed to
termination. There is simply a statistical chance some provide a safe path to ground for the lightning current. The
lightning may not intercept with an upward leader lightning protection system provides an uninterrupted
emanating from within the Collection Volume. conductive (low impedance) path to earth. Lightning does
not always strike the highest point. The rolling ball theory
The Collection Volume model assumes all points on the of determining what is protected from lightning strikes,
structure are potential strike points, and as such exhibit described below, is widely accepted as a sound approach to
natural Collection Volumes. sizing and positioning air terminals on the top of structures,
and for tall structures, on the sides of the structure.
ERICO, Inc. has developed a computer program that
evaluates the corresponding electric field intensity at Properly designed lightning protection systems based
each stage and compares the electric field intensification on existing standards ensure adequate conducting and
of competing points (building corners and edges, surge diverting paths which have been proven safe for
antennae, equipment, masts etc). The program then people, structures and equipment in the great majority
evaluates which point will first generate the upward of cases. Other systems exist which are not covered in
moving leader which meets the downward leader. The standards. These systems, which claim to prevent
main discharge return stroke follows the
lightning strikes, must be considered carefully before
upward/downward leader path. An attractive radius for
installation.
each relevant point can then be calculated.
The following are basic components for a lightning the conductive item. Side flashes can occur between
protection system. Sketches at the end of this section lightning conductors and building steel, permanently
depict the many requirements discussed. mounted ladders, equipment, etc. even though all are
connected to a common ground or earthing point. The
Air terminals, often called lightning rods, lightning points instantaneous voltage difference can become
or strike termination devices are blunt or pointed, solid or dangerously high because of the high impedance of the
tubular rods of copper, bronze, stainless steel or aluminum. various paths to the steep wave front lightning current,
On large (over 500 sq. inch [0.323 sq. m] flue cross resulting in large voltage drops. Even when no side flash
section), tall (over 75 feet or 23 m) smoke stacks, the air occurs, the large voltage differences can cause electronic
terminals must be stainless steel, monel metal or lead noise and component failure. Often, latent component
jacketed solid copper. (Fig. 2-6) Air terminals are normally failure, created by repeated voltage stress, will cause
between 10 and 24 inch (254 to 610 mm) long but may be equipment failure at a time when no lightning or other
longer. Although they are normally pointed, a blunt rod has outside influence is present. This problem is likely to be
been tested and found to be more effective. Since they are made much worse where there are separate equipment
usually thin pointed rods, protection should be provided to grounds, not bonded together (which is a violation of the
minimize the danger of injury in areas where personnel may National Electrical Code [NEC]).
be present. The protection can be in several forms but the
most common is the use of tall air terminals or blunt rods. A few general rules are that the conductors must be
Terminals that are more than 24 inches (610 mm) high horizontal or course downward from the air terminal to the
require extra support other than the base mount. ground electrode; they cannot have a bend over 90° (Fig. 2-
7); they cannot have a bend radius tighter than 8 inch (200
Conductors connect the air terminals to each other, to the mm) radius (Fig. 2-7); they cannot be coursed through the
metal structure of the building, to miscellaneous metal parts
of the building and down to the counterpoise and/or earth
electrodes. Building connections are made to the steel
columns or to the rebars (steel reinforcing bars) used in
concrete construction. In most large buildings, the heavy
steel structure provides a much lower impedance path to
24"
earth than separate down conductors installed as part of the
lightning protection system. These steel columns can be
used as the down conductors. Since the lightning current is
not effected by the structure, multiple down conductor
paths in parallel will result in lower voltage differences
between the top of the building and the foundation. This Lead Coated
voltage differential can be important in buildings with

electronic equipment interconnected between floors, in
antenna towers and similar instances.
The size of the conductors is not too important although

they must meet the minimum requirements of the
lightning code. For example, a 4/0 conductor is only
slightly better (lower impedance) than a No. 6 AWG
conductor for the short duration (high frequency) of the
lightning stroke. Although the ampacity (DC resistance) Fig. 2-6
of these two conductors are different (by a factor of
approximately 8), short time impulses have voltage 90 Maximum Bend
drops that are usually within about 20% of each other.
The lightning down conductors must be bonded to the 8" Minimum Bend Radius
building steel. Also included are any conductive items

which may cause side flashes resulting from instantaneous
voltages that exceed the voltage withstand capability of the
air or other insulating material between the conductor and
Fig. 2-7
air without support for more than 3 feet (0.9 m) (Fig. 2- bonded to the conductor at the location where that
8) and they must be fastened at a maximum of every 3 separation distance is less than 6 feet (1.8 m). NFPA 780
feet (0.9 m) using non-ferrous fasteners. (Fig. 2-9) further clarifies this in cases where a metallic object is
between the downlead and the grounded item. (Fig 2-10) In
Conductor material must comply with the lightning addition, Section 250-86 requires that lightning conductors
codes and be compatible with the surfaces which it and driven rods or pipes, or any other made electrode that is
contacts. Aluminum conductors cannot be used within used for lightning system protection shall not be used in
18 inches (460 mm) of finished grade. lieu of the grounding electrode system discussed in Chapter
1. This is not to say that the two systems shall not be
Conductors must be at least the minimum size specified bonded together, only that there must be two systems with
by the National Fire Protection code (NFPA-780), UL96 two distinct purposes that are interconnected. The intercon-
and/or LPI-175, and for heavy fault conditions should be
calculated in accordance with IEEE Std 80.
NEC (250-46) requires electrical raceways, equipment, etc.

that are within 6 feet (1.8 m) of a lightning conductor to be Grounded Item
Lightning Protection Downlead (EG.Water Pipe)
Metal Window
36"
Maximum
A B
Non-Conductive
Bridge Over Building
36" If A + B = 6 Feet
Or Less, Bond Lightning
Protection Downlead
To Water Pipe Near Window.
Side Flash Bounding Requirements

Fig. 2-8 Fig. 2-10
Fig. 2-9
24" Minimum
10' Or More
24 Feet Minimum
Moist Clay Soil Shallow Sandy Soil

Fig. 2-11 Fig. 2-13
12" x 12"
(1 Square Foot)
12 Inch to 24 Inch
Minimum Plate Electrode
Fig. 2-14
structures, equipment and ground electrodes. They can be

12 Feet Minimum
mechanical devices or exothermic welded connections.
Connections to thin metal or to aluminum items must be
mechanical. A properly made connection must last as long
Shallow Topsoil as the planned life of the facility and have:
Fig. 2-12
1. Adequate mechanical strength to withstand the
necting or bonding of the two systems helps to ensure that forces of nature and any outside force it may
there is little possibility of a difference of potential between encounter.
the two systems or the two systems’ components.
2. High thermal capacity for high current surges.
Because this bonding requirement is difficult to 3. Low and constant impedance.
implement in many facility installations, some low
impedance screened down conductors are being used 4. Corrosion resistance.
successfully by ERICO in Australia and Asia. These
5. No electrochemical deterioration when joining
conductors are specially constructed and therefore
different materials.
relatively expensive, but the reduced chance of side
flashes and the ease of installation are very attractive. Grounding electrodes make the connection between the
lightning protection system and the earth. The lightning
Connectors bond the conductors to the air terminals, electrodes must be bonded to all other grounding system
10' Min.
10' Min.
10' Min. 10' Min.
Sandy Or Gravelly SoilAlternate Layouts

Fig. 2-15
electrodes as required by the NEC (250-81 and 250-86) conductors are laid in trenches extending away from the
and the several lightning codes such as NFPA 780. No building. The trenches shall be 1 to 2 feet (0.31 to 0.62
exceptions! Failure to bond all grounding electrodes m) deep and 12 feet (3.7 m) long in clay soil (Fig. 2-12)
together can result in dangerous voltage differences and 2 feet (0.62 m) deep and 24 feet (7.4 m) long in
between exposed metal connected to ground points, sandy or gravelly soil. (Fig. 2-13) In rare cases where
especially during lightning strikes or ground faults. Such this is imprac-ticable, the lightning cable shall be buried
voltage differences injure people and destroy equipment. in 2 feet (.62 m) deep trenches. Where this is impossible,
the cable may be laid directly on top of the bedrock at
Transient earth clamps are available that act as an open least 2 feet (0.62 m) from the foundation or exterior
switch during normal operation but turn on during an footing. This cable must be terminated on a buried
overvoltage event to bond the systems together. These copper plate at least 0.032 in (0.813 mm) thick and 1
are approved for use in some countries for bonding square foot (0.093 square m) area. (Fig. 2-14)
between the separate ground electrode systems.
Sandy or gravelly soil. In sandy or gravelly soil, the
The purpose of establishing a low resistance connection to lightning conductor shall extend away from the building
earth is to conduct lightning current away from people, in a trench at least 12 inch deep. The ground rod shall be
equipment and structures. A low resistance grounding 20 feet long or greater or there shall be 2 or more rods
system is desirable in a lightning protection system but not separated at least 10 feet driven vertically to a minimum
essential. In an area where the soil resistivity is high, an 10 feet below grade. (Fig. 2-15)
extensive network of conductors still may not provide a
low grounding resistance. But, the potential distribution If the soil is less than 12 inch thick, a counterpoise (or
about the building is substantially the same as though it network of conductors) in a trench or rock crevices shall
were setting on conductive soil with a low resistance surround the structure. The counterpoise conductor must
grounding scheme. The resulting lightning protection is be copper, sized to meet Class I main cable size. If the
also substan-tially the same. The minimum electrode structure is over 75 feet in height, the cable must be
requirements vary with the soil type. sized to meet Class II main size copper. These cable
sizes are listed in the various lightning codes. In extreme
Moist clay. The electrode shall extend vertically at least 10 cases, copper plates may also be required.
feet into the earth. The rod size shall be at least 1/2 inch by 8
feet (5/8 x 8 for buildings over 75 feet high). (Fig. 2-11)
Shallow top soil. If bedrock is near the surface, the

NFPA 780, STANDARD FOR THE must be bonded at both ends to ensure electrical
PROTECTION OF LIGHTNING continuity.
SYSTEMS - AN OVERVIEW 5. Section 3-9.1: In general, where air terminals are
In addition to the general requirements covered above, the used, they shall be mounted such that the tip of the
following requirements apply to those lightning instal- terminal is at least 10 inches above the object or
lations which must be installed in conformance with NFPA area it is to protect. (Fig. 2-16) However, Section
780. Keep in mind that these requirements represent a 3-11 allows air terminals to be placed at 25 foot
small portion of NFPA 780. Designers and installers who intervals (rather than 20 foot intervals) provided
must meet these requirements are encouraged to obtain a they are at least 24 inches above the object or area
copy of the standard to review all of the lightning system they are intended to protect. (Fig. 2-17)
provisions. 6. Section 3-10.3.1: The rolling ball theory of
protection is a frequently used concept to
1. Section 1-3: Unless approved by the authority determine the area of protection around a building
having jurisdiction, all lightning system compon- or structure from lightning strikes. Basically, the
ents shall be listed or labeled. In other words, a zone of protection is thought to include the space
testing laboratory, such as Underwriters not intruded by rolling a ball, which has a radius of
Laboratories (UL), must have evaluated the 150 feet. In other words, if the rolling ball were to
product to determine that it meets appropriate touch two air terminals, there must be a gap
designated standards and is suitable for use in a between the bottom of the rolling ball and the
specified manner. Exothermic connections, structure to be in the zone of protection. (Fig. 2-18)
properly installed, while not listed, are routinely
approved by UL inspectors. 7. Section 3-16.1: Ground rods which are used to
terminate a down conductor must be at least 1/2
2. Section 1-4: As with any electrical work performed inch in diameter and a minimum of 8 ft in length.
under the NEC, the installation of lightning Ground rods are permitted to be constructed of
protection systems installed under NFPA 780, must copperbonded steel, copper, hot-dipped galvanized
be in a neat and workmanlike fashion. While the steel or stainless steel. The connection of the down
terms “neat and workmanlike” are undefined, this conductor to the ground rod must be made by
general requirement should clearly prohibit shoddy bolting, brazing, welding or other listed high-
work on lightning protection systems. compression connectors. ERICO offers a full line
of high-strength, corrosion-resistant ground rods
3. Section 3-1: NFPA 780 contains two classes of
and accessories such as CADWELD connections,
materials that must be used to install lightning
grounding clamps, couplers and driving tools to
protection systems, Class I and Class II materials.
meet the needs of contractors installing ground
Class I materials are used on ordinary structures
rods.
which do not exceed 75 feet in height. Class II
materials must be used for ordinary structures 8. Section 3-17: To ensure that a common grounding
which exceed 75 feet in height. An ordinary potential exists for all metal objects in and around
structure can be a residential, industrial, the building, all metal objects shall be intercon-
commercial, farm or institutional type of structure. nected, including; electrical service, telephone,
NFPA 780 contains charts which list the different CATV, underground metallic piping systems and
materials for both classes. For example, solid type gas piping systems, provided the connections are
air terminals for Class I structures must be a made on the customer’s side of the meter.
minimum diameter of 3/8 inch copper or 1/2 inch
aluminum. For Class II structures, solid type air 9. Section 3-19.1: If the building contains a structural
terminals must be a minimum of 1/2 inch copper or steel framework, such framework may be permitted
5/8 inch aluminum. to be used as the main conductor of the lightning
protection system provided the structural steel is
4. Section 3-7: Any lightning system protection electrically continuous. (The LPI standard LPI-175
components which are subject to physical damage or also requires the steel to be at least 3/16” (4.8mm)
displacement are required to be adequately protected thick.) Where such steel is not electrically
by protective molding or coverings. Metal raceways continuous it can be made so by the use of
are permitted to be used, but as with the grounding appropriate bonding jumpers. (Fig. 2-19)
electrode conductor, metal raceways
10. Section 3-19.4: Where the building structural steel

is used as the main conductor of the lightning
protection system, a ground rod or other ground
Less
terminal shall be connected to approximately every Than 24"
other perimeter steel column. Such connection
shall be made at the base of the column and at
intervals not to exceed an average of about 60 feet.
20' MAX
10" Min
10" Min
24" Or
Higher
25' MAX
Fig. 2-17
Air terminals less than 24” in height are located at
H = Over 24"
20 feet maximum intervals. If 24 inches or higher,
they can be spaced at 25 feet intervals.
Air terminals located in areas where personnel
>1/2 H may be present, 60 inch terminals are
recommended at mid-roof locations.
10" Min
H = Over 24"
>1/2 H
150 Foot
Radius
No Air Terminal; Roof Edge

Covered Under Higher
Air Terminal Protection.
Air Terminals Height And Supports

Fig. 2-16
Fig. 2-18
24" Min.
Bond Roof Flashing
To Lightning Protection Roof

System.
Horizontal Beam
Jumper Bond Between

Horizontal Beam And Column.
Exterior Wall Column
Air Terminal
At Mechanical Equipment
Bonding Jumper
Weld Bond At Column Base.

First Floor
3'-0" Note:
Provide A Jumper At All

Grade Bolted Horizontal Beam
At All Exterior Wall Columns.
2'-0"
Connection At Column Base
Typical Down Conductor
Fig. 2-19
Plastic Conduit
Protection
Steel Fastener
Must Not Encircle Conduit,
OK For Non Ferrous
Fastener.
Fastener Material Must

Be Compatable With
Conduit Material.
Fig. 2-21
Fig. 2-20 Fasteners for either the conductor or the conduit
Protection must be provided to the conductor in must not encircle the conduit or conductor if made
areas where physical damage or displacement of a ferrous material. The fastener must be of a
may occur. PVC conduit is the preferred protector. material compatible with the item fastened.
LIGHTNING SAFETY ANALYSIS

It is recommended that a lightning safety analysis be made
of facilities and areas subject to lightning. Following are
parameters to consider and recommendations:
1. Make a physical inspection. Identify hazards and

threats which will contribute to lightning danger at
the site. Bond To Steel
2. Make a study of lightning strike probability.

Review the five-year actual strike data from
archives. Estimate the probable future annual strike
density within 1 square km.
3. Do a grounding analysis. Measure existing grounds 200 Foot MaxT
(ohms). Do a soil analysis (ohms-m). Determine

type and amount of additional grounding needed to
meet desired resistance. Establish an inspection /
maintenance protocol.
4. Evaluate the existing air terminal / down conductor
/ bonding / shielding. Evaluate all appropriated
designs and options. Establish an inspection /
maintenance protocol.
5. Consider surge suppression devices. Make a study
of the electrical signature of the facility. Identify Tall Structural Steel Building
vulnerabilities. Identify signal / energy protection
options. Recommend detailed Fortress Concept Fig. 2-22
protection. Downleads following steel members must be
bonded to the steel at the upper and lower
6. Perimeter review. Identify “safe / not safe” zones
extremities and at 200 foot maximum intervals.
or areas for personnel. Identify potential DC,
Capacitive and inductive coupling to critical and
non-critical areas. Recommend “best available”
shelter options. 16'
7. Lightning detection and personnel notification.

Develop criteria for cessation of activities.
Recommend appropriate lightning detection and
signaling devices. Integrate decisions into overall
Facility Safety Plan.
8. Implement recommendations. Certify correct
installation of all safety devices. Create appropriate
safety signage, brochures, literature, posters and 40'
text relating to the lightning plan at the facility.

Prepare affidavit indicating that the facility uses
“best available technology” for lightning safety.
(From National Lightning Safety Institute.)
Fig. 2-23
A dead end conductor must be no longer than 16
feet. If over 16 feet, a second conductor path must
be added.
Pocket Or "V"
Incorrect
Incorrect
Correct
Correct
Fig. 2-26
The main conductor must never be
coursed upward.
Fig. 2-24
Conductors must never be coursed upward.
A
If over 40 feet,
add down lead

at "A"
Fig. 2-27
Pocket, Downlead,
If a projection is over 40 feet on the three sides,
Incorrect Correct a downlead must be provided at (A) on both sides
of the projection.
Fig. 2-25
The conductor must never be coursed upward.
If Over 40 Feet,
Add A Down Lead
At "A"
#2/0
Finished Roof
CADWELD
Connection
Fig. 2-28 Fig. 2-31

If a projection extends over 40 feet, a downlead at Using the structural steel as the down conductor.
(A) must be provided on the projection.
CADWELD Bare Copper Conductor

Connection
3/4" Schedule
1" PVC Conduit By
80 Non-Metallic
Electrical Contractor
Conduit
Finished Grade
Concrete Slab
#2/0
1'-0"
Depth
2'-0" Min.
CADWELD + 6" To 1'-0"
Clearance Below Grade
Connection
3/4" x 10'-0" CADWELD

Driven Type GR
Ground Rod Ground Rod
Connection
Fig. 2-29
Using the structural steel as the down conductor.
5/8" x 10'
Copperclad
Steel
Ground Rod
Fig. 2-32
Detail of conductor through the foundation.
Fig. 2-30
Clamp to cast iron or copper water pipe.
Seal End Of Conduit

12" x 12"
(1 Square Foot)
Lightning
Conductor
Final Thru-Roof Flashing

8" Max.
By Roofing Contractor
Fig. 2-35
Electrodes made from copper or steel plates are
often used in soil less than 12” thick.
Cable Behind Parapet
1" PVC Conduit
Cable And Conduit Down

To Ground
Cable On Top Of Parapet
Fig. 2-33
Detail of conductor through the roof.
CADWELD Mold VVR18001

CADWELD W/M 2-#200
CADWELD TYPE SS (Prefab)
3/4" C-Clad Rod
CADWELD TYPE GQ
Fig. 2-36
Pipe Cap Lightning conductors and points may be mounted
on top of or behind the parapet of flat roofs.
1-1/2" IPS
Fig. 2-34 Fig. 2-37

Using a copper-clad rod welded to a pipe as an Two paths from the air terminals to the ground
air terminal. electrode system are required.
Feet Max
50
Feet Max
50
Over 50 Feet
Fig. 2-38
On large flat roofs or gently
sloping roofs, air
terminals are placed in the center
area at intervals
not exceeding 50 feet. Fig. 2-40
Conductor may be welded to air terminal or
Place Air Terminal attached with an approved clamp.
Anywhere Within
Hatched Area
2
Protected
24"Max Max
24"
Air Terminal
2 Required
.2 1
Air terminals placed within
2 feet of the corners and edges
of flat or gently sloping roofs
and the ends of roof ridges.
Dormers
Fig. 2-41
Dormers on buildings 25’ or less in height require
air terminals on the dormer projecting beyond the
2:1 pitch line require air terminals.
Fig. 2-42 Fig. 2-45

Concealed systems are common on residential Structural steel may be used as the conductor if
installations. properly bonded.
Ridge Higher
24 Inch Than Outer Ridge
Maximum
A
Finished Roof
A A
#2/0
CADWELD
Connection
Ridge Equal To
Or Lower Than
Outer Ridge
Fig. 2-43
Detail of air terminal with the steel structure used
A B A
as the down conductor.
#2/0
Finished Roof Silicone Sealant
A Close ( 20' Or 25') Spacing B 50' Spacing
Air Terminal Spacing On Roofs With Multiple Ridges
CADWELD Connection
Fig. 2-46
Fig. 2-44 Air terminal placement on ridged roofs vary with
Detail of air terminal with the steel structure used ridge height in relation to the other ridges.
as the down conductor.
24" Min.
Fig. 2-47 Fig. 2-50
More extensive systems are required on larger All rooftop equipment must have air terminals unless
buildings and with different soil conditions. they have skins more than 3/16 inch thick. If they
have skins more than 3/16 inch, they must be proper-
ly bonded and will be considered as air terminals.
Lightning
Mast (Pipe)
CADWELD Type VB
Weld
Copper
Downlead
Fig. 2-48
Very large buildings require more air terminals,
down leads and ground terminals.
CADWELD Type VV
Copper Downlead
Main Grid
150 Foot
Radius
No Air Terminal; Roof Edge

Covered Under Higher CADWELD Type TA
Air Terminal Protection.
Fig. 2-49 Fig. 2-51

Protected areas can also be Steel tower lightning masts may be used in
determined using the locations such as electrical substations.
rolling ball theory.
Bare Copper When Used As

Midroof Air CADWELD TypeGS
Point 20' Max. Terminal. Flat Copper Cable Holder. (Prefab) or GC
Spacing 50' Maximum
Secure With Adhesive
Spacing
CADWELD
Type PC
Cast Bronze
Adhesive Point Base.
Secure With Adhesive.
CADWELD Type
GY Connection
NOTE: Actual point base to be

determined by field conditions
Main Copper Conductor Main Copper Conductor
Alternate Method
Fig. 2-52
Connections to air terminals may be CADWELD welded connections.
Lightning Mast
CADWELD Type
VB Connection
Shield Wire
Dead End Clamp
CADWELD Type
PC Connection (Prefab)
Or Type PB Connection
Attach Grd. Wire

To Col. Leg @
Max 10" Spacing
CADWELD Type
VV Connection CADWELD Type
TA Connection
Fig. 2-54
Basic lightning protection on a small building consisting
of air terminals, down leads and ground electrodes.
Ground Grid
Fig. 2-53
Steel tower lightning masts and shield wires may
be used in locations such as electrical substations.
Bond
Fig. 2-55
The lightning protection system must be
bonded to
the electrical grounding system.
Flat Gable Hip Mansard
Roof Types And General Air Terminal Placement
Fig. 2-56
Air terminal placement shown on various types of roofs.
4
1
8
1
40' Or Less Over 40 Feet
Flat Or Gently Sloping Roof
Fig. 2-57
Flat or gently sloping roofs are defined as shown.
Protected 2
Protected
50 Feet 1
Or Less
25 Feet
Or Less
Building Over 25' But Not Over 50' High Building Not Over 25' High
Fig. 2-58
Protected areas can be determined using a sloping line, with the angle dependent on the height of the structure.
46
Chapter 3: Building Interior Bonding and Grounding 47
Chapter 3
Building Interior
Bonding And Grounding
The Bonding And
Grounding Of Building Steel,
Electrical Panels And Other
Power Systems Equipment.
Introduction
Bonding
Grounding
Ground Bars And
Ground Bus
Chapter 3: Building Interior Bonding & Grounding 49
INTRODUCTION Installers should also be aware that Section 250-71 (b)

contains a frequently overlooked provision regarding the
In addition to electrical service grounding and supple- interconnection of other systems which may be present in
mental building grounding, designers and installers of the building or structure. This section requires that an
electrical systems face critical grounding and bonding accessible means be left at the service equipment, in an
decisions throughout the entire building. The purpose of external location, which can be used for connecting
this chapter is to focus on the equipment grounding and bonding and grounding conductors of other systems. Recall
bonding requirements set forth in the National Electrical that Section 250-54 requires a common grounding
Code (NEC). Keep in mind that the purpose of bonding is electrode system to be installed and prohibits separate
different from that of grounding. Metallic components of grounding system installations. Installers of the service
electrical systems are bonded to ensure electrical continuity equipment must provide a means for interconnecting the
of the components. The purpose of bonding is to create an grounding systems of communication circuits, radio and
equipotential plane that ensures that all metallic television equipment and CATV circuits. Section 250-71
components are at the same potential to ground. Grounding, (b) lists three permissible methods to facilitate the
on the other hand, is an intentional connection to the earth intercon-nection of these systems. The first option is to
or some other conducting body that serves in place of the use the exposed metallic service raceways. The second
earth. The purpose of grounding conductive materials, such option is to connect to the exposed GEC. The last option
as metal raceways and equipment enclosures, is to limit and is to bond a copper or other corrosion-resistant
stabilize the voltage to ground on such enclosures. conductor of at least a No. 6 AWG copper, to the service
Unintentional contact with higher voltage lines or lightning raceway or equipment. ERICO has a complete line of
strikes results in increased voltages on the electrical CADWELD connections and mechanical connectors
equipment. The most important reason however, for that can be used to meet the requirements of Sections
grounding such enclosures is to provide a low impedance 250-71, 800-40, 810-21 and 820-40.
path for ground-fault current. The low impedance path
ensures that the overcurrent device which is protecting the
Section 250-72 lists the permissible methods which can be
conductors will operate. Several specific bonding
used to bond together the service equipment listed above. Five
requirements are included in the NEC, covering topics such
basic methods are listed, any one of which can be used to bond
as: service bonding, enclosure bonding, bonding over 250
the service equipment together. The first method is to use the
volts, bonding of piping systems and exposed structural
grounded service conductor. On the line side of the service
steel, and swimming pools and fountain bonding.
equipment there is no separate equipment grounding
Grounding requirements include: general equipment
conductor. The grounded conductor assumes this role on the
grounding provisions, specific equipment grounding
line side of the service. Section 250-113 lists the permissible
provisions, grounding cord-and-plug connected equipment,
means for any connection made to the grounded conductor.
and receptacle grounding.
These include CADWELD exothermic welded connections,
BONDING listed pressure connectors (wirenuts), listed clamps, and other
listed means. The second method is to use threaded
Service Equipment Bonding. Section 250-71 of the NEC connections. This includes threaded couplings or bosses. It is
contains the general provisions for bonding of service important that these connections be made wrenchtight to
equipment. Service equipment is any equipment ensure a low impedance connection. The third method is to use
necessary for the main control and means of cutoff of the threadless couplings or connectors. These fittings are available
supply of electricity to a building or structure. for rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit and EMT.
Specifically, the following service equipment must be Once again it is important that the connections be made up
effectively bonded together: service raceways, cable wrenchtight to ensure the low impedance ground path.
trays, service cable armor/sheath, cablebus framework, Installers should note that the NEC specifically prohibits the
service equipment enclosures and any metallic raceways use of standard locknuts or bushings, even if a double
which contain a grounding electrode conductor. Keep in arrangement is used, (one on the inside and one on the outside)
mind that it is critical that these components be to achieve the bonding required by this section. The fourth
effectively bonded together to ensure the fastest possible method is to use bonding jumpers. Bonding jumpers ensure
clearing of faults. This is because for most service electrical continuity by providing a low impedance path across
entrance conductors the only overcurrent protection concentric or eccentric knockouts that may be part of the
provided is on the line side of the utility transformer. In service equipment. The last method is to use other approved
most cases the rating or setting of these primary devices
will not be adequate to protect the service equipment if
large magnitude fault currents are not cleared promptly.
devices. This would include fittings such as bonding- couplings and connectors for metal sheath cables, double
type locknuts and grounding bushings. These fittings are locknut installations for RMC, IMC, fittings with shoulders
designed to make good contact with the metal enclosure which seat firmly against the enclosure for EMT, flexible
and help to ensure good electrical continuity. metal conduit (FMC), and cable connectors, and other
listed fittings. Keep in mind that if the box or enclosure has
Bonding Other Enclosures. In addition to the service been listed for use with these concentric or eccentric
equipment enclosures, other noncurrent-carrying enclosures locknuts it will be identified or labeled as such. If a box or
are also required to be bonded by the NEC. Section 250-75 enclosure is encountered and such identification is not
requires that metal raceways, cable trays, cable armor, cable provided, one of the methods listed above must be used and
sheaths, enclosures, frames, fittings and any other metal the exception is not applicable.
noncurrent-carrying parts be bonded if they are to serve as
grounding conductors. This requirement applies regardless Bonding of Piping Systems and Exposed Structural
of whether a supplementary equipment grounding Steel. Section 250-80 of the NEC contains requirements for
conductor is present. The purpose of this rule is to ensure bonding interior metal water piping systems, other piping
that these metallic components cannot become energized systems and structural steel. Section 250-81(a) requires that
because they are isolated from a low impedance ground metal underground water pipe which is in direct contact
path. If these components were not properly bonded and with the earth for at least 10 ft be included as part of the
they were to become energized due to some fault condition, grounding electrode system. Installers of electrical systems
the overcurrent device may not operate. This would result should note that even if for some reason the metal water
in personnel being put at risk to serious electrical shock piping is not used as part of the grounding electrode system
hazards. This section also contains an important it is still required to be bonded per Section 250-80. The
requirement when making any electrical connection. Prior purpose of such bonding is to ensure that the metal water
to making any bonding or grounding connection, installers piping throughout the building or structure is at the same
must ensure that they have removed any nonconductive potential to ground as the service ground. Keeping the
coatings, such as paint, enamel or other similar coatings, water piping at the same potential helps to ensure that an
from the metal surface to which they are making a electrical shock hazard could not exist if the metal piping
connection. Failure to do so could drastically increase the were to become inadvertently energized. Section 250-80 (a)
impedance of the ground path. permits the bonding to occur to the service equipment
enclosure, the service grounded conductor, the grounding
Bonding Over 250 Volts. Installers of electrical systems electrode conductor or to the one or more grounding
frequently overlook the bonding requirements for electrical electrodes that comprise the grounding electrode system.
circuits which operate at over 250 volts to ground. Section
250-76 requires that such circuits be bonded to ensure Installers and designers of electrical systems should also
electrical continuity of metal raceways or cable armors or note that a 1996 NEC change now requires that the metal
sheaths. The permissible methods which can be used to water piping in areas served by a separately derived system
achieve the required bonding are: threaded connections, also be bonded to the grounded conductor of the separately
threadless couplings and connectors, bonding jumpers or derived system. The most frequently encountered source of
other approved devices. These methods are the same as separately derived systems is an isolation transformer. Keep
those used for service equipment with the exception of the in mind that due to the magnetic coupling of the
grounded conductor which is not permitted for over 250- transformer windings, grounds cannot be transferred across
volt applications. Another installation requirement which such systems. A new grounding electrode system must be
installers of electrical systems need to be especially aware established for each separately derived system. See Section
of is the use of 250 volt circuits where oversized concentric 250-26 for a complete list of the requirements for
or eccentric knockouts are present. If these types of grounding separately derived systems.
knockouts are encountered, one of the methods listed above
must be utilized to achieve the required bonding. An Part (b) of Section 250-80 covers other interior piping
exception to Section 250-76, however, does permit alternate systems that are required to be bonded. Any interior piping
bonding methods where such knockouts are not systems, such as, domestic well water, or any piping which
encountered or where they are encountered in a box or contains a liquid or a gas, and “may become energized, ”
enclosure which has been tested and the enclosure or box is shall be bonded. Once again the permissible bonding
listed for the use. In such cases, any of the following
locations are to the service equipment enclosure, the
methods may be used in lieu of those listed above for
grounding electrode conductor, the service grounded
bonding circuits of over 250 volts to ground: threadless
conductor or the one or more grounding electrodes
that
comprise the grounding electrode system. While these (3.7 m) above the maximum water level of the
guidelines may appear to be somewhat vague, a good pool. Included also would be any diving structures,
rule of thumb to follow is: If the interior metal piping observation decks, towers, etc., which are not
system contains any electrical devices, such as, separated from the pool by a permanent barrier.
solenoids or mechanized valves, the piping “may
It is interesting to note that a FPN which precedes these
become energized” and it should be bonded.
requirements states that it is not the intent that the copper
conductor which is used to interconnect these components
The last part of Section 250-80 contains a new requirement be extended or otherwise attached to any remote
in the 1996 NEC. This section requires that any exposed panelboard service equipment or grounding electrode. This
structural steel which is interconnected to form a building note clearly distinguishes the difference between bonding
frame and is not intentionally grounded shall be bonded. and grounding. The purpose of these requirements is to
Once again this steel must be bonded only if it “may bond all of the metal components listed above together, to
become energized.” Installers and designers of electrical establish a common bonding grid. The common bonding
systems should recognize that there are many ways the steel grid establishes an equipotential plane which minimizes
“may” become energized by equipment which may be any difference of potential between any of the common
mounted to or in contact with the steel. For this reason the components. Without a difference of potential there can be
recommended course is to make the bond. As both cases no risk of electrical shock. Part (b) of Section 680-22
above, the permissible bonding locations are to the service requires that the common bonding grid be connected with
equipment enclosure, the grounding electrode conductor, at least a No. 8 copper conductor. Installers should note that
the service grounded conductor or to the one or more the means of connection must be by pressure connectors or
grounding electrodes that comprise the grounding electrode clamps or CADWELD exothermic connections. Care
system. This requirement does not apply to isolated steel should be taken to ensure that the connectors selected are
girders or beams which may be installed in a building or suitable for direct burial applications and with the type of
structure. Such beams or girders are not “interconnected to material used (copper, aluminum etc.). Section 680-41 (d)
form a steel building frame” and need not be bonded. contains similar requirements for bonding for spas and hot
tubs. In either case, bonding is critical to protecting
Article 680 Bonding. One last area that should be of personnel who might be exposed to an electrical shock
great concern for designers and installers of bonding and hazard if the low impedance bonding grid is not
grounding systems is Article 680 of the NEC. Because of maintained. ERICO offers a complete line of connectors
the constant presence of moisture, installations in and which can be used to ensure the common bonding grid is
around swimming pools, fountains, spas and similar installed in a manner which ensures the safety of anyone
locations present an increased risk of electrical shock. using the pools, hot tubs or spas.
Section 680-22 covers the bonding requirements for
permanently installed swimming pools. For all
permanently installed pools the following components BUILDING INTERIOR BONDS
must be bonded together:
The interior columns and beams with riveted or bolted
construction joints may require positive bonding of beams
1. All metal parts of the pool, including the pool to columns to provide long term low resistance joints for
structure, shell, coping stones and deck. electrical continuity throughout the building (Fig. 3-1). The
low resistivity also may be achieved if all columns through
2. No-niche fixture forming shells and mounting
brackets. their footers are bonded together. Welding a ground bar to
the column provides future attachment points for other
3. All metal fittings associated with the pool structure. grounding conductors (Fig. 3-2). At expansion joints, a
flexible conductor bonds the columns or beams on each
4. All metal parts of any electric equipment associated side of the joint (Fig. 3-3). The bottom chord of a bar joist
with the pool filtering or circulating system. easily can be bonded (Fig. 3-4). Steel columns within the
5. All metal parts of any equipment associated with building should be bonded to the footer with the conductor
pool covers. extending to the main ground grid (Fig. 3-5 and Fig. 3-6).
The column anchor bolts must be electrically connected to
6. Metal-sheathed cables, raceways, metal piping and the footer reinforcing bars.
all other metal components that are located in a
zone which extends from the edge of the pool to a On multi-floor buildings, the grounding conductor should
distance which is 5 ft (1.5 m) horizontally and 12 ft
Steel Beam
4/0
CADWELD Connection
Type QW To Flange Of Beam
(Or Type VN on Large Beam)
TAC2Q2Q
Connection
Steel Column LJ Type Mold, Field Modified
Bottom Chord Of Bar Joist
CADWELD Connection Type VV
Fig. 3-4
To Ground
Building Steel Ground

Fig. 3-1 Structural
Steel Column
CADWELD Type
VS Connection
1'-6" Fill Opening With
Insulating Resin
Finished Grade 6"
Column 1" PVC Schedule 24"
40 Conduit,
Pedestal
24" Long Min.
CADWELD CADWELD Connection
To Horizontal System.
Connection
Do Not Connect To
(Typ.)
Top Or Bottom Rebar
Column Of Horizontal System.
Pile Cap
#4/0 (Typ.) To Ground Grid
Conductor
Pipe Pile (Typ.)
Note: Prime Welded Or Cut Surfaces With
Zinc-Filled Organic Primer.

Fig. 3-2
Structural Footer
Steel Fig. 3-5
Columns/Beams
CADWELD
Connections
Copper Conductor
Expansion Joint Bonding Detail

Fig. 3-3
extend to each floor (Fig. 3-7). For accessible ground CL Of Column

points at each floor, ground bars provide the ideal
solution. They can be bolted to either the wall or the
floor or a long bus attached to the wall with insulators
and mounting brackets. (Fig. 3-8). On exposed steel
buildings, the ground bars can be welded directly to the
steel column (Fig. 3-9 and Fig. 3-10). Cast copper alloy
Exothermic Ground
ground plates can be embedded in concrete structures for Connection,
CADWELD Type VS
attachment of future grounding conductors (Fig. 3-11
and Fig. 3-12). The plates are provided with drilled and
tapped holes for lug attachment. When large quantities
BARE Copper Grounding Cable
are required on a job, they are available with a pigtail
already attached from the factory to reduce field labor
(Fig. 3-13). The ground plate also can be exothermically
welded directly to a steel column where the column is to
be fireproofed (Fig. 3-14). Light duty ground points can
be made in office columns (Fig. 3-15).
Rebar To
In areas where a conductive floor is required, it is bonded to Ground
Loop
the ground system as shown in Figure 3-16. In areas where This Rebar Is On The Far Side CADWELD Type RD
static electricity must be controlled, metal doors and frames
must be bonded as shown in Figure 3-17. More details on
the control of static electricity are discussed in Chapter 6. Of The Footing Connection To Rebar,
Two (2) Connections
At large facilities having multiple buildings with Per Cable.
underground utilities, the cable racks in the manholes can Fig. 3-6
be grounded as detailed in Figure 3-18 and Figure 3-19. Grounding Stub
Metal handrails should be grounded if there is an accessible

ground conductor available, a good reason to use cast See Note
Steel Column
copper alloy ground plates embedded in the concrete at
frequent intervals. (Fig. 3-20).
(Alternate Method)
Use Only In Areas
Where Ground Plate
Is Impractical
CADWELD
Bare Copper Ground
Conductor (TYP)
Exothermic
Weld (TYP)
Grounding Plate - Wall Mounted

CADWELD B1642Q
Grade
Alternate Method-
Floor Grade
Floor Mounted
Waterproof Membrane
To Station Ground Grid
Note: Loop 5 Feet Above Concrete Surface For Ground Stub Field
To Provide Adequate Protection Against Damage During Construction.
Grounding System Routing

Fig. 3-7
Masonary Anchors
For Mounting Bolts
ERICO Insulator and Mounting Bracket

(Includes Insulator Mounting Bolts
And Assembly Washers)
Copper Bus Along Wall
CADWELD Type LJ Connection -

Cable To Bus
Insulated Or Bare Copper Insulated Or Bare Copper

Conductor To Below Floor
Conductor To Ground Grid Via Ground Grid
1" Dia. PVC Sleeve In Floor Slab
Min. 12" From Wall Around Entire

Copper Ground Conductor Perimeter Of Building
CADWELD PT Connection To Grid
Interior Floor Slab.

. . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . .
.. . . ... . . . .
. .. . .
. ..
CADWELD . . . . . . . ..
Type GR or GT
Ground Grid #6 AWG Solid Copper

Conductor @ 24" x 48" Centers.
Use CADWELD Connections
At Each Intersection Or Use
ERICO Prefabricated Wire Mesh
On 24" x 48 " Centers
Ground Rod .
. . . . .
.. .. .. . .
Beyond Roof . . .
. . ... . .. ..
. 1" PVC Sleeve Thru Wall
Drip Line, . . . . . . .
. Slope @ 1/4" Per Foot
18" Minimum . .. . . .
.
.
.. . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
Underfloor Ground Grid Detail
Fig. 3-8
Steel
Angle Or
Column
CADWELD
Connection
Copper Bar Minimum

Copper Mold Weld Width Of
Bar Size Part No. Metal Steel
1/8 x 1 DFCCE* #115 3”
1/4 x 1 DFCEE* 150 3”
1/4 x 2 DFFEH* 2-200 4”
1/4 x 3 DFFEK* 500 4”
1/4 x 4 DFFEM* 3-250 4”
*Add RH or LH for right or left hand right hand shown.
Fig. 3-9
Column
Structural Rebar
Right
Hand CADWELD Connection
Weld
Left Prefab Type RR
Hand
1/2-13 x 5/8" Silicon
Weld Copper Conductor,
Bronze Bolt W/Washer
Size To Suit (4/0 Max.)
2 Required
CADWELD Connection,
CADWELD Type GL
Type SS To
2 Hole Lug
B162-2Q Ground Plate
Copper Conductor, 2 Hole Ground Plate

Size To Suit CADWELD B162-2Q
Mounted 6" Above
Finished Grade
Alt: B164-2Q 4 Hole
Ground Plate
Copper Left Hand Right Hand Weld
Bar Size Mold Part No. Mold Part No. Metal
1/4 x 2” DFRHEHLH DFRHEHRH #250
1/4 x 3 DFFHEKLH DFFHEKRH 2-#200
1/4 x 4 DFFHEMLH DFFHEMRH 3-#250 Concrete Footing
NOTE: The Following Inserts Are Required. They fit NOTES:

behind the bar and become part of the mold. 1. Bond Column Rebars To Footer Rebars.
2. Ground Footer Rebars To An External Ground Grid or Rod.
Column Type Insert P/N 3. Bond Anchor Bolts To Rebars.
Standard Flange DFSTD Equipment Grounding Pad At Concrete Column

Wide Flange, Parallel Flange DFWFP Fig. 3-12
Wide Flange, Tapered Flange DFWFT
Fig. 3-10
A
Nail To Form
3/8"-16, 1/2" Deep, 4 Holes

Connector Flush Plain View
W/Finished Face
Of Concrete Cadweld Cast Ground
Plate B1642Q
Cadweld RAC2Q2Q #150
Factory Fabrication
4/0 Copper Cable

Stem Fits 1/2" Pipe
Section AA For Support And
Positioning
Fig. 3-11
Fig. 3-13
Blank Device
Plate-Engrave
2" "Floor Ground"
AS Req. CADWELD Connection Wall
TWR 107A3, #32
18" Single Gang
CADWELD Connection
#6 Solid Copper Outlet Box
Flush In Wall
18" To Copper Strip
HAC1H003, #25
Copper Sheet
With Strip Pigtail
Bushing
At Knockout
26 Gage x 2" Wide Copper Strip
#6 Bare
Base Copper
Conductive Flooring To Ground
Top Of Slab 18" SQ., 26 Gage Copper

Sheet Set In
Conductive Adhesive
Detail - Conductive Floor

Fig. 3-14 Ground
Steel
Fig. 3-16
Column
3/8" Bronze Column
Stud W/3 Nuts Furring

And Lock Washer
#2 Cu Jumper
W/CADWELD
Connections
Plan View To Column (Type VF)
4" x 4" Flush Mount And Stud (Type GR)
Box W/Blank Cover
To Match Other
Fixture Covers
In The Area.
Finished
Floor
Elevation
Fig. 3-15
Fig. 3-17
1/8 x 3 x 3
EQUIPMENT BONDING
Steel, Arc Weld

To Cable Rack Channel
Equipment within the facility must be carefully considered
as to its need to be bonded to the facility ground system. Of
CADWELD VB
course, all electrical equipment must have a grounding
conductor as dictated by the NEC. Additional grounding is
sometimes needed as shown in Figure 3-21. As pointed out
previously, the frequent use of ground plates (Fig. 3-22)
provides accessible grounding points throughout the
building. When removable grounds are required near a
grounded column or beam, a stud can be welded to the
CADWELD VN
steel and the bonding jumper can be attached using a lug
Alternate -
(Fig. 3-23). Providing mechanical protection to the stud is
Specify Right Hand recommended.
Or Left Hand
Cable Rack Grounding In cable installations, the tray’s bolted joints do not always
Fig. 3-18 provide the required low resistance. A separate ground
CADWELD Connection
conductor must then be run the length of the tray, bonded to
VTC2V Mold each tray section and to adjacent steel columns. Or, jumpers
Upper Rack #150 Weld Metal
can be used across each joint. The cable can be welded to
the tray if it is steel (Fig. 3-24) or bolted to the tray if it is
CADWELD
aluminum (Fig. 3-25).
Mold
250 KCMIL Copper CADWELD Lug
(2 Hole NEMA)
CADWELD Connection Motor With Lock Washers
And Bolts
PTC2V2V Mold
#250 Weld Metal
CADWELD Connection
VTC2V Mold
#150 Weld Metal
Motor
Concrete
Base
Lower Rack
Fig. 3-19
Field To Locate Ground
Plate (2 Hole, CADWELD
CAT. NO. B-162-2Q
Mount Top Flush With
Concrete
CADWELD Type TA
To Ground Loop
4/0 CU GND Cable
Large Motor Grounding Detail

Fig. 3-21
Ground Plate
Fig. 3-20
Fig. 3-25
Fig. 3-22
GROUNDING
CADWELD Type GL General Provisions - Equipment Fastened in Place.
Silicon Bronze Stud, With Copper As noted above, the primary reason equipment and
2 S.B. Nuts And Washers.
enclosures are grounded is to provide a low impedance
path for ground-fault current. Such a path helps to
ensure that the overcurrent protective device operates in
an effective manner to protect people and property
exposed to ground-fault currents. Section 250-42
establishes six general conditions under which exposed
noncurrent-carrying metal parts of fixed equipment
CADWELD Type HX
likely to be energized must be grounded:
The first condition requires grounding whenever such

metal parts are located within a zone that extends within
8 feet (2.4 m) vertically and 5 feet (1.5 m) horizontally
of ground or any grounded objects which may be
contacted by persons. This establishes a reach or touch
zone that ensures protection if persons could come in
contact with such objects.
Fig. 3-23
The second condition requires that any exposed metal parts,
if not isolated, be grounded if installed in wet or damp
locations. The NEC defines a wet location as one which is
subject to saturation with any liquid and other locations
underground or in concrete slabs. Damp locations are those
locations subject to moderate degrees of moisture such as
partially protected outdoor locations and some basements.
The third condition requires grounding of metal parts

when in electrical contact with metal.
The fourth condition covers grounding in hazardous

locations. These high-risk locations are covered in
Fig. 3-24
Articles
500 - 517 of the NEC and installers and designers of 500 - 517 of the NEC and installers and designers of
electrical systems should review these articles prior to electrical systems should review these articles prior to
designing or installing electrical systems in these types designing or installing electrical systems in these types
of locations. of locations.
The fifth condition requires exposed noncurrent-carrying The second condition covers equipment which operates at over
metal parts of fixed equipment to be grounded anytime such 150 volts to ground. As with fixed equipment, there are several
equipment is supplied by metal-clad, metal-sheathed, metal exceptions for this provision, such as for motors, metal frames
raceways or any other wiring method which has provisions of electrically heated appliances and listed equipment which
for an equipment grounding conductor. incorporates double insulation systems.
The last condition requires that where fixed equipment The third requirement applies to cord-and-plug connected
operates with any terminal at over 150 volts to ground, equipment installed in residential occupancies. All of the
any exposed noncurrent-carrying parts of such following equipment, when installed in residential
equipment must be grounded. occupancies, must be grounded: refrigerators, freezers, air
conditioners, washing machines, dryers, dish-washing
These six conditions provide the general guidelines for machines, kitchen waste disposers, sump pumps, electrical
grounding exposed metal parts. There are several aquarium equipment, hand-held motor-operated tools,
exceptions to these guidelines but in general, these stationary and fixed motor-operated tools, light industrial
provisions ensure that noncurrent-carrying metal parts motor- operated tools, hedge clippers, lawn mowers, snow
are grounded to protect personnel from the risk of blowers, wet scrubbers and portable handlamps. An
electrical shock. exception to Section 250-45 (c) does permit listed tools and
appliances that use a system of double insulation to be
operated ungrounded.
General Provisions - Specific Equipment Fastened in
Place. In addition to the general provisions contained in
Section 250-42, the NEC contains provisions under which The last requirement applies to cord-and-plug connected
exposed noncurrent-carrying metal parts of specific fixed equipment in other than residential occupancies. All of the
equipment shall be grounded. Sections 250-43 requires that following equipment, when installed in other than
these metal parts in the following equipment must be residential occupancies, must be grounded: refrigerators,
grounded: switchboard frames and structure, pipe organs, freezers, air conditioners, clothes-washing, clothes-drying,
motor frames, enclosures for motor controllers, elevators dish-washing machines, electronic computer/data
and cranes, garages, theaters and motion picture studios, processing equipment, sump pumps, electrical aquarium
electric signs, motion picture projection equipment, power- equipment, hand-held motor-operated tools, stationary and
limited remote-control, signaling and fire alarm circuits, fixed motor-operated tools, light industrial motor-operated
lighting fixtures, motor-operated water pumps and metal tools, hedge clippers, lawn mowers, snow blowers, wet
well casings. In general, any exposed noncurrent-carrying scrubbers, cord-and-plug connected appliances used in
metal parts associated with any of the above mentioned damp or wet locations by persons standing on the ground or
specific equipment shall be grounded. Of course, there are in or on metal surfaces such as metal tanks or boilers, tools
some exceptions to these general provisions. Designers and used in wet or conductive locations and portable
installers of electrical systems who plan to work on these handlamps.
specific types of equipment should reference the NEC for
specific application guidelines. There are two exceptions from grounding in other than
residential occupancies:
General Provisions - Equipment Connected by Cord-
and-Plug. Section 250-45 contains the provisions for The first permits tools and portable lamps used in wet or
grounding cord-and-plug connected equipment. In conductive locations to be ungrounded provided the tool
general, four conditions exist under which exposed or lamp is supplied through an isolating transformer
noncurrent-carrying metal parts of cord-and-plug with an ungrounded secondary of not over 50-volts.
connected equipment, which is likely to become
energized, shall be grounded: The second exception permits hand-held, motor-operated
tools, stationary and fixed motor-operated tools, light
The first condition requires grounding in hazardous industrial motor-operated tools and appliances to be
locations. These high-risk locations are covered in Articles operated ungrounded provided they are listed and they
employ a system of double insulation which is Other important requirements should be considered when
distinctively marked on the tool or appliance. installing receptacles. Section 250-114 requires that the
equipment grounding conductors shall be terminated on the
Receptacle Grounding. Since the early 1970s Section 210- receptacle in a manner that the disconnection of the
7 of the NEC has required that all receptacles installed on receptacle will not interrupt the continuity of the equipment
15- and 20- ampere branch circuit be of the grounding type. grounding conductor. This requirement results in the need
Grounding-type receptacles include provisions for to splice all the equipment grounding conductors together
connecting an equipment grounding conductor and are and take a “pigtail” off to the receptacle. A similar
easily identifiable by the ground pin slot included in the requirement exists for the grounded conductor in multi-
face of the receptacle. When installing grounding-type wire branch-circuits. See the NEC Section 300-13 (b).
receptacles the question often arises as to which way to Another important installation practice for receptacles is
install the grounding pin, up or down? The NEC does not found in Section 410-56 (d). This section requires that
address this but the most frequent practice is to install them metal faceplates be grounded. All faceplates, when
with the grounding pin down. A little thought, however, installed, must completely cover the wall opening and seat
gives a different perspective. For example, in cases where firmly against the mounting surface.
the attachment plug is not fully inserted into the receptacle,
a greater degree of protection can be achieved by mounting Section 410-56 (c) also contains provisions for installing
the receptacle with the grounding pin facing up. This is
because if a metal faceplate were to loosen and drop down
across the attachment plug blades or other metal objects
were to fall into the receptacle, they would most likely
make contact with the grounding pin, and not the energized
conductors. ERICO therefore believes that mounting
receptacles with the grounding pin up should result in the
safest possible installation. In installations where the
receptacle is mounted in the horizontal position, the
receptacle should be mounted with the neutral conductor
(long slot) up (Fig. 3-26). (Note: Several European
standards also require the grounding pin up.)
Steel
Ground Bar, Bracket
Size As
Specified
2700 Volt Insulators
Fig. 3-27
As Specified
Length
Not
Recommended
1/4" x 2"
Copper
Bus Bar
2700 Volt
Insulator
6-1/4"
1/2" Silicon
Bronze
.)
Hardware
24" (TYP
Recommended Steel Bracket
Fig. 3-26 Fig. 3-28

Ground bus may be floor mounted.
isolated ground (IG) receptacles. These IG receptacles are
frequently used for electronic/data processing equipment
applications. The use of a separate, “isolated” grounding conductor ensures that the cord-and-plug connected equipment
receives a “clean” source of power, free from EMF or RF
interference. Installers of IG receptacle should note that the IG
receptacles must be identified by an orange triangle located on
the face of the receptacle. The grounding requirements for
these receptacles are found in Section 250-74, Ex. No. 4. This
section requires that the receptacle grounding terminal be
grounded by an insulated equipment grounding conductor run
with the circuit conductors. The isolated equipment grounding
conductor is permitted to run through one or more panelboards
provided it terminates within the same building to an
equipment grounding conductor terminal for the applicable
derived system or service. Note that the isolated equipment
grounding conductor must be in addition to the regular
equipment grounding conductor for the branch circuit. Because
Fig. 3-29 the IG terminal of the receptacle is isolated from the yoke of
Insulators and mounting brackets are available for the receptacle, a separate equipment grounding conductor for
mounting your own bar. the raceway system and outlet box still must be run.
LIGHTNING AND SURGE

PROTECTION
This is discussed in Chapter 2, Lightning Protection and
Chapter 7, Surge Protection Devices.
GROUND BARS AND GROUND BUS

Ground bus and ground bars have several applications:
1. Ground bus may be installed around the walls of a

room where accessible ground points are needed,
frequently for the control of static electricity (Fig.
3-30 and 3-32). The bus is generally mounted using
standoff brackets usually with insulators. (Fig. 3-
27, 3-28 and 3-29) In installations with raised
floors, the bus may be mounted on the sub-floor
(below the raised floor) (Fig. 3-31). This is used
only for permanently attached equipment
grounding conductors.
2. Ground bus may be used as a single point to which
all equipment in a given area or of a specific type is
connected. This equipment is usually associated
with computers, telecommunications or radio/TV.
3. Special ground plates are available to meet your
specific needs. Figures 3-33 and 3-34 are two styles
specified on FAA installations which are protected by
plexiglass and include special markings.
Fig. 3-30
When mounting ground bus on the wall, either bus
or cable may be used to bond over the door way.
Ground Wire From
62 Practical Guide to Electrical Grounding Transformer
CADWELD Terminal
TYPE GL With NEMA Lug
CADWELD Connection
Ground Bar To Ground Rod
Type CR
Grade
1/4"x4"x36"
Ground Bus
Copper Bonded Ground Rods
Custom Lettering
To Your Specifications
Transformer Ground Bus
Detail
Fig. 3-31 Plexiglass Cover
U Wall
Anchor @ 2'-0" Centers

Nylon Bolts
Stand-off Insulator
Copper Plate
Insulator
2" x 1/4" Copper Static Ground

Bus Field Drilled
Steel Mounting Plate
Fig. 3-34
Static Ground Bus Detail

Fig. 3-32
Fig. 3-33
64
Chapter 4: Transients & Other High Frequency “Grounding” & Bonding 65
Chapter 4
Transients And Other
High Frequency Bonding
And “Grounding”
The Bonding And
Grounding Of Electronic
Systems
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC proper routing and grounding of branch circuits

SYSTEM “GROUNDING” including their conduits, and ensuring adequate
separation of power and data signal wiring.
Grounding electronic equipment for personal safety and
clearing of faults is no different than that of any other 3. Proper grounding involving the correct installation
equipment. Safe grounding requires fast opening of of equipment grounding conductors of all types,
circuit breakers or fuses and minimization of voltage and neutral terminal grounding and bonding at the
differences between exposed metal surfaces on all of the service entrance and for separately derived ac
involved electrical system and equipment, to levels that systems.
are safe for people.
While the above are all within the scope of the
contractors’ job, we want to emphasize that the
What makes electronic systems different is the equipment supplier can and must provide equipment that
sensitivity of their circuit components to relatively small can “live within” practical levels of transients as are
transient currents and voltages. It is also inherent in the known to exist on the typical commercial and industrial
nature of solid state devices to be very fast, so they are site. Otherwise, extensive effort and great expenditures
affected by equally “fast” electrical disturbances. Even may be needed in order to get this kind of too-sensitive
lightning is a slow transient compared to the response of equipment to work in an acceptable way.
almost any electronic device. Typical threats to proper
operation of electronic devices and systems include:
The kinds of power and data Surge Protective Devices,
(SPDs) that are needed for the control of transients are
1. Lightning - Direct strikes, but the effects also discussed in Chapter 7 and will not be discussed in
include overhead cloud-to-cloud, and nearby strikes detail in this chapter. It is assumed that properly selected
causing induced voltages devices are used where we suggest one be applied.
2. Switching transients from power network
operations and power factor capacitor switching,
lightning arrestor operation, and fault clearing INTERCONNECTED ELECTRONIC
activities- especially on nearby power circuits. EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS
3. Static electricity - Directly applied arcs to the This section deals with grounding of electronic systems
equipment, but sometimes arcs near the equipment that are interconnected by signal, data, or
will also affect the equipment. telecommunications cables. It is helpful to think in terms
of two kinds of grounding with this kind of equipment:
4. Electrical fast transients - Typically as caused by
arcing contacts or collapsing magnetic fields in the 1. Safety grounding for fire and personnel protection.
coils of contactors in equipment - usually very near This kind of grounding also helps to provide for the
the affected equipment protection of equipment to minimize damage from
electrical system faults and transients such as
lightning.
BASICS OF TRANSIENT
2. Performance grounding for the protection of data
PROBLEM SOLVING
circuits and solid-state components within various
Solving transient problems is never easy. They may be items of interconnected equipment making up an
random or repetitive. In general, they have waveshapes electronic system. Sometimes this is called
which are not easily analyzed. Transients though are “computer” or “electronic” grounding but these are
capable of being tamed by: not very accurate terms. Note that the protection of
data circuits does not have to involve earth grounding
1. Limiting overvoltages (surge voltages) on the ac electrode connections, although good grounding to
power conductors with surge protective devices the building service equipment’s grounding electrode
(SPDs) system makes this protection a lot easier.
2. Reducing the chances of electrical noise getting on For example and as mentioned above, airplanes flying
power circuits connected to electronic equipment through lightning storms have no earth grounds connected
and the data signal circuit cables that interconnect to them but, while experiencing lightning hits, are probably
the units of equipment. This can often be safer than many land-based systems. And after a lightning
accomplished by observing the requirements for strike all of the electronic equipment within the aircraft is
expected to continue to work in flawless fashion.
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT (4) Data signals inside most electronic systems
GROUNDING consists of bits of information processed as square
waves or impulses at about 5 volts in amplitude
(1) Typically the safety grounding of equipment is and clock speeds which can exceed 200 MHz. Data
exactly the same for electronic equipment as it is for transferred between equipment often has a
any other kind of apparatus, whether it is a refrig- magnitude of 12-18 volts, and the speed of transfer
erator or a printing press. The “green wire” and is lower than that of the signal processing speed
conduit/raceway system’s grounding which is well available inside of the equipment. In any case, the
documented in the NEC and other codes, defines signal rise-times of the clock and most other signal
these requirements completely. This chapter is not pulses such as those used to transfer bits, are far
primarily concerned with this form of grounding. faster than the typical lightning strike. Yet, even at
these speeds the systems can be made to have high
Safe equipment grounding requires fast clearing of
reliability and to be relatively immune to
circuit breakers or fuses and minimization of
interference if good grounding and bonding
voltage differences on exposed metal surfaces of
practices are followed.
equipment to levels that are safe for people. This is
called the control of “touch potential.” There is (5) Lightning related waveforms are usually the “worst
absolutely no conflict between NEC defined case” situation for transients on most ac power
grounding and the more specialized grounding and system wiring and related grounding systems. This
bonding practices described in (2) below. An makes lightning the principal threat. More
unnecessary conflict can be created however, such information about lightning and its typical
as when someone attempts to create a “separate”, waveforms may be obtained by consulting
“dedicated” or “clean” grounding connection that ANSI/IEEE Std C62.41-1992
is not permitted by the NEC!
(6) Fast electrical transients are created in some
(2) Protection of data circuits generally requires equipment with electromechanical contactors. The
additional considerations beyond the intent of the interference problem from these items could be
NEC, but not in violation of it. Protection of data serious, but it is easy to solve by installing RC
circuits from disruption or even damage does not snubbers (consisting of resistors and capacitors)
always involve grounding, although good across the contacts, coils, or both items of the
grounding makes this protection a lot easier. offending device. This kind of interference with
Aircraft have no earth grounds while they are electronic circuits can sometimes be controlled by
flying. The airplane carries its own “grounding” more stringent shielding, or grounding and bonding
system for its ac and dc systems, and signal practices. However, the root cause of this kind of
grounding purposes. This grounding system is problem is really not a shielding, or grounding and
entirely metallic in nature and it is often called a bonding related problem. Instead it is an equipment
self contained power and signal reference system, circuit modification problem and this is the kind of
which is a more accurate description. Even direct thing which typical electrical contractors should
lightning “hits” are not likely to cause equipment normally not be expected to identify or to solve.
damage or even disruption to signals.
(3) The circuits of most electronic systems are almost HARMONICS

always sensitive to voltages of a few tens of volts
Note that by itself, harmonic current and voltage
or even to as little as one or two volts. As a result,
generation is not a grounding problem unless due to a
these systems are designed with great care to keep
miswired circuit or a component’s failure in which some
transients out of the actual circuitry and off of the
of the harmonic current gets impressed onto the
signal paths between interconnected units of a
equipment grounding system. In this case, the effort is
system. To accomplish this, some equipment uses
not to stamp-out the harmonics, but to find the miswire
electrostatically shielded isolation transformer
or failed component and to effect the repair.
techniques and ac-dc power supplies designed to
reject transients. However, for these techniques to
be fully effective, good grounding and bonding Harmonics are often an important safety concern on the
practices exceeding those required in the NEC, neutral conductor of a three-phase, wye-connected ac
must often be employed. system where it is supporting line-to-neutral connected
nonlinear loads- such as computers, etc. In this case the
entire neutral path must be increased in ampacity to as
much as 200% of the ampacity used for the related line (2) Isolation transformers with electrostatic shielding
conductors. This is regularly done in order that a fire be between the windings are readily available and
avoided due to current overload from third harmonic and should be employed to interface the electrical
other odd multiple harmonics called “triplens”. system to the panelboard used to supply branch
circuit power to the electronic equipment. The
Other steps may be required to prevent harmonics from installation of both the transformer and
interfering with proper system operation. However, the panelboard(s) should occur as physically close to
exact method and point chosen for grounding of the neutral the served electronic equipment as is possible.
conductor at the ac supply source, will not improve any Note that the electrostatic shielding can provide
problems associated with harmonics. Ungrounding of the useful attenuation of most types of common mode
neutral is likely to be an NEC violation in almost all transients up to about 1000:1 (e.g., -60 dB).
designs, and would decrease personnel safety. Solving Attenuation figures above this value are generally
problems related to harmonics is beyond the scope of this unrealistic and are not likely to be provided by a
book, however something can be said in this regard. transformer that is installed into a real-world instal-
lation and in conformance with the NEC. In any
case, follow the transformer manufacturer’s
HARMONIC CURRENT FILTERS recommendations closely to achieve the maximum
(TRAPS) benefit, but only if the instructions conform to the
NEC.
Harmonic filters commonly called “traps” are not
grounding problems unless they are miswired to direct (3) Interconnecting cables between electronic system
the current through them into the equipment grounding enclosures in equipment rooms should be routed in
system. This is an unusual situation and involves an close proximity to the structural subfloor. This is
NEC violation which would need correction. Typically, especially the case if it contains substantial metal
the trap is connected line-to-line, line-to-neutral, or both, structures that are well grounded such as steel
but never to equipment or any other ground. decking, etc. The best results however, are obtained
when these cables are laid in close proximity to a
specially installed signal reference grid, such as is
SURGE PROTECTIVE DEVICES (SPDs) recommended to be installed under a raised floor
AND GROUNDING CONNECTIONS normally used in a computer room. If intercon-necting
cables are routed between locations in a cable tray or
In addition to line-to-line and line-to-neutral connections,
wireway, then the use of random lay is preferred
surge protective devices (SPDs) are also connected to the
rather than “neat” bundling in these forms of raceway.
circuit’s equipment grounding conductor. Any transient
(This is recommended as random lay decreases the
voltage which then operates the SPD and causes current
coupling of noise from one adjacent conductor into
flow through it and to the equipment grounding conductor,
the other when they are laid parallel to one another for
raises the ground potential as measured at the installation
any significant length.)
point of the SPD and to the remote “ground” used as a zero
voltage reference. Because SPDs may be subject to very (4) If wireways are used to route cables, they should
high voltages with steep (e.g., fast rise time) wavefronts, be made from metal, be well and continuously
the concurrent effects on the grounding system may be very grounded and bonded, and be equipped with a tight
severe. cover such as one fastened by screws. Ladder tray
is less desirable than solid-bottom tray.
SOME PRACTICAL (5) Field installed data cables should normally be
RECOMMENDATIONS separated from power cables and conduits to the
greatest practical distance. This reduces unwanted
These are some of the practical electrical installation
considerations we recommend: coupling between the two circuits. To avoid noise
coupling problems where one circuit crosses over
or under the other, try to make the crossover at
(1) Field installed electrical grounding/bonding right-angles.
conductors routed between the metal frame or
enclosures of separate units of electronic (6) Where metal raceways or conduits are used to
equipment should be connected to the NEC “green contain interconnecting data cables, it is
wire” grounding system at both ends, not isolated recommended that additional bonding connections
or insulated from it. be made at several points along their entire length
to ensure good longitudinal coupling. In addition to (12) In particular, no attempt must be made during or
being well grounded/bonded to the equipment at after installation to separate the electronic system’s
the ends of the run, the conduit or raceway should equipment grounding conductors from the ac
also be bonded to any nearby structural steel along power system’s equipment grounding conductors
the run. and its associated earth electrode grounding
connections. Such separations would violate the
(7) All metallic piping, ducting, conduit/raceway, NEC and produce potential electrical fire and
wireway and cable tray located within 6 feet shock hazards. They would also be likely to
(horizontal or vertical) of any installed Signal damage circuits inside the related electronic
Reference Grid (SRG) must be bonded to the SRG. equipment, or to at least degrade the operation of it.
This is especially important where these conductors
enter or leave the area defined by the SRG. If this is (13) Note that the use of the IG method even if it
not done, then lightning side flash may occur from the follows NEC requirements, does not always
above or any nearby grounded metal items to the improve the performance of equipment. In fact, the
SRG. A side flash can cause a fire, electronic circuit use of the IG wiring method is just as likely to
damage, or both. More about the subject of side flash make things worse or to result in no observable
may be obtained by reference to ANSI/NFPA-780- change to the operation of the equipment. There is
1995, the National Lightning Protection Code. usually no way to predict the benefits if any, of
isolated ground circuits except by direct
(8) In addition to any NEC requirements, the neutral observation and comparison between solid
terminal, such as the Xo terminal on a wye- grounding (SG) and IG methods in each case.
secondary connected transformer of a separately
derived system, should be connected to the SRG (14) It is relatively easy to convert existing IG circuits
and if available, also to the closest building steel. to SG circuits on an as-needed basis. On the other
hand, it is generally both impractical and not cost
(9) Be sure to bond the SRG to any nearby accessible effective to convert an existing SG circuit to an IG
building steel so as to create many points of style that conforms to NEC requirements.
grounding/bonding. This is important to do along Accordingly, circuits used to supply power to
the SRG’s perimeter and for any steel that electronic equipment can be designed and first
penetrates the SRG’s surface. installed as IG types, so that they may later be
(10) Grounding for ac systems and equipment must converted back and forth between IG and SG as
conform completely to NEC requirements. Also, if needed.
the electrical or electronic equipment has been (15) The equipment grounding conductors in a feeder or
tested and listed by an NRTL (Nationally branch circuit must always be routed within the
Recognized Testing Laboratory, such as UL), then same conduit or raceway containing that circuit’s
there may be additional or special associated power circuit conductors. This also
grounding/bonding requirements which must also applies to flexible cord and cable assemblies.
be met if proper operation is to be obtained. Again,
any use of a “dedicated”, “clean” or other non- (16) Where transfer switches (including those found in
NEC allowed connection, such as one which is UPS systems) are used, the possibility of common
separated from the building’s service grounding mode noise is not removed. Proper grounding
electrode and the associated equipment grounding between alternate sources of power is required,
conductor system, is totally against the intent of usually by solid interconnection of the two
this book. Only grounding systems and connections system’s neutrals, but with only one of the two ac
which meet National Electrical Code requirements systems being the one with the neutral grounded.
are suitable. Unless the two involved ac systems are installed
physically adjacent to one another, a ground
(11) Special care must be used to assure proper potential shift disturbance may occur during
grounding if NEC permitted isolated grounding is transfer operations on the switch. This shift in
specified. “Isolated/Insulated grounding” (IG) must ground potential can then unwantedly introduce
be per NEC Section 250-74; Connecting common-mode noise into the load being served by
Receptacle Terminal to Box; exception No. 4; and the switch.
Section 250-75, Bonding Other Enclosures for field
wired (e.g., direct) branch circuit connections to (17) Ground potential-shift problems and common-
electronic equipment. mode noise problems in general are avoided when
an isolation transformer is installed adjacent to the normally not cause an overcurrent protection
served loads and is positioned between the output device to operate. Hence, there is often no
of a transfer switch and the input of the served immediate indication of a problem such as
electronic loads. In these cases the neutral terminal when the power is first applied. Therefore,
on the secondary of the isolation transformer is these conductors and connections need to be
solidly grounded and both the transformer and verified before power is applied.
electronic load equipment are made common to
one another for broadband grounding purposes, if (b) All metallic conduit, wireway, raceway and
they are also connected to an SRG that has been other metallic enclosures, must be well-
installed in the equipment room and just beneath bonded along their length to ensure end to
the equipment. end continuity. They should also be well
grounded at multiple points along their length
(18) More than one isolation transformer may be used to building steel and SRGs within 6 feet to
in the above manner if the site is large. For provide effective high frequency grounding.
example, multiple isolation transformers installed Effectively grounded, end terminations to and
and grounded to an SRG in an equipment room are from served equipment are most important.
a recommended practice for larger sites. Also,
multiple, separated, but SRG equipped rooms may (c) Ensure that the shortest possible lead length
each be provided with its own isolation transformer has been used to connect SPDs to the
and grounded as above. conductors they are protecting. Ideally, the
SPD would be mounted directly on or inside
(19) Specially designed, “original” forms of grounding the equipment it protects. External mounting
which are not in literal compliance with NEC in a separate enclosure and a conduit
requirements are not recommended. This includes connection to the protected equipment creates
approaches to grounding called “clean”, longer distances between the SPD and the
“dedicated”, “single point” and other forms of load it protects. This decreases the
“isolated” grounding not permitted by the NEC. effectiveness of the protection.
The authors are aware of instances where all
grounds are initially properly connected together (d) Any connection that is not a good electrical
with a jumper which the owner or operator can connection over the life of the installation is
later remove at his discretion. Since removal of this potential trouble. Such a poor connection can
connection creates both an NEC violation and be a cause of noise or of a total interruption of
fire/shock safety hazard, the authors do not the signal process or power continuity. Either
recommend this approach! a connection is made properly, or it must be
reworked to bring it within specifications.
(20) Surge Protective Devices (SPDs) are described in
Chapter 7. SPDs provide overvoltage protection at
various points for power and data circuits wherever
they are properly applied. Proper use of SPDs is
highly recommended.
(21) After the electrical installation is complete, a
careful inspection of the wiring is needed to ensure
safety and performance criteria have all been met.
Regarding grounding, the following should be part
of the inspection process:
(a) Misidentification of conductors such as the
neutral and “green wire” safety grounding
conductors, often occurs. The problem shows
up at the point where they terminate. A
mistake of this kind is a serious violation of
NEC Section 250-21, and others. Cross-
connection between neutral and ground
conductors results in unwanted current flow
in the equipment grounding system, but will
GROUND CURRENT INTERFERENCE GROUND LOOPS

WITH CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT)
A formal definition of a ground loop that is very general
BASED EQUIPMENT is provided in IEEE Std. 100-1991, IEEE Dictionary as
Low frequency magnetic fields such as those associated follows: . . . a ground loop is “formed when two or more
with the power system’s fundamental of 60 Hz and points in an electrical system that are nominally at
harmonics from it, will sometimes be seen to interfere ground potential are connected by a conducting path
with the normal deflection of the electron beam being such that either or both points are not at the same
used to paint the image on the CRT’s screen. This potential.” While this is a good general purpose
magnetic field interference is seen by the equipment’s definition, it is not sufficiently specific for use when
operator as a wavy or rippling display that is often very dealing with signal level circuits and grounding
disconcerting to the operator. (See Fig. 4-1) connections. Therefore, a more specific and useful
definition as provided in this document is as follows:
Magnetic Flux Lines
One way magnetic fields of the type involved in this
kind of interference are created in grounding conductors Magnetic Flux Follows The
Easiest Magnetic Path From
is by any continuous or nearly so, flow of current in One Pole To The Other
externally attached supplementary equipment grounding

conductors, grounding electrode conductors, structural
steel members, piping, ducting, cable trays, wireways,
Magnetic Shield
etc. Stray ground currents in any of these items can Material
produce the same effects on the CRT’s screen.
No Magnetic Field
Fortunately, the effects of these interfering magnetic

fields falls off exponentially with distance between the
source of the field and the equipment that is being
affected. Also, the orientation of the CRT to the lines of
force of the magnetic field affects the severity of the
problem. Therefore, increased spacing and reorientation
of equipment is often the first and a successful step, in
Source Of Magnetic Field
the resolution of the problem.
Magnetic Field Shielding
Another practical approach to reducing the effects of Fig. 4-1
magnetic fields on a CRT is to increase the number and
location of any grounding/bonding connections between
Structural
grounded items, including the one involved in the Steel
NEC 250-81 (b)
interference. For instance, more bonding between cold
Grounding Electrode
water piping, building steel, and grounding electrode Conductor, NEC 250-94
To AC Service Entrance
conductors often solves the problem. (See Fig. 4-2) Grounded Conductor (Neutral)
Metal Underground
Water Pipe, NEC 250-81 (a)
(Must Be Supplimented)
The foregoing procedure generally works since it breaks up
the currents from one conductor into several smaller ones.
Water
In example, since the magnetic field surrounding a Water Supply (Street Side)
Meter
Water Supply (House Side)
conductor is proportional to the current’s amplitude, the

process of providing multiple paths for a current reduces Bonding Jumper
the current in any one conductor and therefore the stray NEC 250-80 (a)
magnetic field being emitted from it. The best approach of

all however, is to find out how the unwanted current is
getting into the conductor and to fix the problem in
Ring Ground, NEC 250-81 (d) Rod/Pipe Electrode
accordance with NEC requirements such as per Section NEC 250-83 (c)
250-21, Objectionable Current On Grounding Conductors.
Typical Electrodes
Fig. 4-2
Ground Loop (unwanted)— Any conductive path interfering signal and the desired one, then the signal
involving “ground” via a grounding or grounded conductor process is almost certain to be disrupted once the
or the earth itself, through which any part or all of the interference reaches a minimum level of amplitude.
desired signal process current is passed, so that it may be
algebraically added to any unwanted current such as Two principle means of dealing with the above ground
“noise” that may also be flowing in the shared ground path. loop problem generally exist as follows:
Ground Loop (desired)— Any number of paralleled (1) Change the signal’s protocol using a converter, to
conductors and connections involving grounded or one that does not use the “ground” path for any of
grounding conductors of any description, or the earth, the signal current, or;
and through which it is intended to conduct ac system
ground fault or lightning currents, for the purpose of (2) Shunt the ends of the cable involved in the ground
reducing arcing, touch potential hazards, and as an aid to loop by effectively bonding the equipment at each
fault clearing. end of the cable to the same SRG. This greatly
reduces the effects of the noise current in the signal
Ground Loop (benign)— Either of the above two ground conductor path by providing a myriad of parallel
loops or a combination of them, where despite the existence paths for it to flow in via the low impedance SRG.
of the ground loop, no electrical hazards are created and no
However, the desired signal will still stay relatively
evenly divided between the two signal conductors
signal processes are disrupted, by its existence.
on the cable and not flow into the SRG. This
occurs because the mutually coupled fields from
Since we are concerned with the unwanted effects of the closely coupled supply and return conductors in
ground loops on signals, we will mainly use the first of the cable and for the signal, act to make this path a
the above definitions in this document. much lower impedance for the signal currents to
travel in than the SRG.
Signals which are transmitted on isolated balanced pairs are
not referenced to ground, and differentially coupled signals Our recommendation is to properly design and implement
that are referenced to ground are relatively immune to the facility’s grounding system to avoid its unwanted
problems involving the ground reference to which they are involvement with the operation of the equipment. This kind
connected. With these circuits we are only concerned with of approach can also eliminate the need to consider
voltages to ground that are high enough to cause voltage equipment modifications and to engage in costly diagnostic
breakdown of insulation systems or electronic components, efforts since most trouble involving common-mode noise is
or to saturate the magnetics that may be used to isolate and avoided in the signal circuits. A properly installed SRG
couple the signal between the signal cable and the along with good bonding practices is a recommended
electronics used to drive or receive the signal on the path. method of minimizing common-mode noise problems, so it
becomes a first-line of defense in such cases.
Unbalanced signals referenced to ground fall into two
general categories: While it may be true that an SRG based design of this kind
is both conservative and somewhat more costly (initially)
than other wiring techniques that are commonly used, our
(1) There are those that typically employ coaxial cable
experience clearly shows that using the SRG approach
with only one center conductor for the signal
produces superior and ultimately, more cost-effective
transport process and where the outer braid is
results due to the lack of later operational problems. In
grounded at both ends. This includes many kinds of
other words, a conservative design involving an SRG costs
circuits used with computers, process control
a little more, but avoids lots of very difficult and potentially
systems, and similar installations.
expensive problems after the job is done.
(2) There are those that use a common conductor
which is grounded, as a part of the signal return
path for one or more signals on a multi-conductor RECOMMENDATIONS:
cable. Standard signal protocol, RS-232 usually It is generally not possible in complex systems with
falls into this category. interconnected data and signal conductors to avoid all
In both of the above examples, if unwanted current flow is ground loops. Some approaches that may be used to avoid
caused in the grounded conductor that also carries signal, the detrimental effects of such ground loops include:
and if there is an overlap between the bandwidth of the
(1). Where possible, cluster the interconnected (7) Improve the shielding provided for the data signal
electronic equipment into an area that is served by cables. Place the cables into well and frequently
a single signal reference grid (SRG). If the grounded metal conduits or similar raceways.
intercon-nected equipment is located in separate,
but adjacent rooms, then a common signal (8) Follow the recommendations for installing signal
reference grid should serve all the rooms. cables in IEEE Std. 1100, Recommended Practice
for Powering and Grounding Sensitive Electronic
(2) Effectively bond each frame/enclosure of the Equipment (e.g., the Emerald Book).
interconnected equipment to the SRG. In this way,
Equipment interconnected by data signal cables and located
the SRG acts like a uniformly shared ground
on different floors or that is widely separated in a building,
reference that maintains a usefully low impedance
may not be able to effectively use some or all of the above
over a very broad range of frequency. Typically,
solutions, except those involving optical isolation and
from dc to several tens of MHz, for example.
certain of the protocol conversion techniques. This occurs
since the terminating equipment for the signal cables is
likely to be powered from different branch circuits,
(3) Where a work area exists and its PC is connected panelboards, and even separately derived ac systems.
to a network, keep all of the work area’s equipment Therefore, the associated equipment ground references are
(e.g., CPU, monitor, printer, external modem, etc.) likely to be at different potential at least some of the time.
closely clustered and powered by a work area
dedicated branch circuit. If it is required to use
more than one branch circuit for the work area’s While the best solution to the above situation involves
power, be sure that both are powered from the either fiber optic or opto-isolation techniques, it is often
same panelboard. Avoid connecting any other possible to achieve good performance by providing each
equipment to the branch circuit(s) used by the work of the separate locations with an SRG, and then
area’s equipment. intercon-necting the SRGs with widely spaced apart and
multiple grounding/bonding conductors, solid-bottom
(4) Use fiber optical paths for data circuits. The best, but metal cable trays, wireways, or conduits containing the
also the most expensive solution is to use fiber optical data signal cables.
cables for all data circuits since there can be no
ground loops with these kinds of circuits (or surge An example of using widely spaced grounding/bonding
current problems). However, due to increased initial conductors to interconnect two SRG areas is when there is
cost and added complexity, the use of fiber optic cable structural building steel available and when it can be used in
circuits is usually (and unfortunately) viewed as a last this role. Since structural steel columns are installed on
resort. Instead, it should be viewed as an important standard spacings in a given building, these columns can
first strategy that avoids problems that may ultimately typically be used for the purpose. Wide spacing is necessary
cost more to resolve. since the conductors involved are inductors and the mutual
inductance between such conductors that are not widely
(5) Use opto-isolators which can provide several kV of
spaced, is quite high. This makes several closely spaced
isolation for the data path that they are used on.
conductors appear as a single inductor and not as paralleled
These are available as add-on data transmission
inductances, which exhibit lower overall reactance between the
protocol converters for most popular forms of data
items they are being used to interconnect.
circuits. This is a very useful retrofit option for data
circuits being affected by surges and ground loops.
Surge protection devices (SPD) are also Also, each of the above separated equipment areas
recommended to be applied to these circuits if containing SRGs should be ac powered from a locally
protection from the higher voltages associated with installed and SRG referenced isolation transformer as
larger currents is needed. opposed to them being powered from panelboards and
feeders from some remotely located power source.
(6) Other forms of protocol converters can be applied
to standard forms of signal circuits to make them
Finally, since separated areas in a building are subject to
less susceptible to common-mode noise on
large potential differences due to lightning discharge
grounding conductors associated with the signal
path. For example, a conversion from RS-232 to currents and some forms of ac system ground faults, the
RS-422 or RS-485, etc. should be considered in ends of the signal cables should always be equipped
especially noisy environments. with surge protection devices (SPDs).
otherwise the reinforcing steel is simply periodically

welded to the SRG at those points where the two
structures have nearby or intersecting elements.
SOME FURTHER THOUGHTS ON

To Equipment NETWORKED WORKSTATION
Ground
EQUIPMENT
Workstations that are part of a network and use Local Area
CADWELD
ERICO Network (LAN) interface plug-in cards or modems, or are
CADWELD
Lugs
Ground
connected to servers, printers, or similar peripheral devices
Bar
that are not located at the workstation, typically need
CADWELD special attention to be paid to how they are grounded so that
CADWELD common-mode noise will not be a significant problem with
Ground their operation. Accordingly, here are some suggestions:
Plate
Assembly
ERICO
Mesh
(1) Provide an externally applied supplementary
equipment grounding conductor network that is
For applications of mesh used as signal reference grid (SRG) embedded in the concrete connected to each item of the workstation and to
floor, a CADWELD Cast Ground Plate is mounted flush with the finished floor and
connected to the mesh. Future equipment is then connected to the ground plate. the “greenwire” of the branch circuit(s) serving the
workstation.
Fig. 4-3
(2) If there is any excess length in the ac power line
cords or data signal cables used to connect the
ELECTRONIC GROUNDING DETAIL workstation’s equipment to the branch circuit or
network’s signal circuits, loop the excess into a
When a metallic mesh is embedded in the structural
small coil whose loops are secured by tie-wraps or
concrete subfloor, it may be used for an electronic signal
plastic electrical tape. This creates a “choke” effect
reference grid (SRG). When this is done the problem
that can reduce the higher frequency common-
becomes how to make connections to the SRG. The typical
mode noise currents in the path to which the
approach is to embed a ground plate at each intersection of
technique is applied, and without affecting the
the SRG’s conductors, but on a spacing of around 2x2 or
power or signal transport process. Observe bending
4x4 feet square. This conforms to the standard practices for
radius limits of conductors to avoid overstressing
SRGs such as those used in conjunction with a computer
the insulation or causing excessive heat rise.
room’s cellular raised floor. In other cases where
connection points on 2-foot centers are not needed, a (3) Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) in the form of
ground connection plate per Figure 4-3 may be installed coupled radio waves into signal cables, is not a
wherever necessary. The exposed surface of the embedded common problem in most installations. However, it is
stud or tie-plate is then used to make connections to and not an unknown problem either, especially if the
from the SRG that is below the surface of the concrete. source of the EMI is located close to the affected
cable and its served circuits. Where interference with
Note that for electrical equipment and mechanical low-level signal processes is encountered and if
equipment rooms, spacings of 2x2 feet are often closer traced to EMI at radio frequencies such as from a
than is needed— especially if the floorplan is known in radio transmitter or some other industrial process
advance. In these cases the concrete embedded SRG occurring at radio frequencies, additional signal cable
studs or ground plates are installed to place them close to shielding and in extreme cases signal filtering at the
the equipment that is planned to be permanently installed cable’s ends, may need to be provided on the affected
in the room. Spacings of around 4 to 6 feet square are circuits. The application of such filters may need to be
common in these kinds of cases. carried out inside of the related equipment, so close
involvement of the equipment’s original manufacturer
The concrete floor embedded SRG is often combined with (OEM) is very important.
the steel reinforcing bar system that is installed in the
poured concrete. In some cases where the reinforcing steel
system is welded together, it can serve as the actual SRG,
TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS The publisher of the above standards is:

GROUNDING
Grounding of telecommunications systems, such as Telecommunications Industry
voice and data grade telephone circuits, has become a Association Standards and Technology
well defined area of grounding. The rules are explicit. If
not followed, the systems will be more sensitive to noise Department 2500 Wilson Boulevard
disturbances. As with other forms of electronic systems Arlington, VA 22201
grounding, there is no conflict between a safe system
and a reliable one. In all cases, the NEC’s requirements We emphasize that while these standards are well
fully apply to all aspects of the telecommunications
written and complete, they may not be fully compatible
wiring. The proper installation of telecommunications
with the recommendations made in this document nor
circuits is generally beyond the scope of this document,
with all current or future requirements of the NEC.
but some helpful references are provided as follows:
Therefore, some care is required in interpreting them
and applying them in the field.
(1) ANSI/EIA/TIA Standard 569A-1997 Commercial
Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard
(2) ANSI/EIA/TIA Standard 569-1990, Commercial
Building Standard for Telecommunications
Pathways and Spaces
(3) ANSI/EIA/TIA Standard 570-1991, Residential
and Light Commercial Telecommunications Wiring
Standard
Chapter 4 77
78
Chapter 5: Selection of Components Used In Grounding 79
Chapter 5
Selection Of
Components Used In
Grounding
Grounding Conductors
Connectors
Grounding Electrodes
SELECTION OF GROUNDING Installation:

SYSTEM COMPONENTS No matter what type of EGC is selected, the NEC requires
The overall effectiveness of any grounding system will in Section 300-3 (b) that in general, all conductors of the
be determined by the individual components that are circuit, including the EGC must be contained within the
used to construct the system and the manner in which the same raceway, cable tray, trench, cable or cord. The
components are connected. The purpose of this chapter purpose of this requirement is to ensure the impedance of
will be to review the selection of these components and the EGC remains at the lowest possible value. When the
the methods by which they should be interconnected. circuit conductors are run in parallel, as permitted by
Great care must be exercised in selecting all of the Section 310-4 of the NEC, the equipment grounding
following grounding components: conductors are also required to be run in parallel. In these
parallel installations the EGC must be a full sized
• The Grounding Conductors conductor based on the ampere rating of the overcurrent
protective device protecting the circuit conductors. The
• The Grounding Electrodes NEC further requires in Section 250-92 (c) that the EGC
shall be installed with all of the applicable provisions in the
• The Connectors
Code for the type of EGC which is selected. In other words,
if rigid metal conduit (RMC) is used as the EGC, as
THE GROUNDING CONDUCTORS permitted in Section 250-91 (b) (2), the RMC must be
installed in a manner that meets all of the requirements for
The NEC contains requirements for both the equipment RMC contained in Article 346 of the NEC. Installers of
grounding conductors (EGC) and the grounding electrode electrical systems should understand that when they install
conductor (GEC). Recall that the EGC is used to connect a raceway system, such as RMC, and it is used as an EGC,
the noncurrent-carrying metal parts of equipment, each length of conduit is part of the overall equipment
enclosures, raceways, etc., to the system grounded grounding system. For this reason, any terminations at
conductor and/or the grounding electrode conductor at the boxes or couplings must be made up wrenchtight to ensure
service or source of a separately derived system. The GEC, a low impedance ground path.
on the other hand, is used to connect the grounding
electrode to the EGC and/or grounded conductor at the
service or source of a separately derived system. Size:
When the equipment grounding conductor is a separate
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING conductor, as permitted by 250-91 (b) (1), the size of the
CONDUCTORS EGC is determined by the rating or the setting of the
overcurrent protective device (fuse or circuit breaker)
Materials: which is ahead of the equipment, conduit, etc. Table
250-95 of the NEC contains the minimum size for
Section 250-91 (b) lists 11 components which are permitted aluminum, copper-clad aluminum and copper equipment
to serve as the equipment grounding conductor for both grounding conductors. The table includes sizes for
branch-circuits and feeders. The permissible items are a circuits from 15-amperes up to 6000-amperes. The
copper or other corrosion-resistant conductor. EGC’s are values listed in the table are based on a maximum circuit
permitted to be either solid or stranded; insulated, covered, conductor length of 100 feet. For conductor lengths
or bare; and in the form of a wire or a busbar of any shape, longer than 100 ft, an adjustment in the EGC size may
rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit, electrical be necessary. Section 250-95 requires that where the
metallic tubing, flexible metal conduit where both the circuit ungrounded conductors are increased in size to
conduit and fittings are listed for grounding, armor of Type allow for voltage drop, the circuit equipment grounding
AC cable, the copper sheath of mineral-insulated, metal- conductors must be adjusted propor-tionately as well.
sheathed cable, the metallic sheath or the combined metallic
sheath and grounding conductors of Type MC cable, cable
trays as permitted in Sections 318-3(c) and 318-7 of the GROUNDING ELECTRODE
NEC, cablebus framework as permitted in Section 365-2(a) CONDUCTORS
of the NEC, other electrically continuous metal raceways
listed for grounding. Materials:
The grounding electrode conductor is permitted to be
constructed of copper, aluminum, or copper-clad
aluminum. Copper-clad aluminum is constructed of a electrode conductors. The table includes sizes for circuits from
minimum of 10% copper which is metallurgically No. 2 AWG copper and No. 1/0 AWG aluminum up to 1100
bonded to the aluminum core. The GEC is permitted to kcmil copper and 1750 kcmil aluminum or copper-clad
be a solid or stranded conductor and it can be an aluminum. Designers and installers of electrical systems
insulated, covered or bare conductor. Solid conductors should note that no matter what the size of the service, the
provide less surface area to corrode and subsequently are GEC is never required to be larger than a 3/0 AWG copper or a
used when installed in corrosive locations. However, 250 kcmil aluminum or copper-clad aluminum conductor. The
stranded conductors in general are easier to work with so reason for this limitation is that the grounding electrode is
they are used more frequently. With stranded conductors unable to dissipate any more current into the earth than can be
of a given size, the greater the number of strands, the carried by these conductors. So even if the conductor size were
smaller each strand is and the conductor is more flexible. increased, the effectiveness of the grounding electrode system
Copper is by far the most common choice for grounding would not be improved. As noted in Chapter 3, there may be
electrode conductors but copper-clad aluminum may be particular applications where design personnel oversize the
used to reduce the likelihood of repeated theft of the grounding electrode conductor because of the size of the
copper GEC. The major disadvantage to using aluminum facility or the nature of the equipment which may be used in
is the installation restriction in damp or wet locations. the facility. For large facilities where outdoor equipment and
See installation provisions below. exposed conductors are used, available fault current and
maximum clearing times must be considered. IEEE Std 80
gives guidance for choosing conductor size and material.
Installation:
In general, grounding electrode conductors are required to be
installed in one continuous length, without splices or joints. As
noted above however, the GEC can be spliced by means of
THE GROUNDING ELECTRODE
irreversible compression-type connectors listed for the use or Many different types of grounding electrodes are available,
by means of the exothermic welding process (CADWELD). some “natural” and some “made”. The natural types
Also as noted above, the GEC can be installed directly on a include metal underground water pipe, the metal frame of
building structure, if a No. 6 AWG or larger, and not subject to the building (if effectively grounded), copper wire or
physical damage. If the GEC is going to be subject to physical reinforcing bar in concrete foundations or underground
damage it should be installed in a raceway or cable armor for structures. “Made” electrodes are specifically installed to
protection. Section 250-92 improve the system grounding or earthing. Made electrodes
(a) prohibits the use of aluminum or copper-clad aluminum include rods or pipe driven into the earth, metallic plates
grounding electrode conductors when they are installed in buried in the earth or a copper wire ring encircling the
direct contact with masonry, the earth, or where they are structure. Note that underground gas piping is not permitted
subject to corrosive conditions. Another important to be used as a grounding electrode. Likewise, aluminum
restriction for aluminum or copper-clad aluminum GEC’s is electrodes are prohibited by the NEC.
the prohibition against their use outdoors within 18 inches
of the earth. This requirement effectively precludes the use Other rules for the above electrodes also may apply.
of aluminum or copper-clad aluminum for connection to Those in effect at the time of this writing include:
“made” electrodes installed outdoors.
1. All water pipe electrodes must be in contact with the
Size: earth for at least 10 feet and must be supple-mented
by an additional electrode as listed above. (If the
The size of the grounding electrode conductor is based on water pipe happens to be disconnected or if a section
the size of the largest service-entrance conductor that of plastic pipe is installed at a later date, the
supplies the building or structure. When the service supplemental electrode would still be effective.)
conductors are installed in parallel, the size of the GEC is
based on the size of the equivalent area of a single 2. The copper conductor in the concrete foundation or
conductor. For example, if a 3-phase, 4-wire service footer must be #4 AWG or larger and must be at
consists of two, 500 kcmil conductors per phase, in parallel, least 20 feet if it is to be used as a grounding
the size of the GEC would be based on the equivalent area electrode. If rebars are used, they must be 1/2 inch
of a single phase,1,000kcmil,( 500kcmil x 2 conductors). (#4) or larger, bare or coated with an electrically
Table 250-94 of the NEC contains the minimum size for conductive material and at least 20 feet long. The
aluminum, copper-clad aluminum and copper grounding foundation must be in direct contact with the earth.
upper end of the rod or pipe must be flush or below

grade unless the top end and the connector are
protected from damage. Pipe electrodes shall be
3/4 inch trade size or larger and shall have their
outer surface galvanized or another metal coating
for corrosion protection. Rod electrodes shall be
5/8 inch diameter if of iron or steel. Stainless steel
rods less than 5/8 inch and nonferrous rods,
including copper clad steel rods, shall be listed and
not less than 1/2 inch diameter.
5. Plate electrodes must be at least 1 square foot (0.093
square meter) and 1/4 inch (6.3 mm) thick if steel or
0.06 inch (1.5 mm) thick if nonferrous. Note the plate
thickness required by the NEC is different than that
required for lightning protection. Burial depth is not
specified by code. If used, we suggest that to get the
Fig. 5-1
best performance, it be installed on edge and with the
top at least 18 inch (460 mm) below grade. Plate
electrodes, however, are not as efficient as most other
types of electrodes and are usually used only in
special conditions where other types of electrodes
cannot be used.
Recommended practice is to install the electrodes and

interconnecting conductors 18 inches (460 mm) beyond
the roof drip line. This provides additional moisture to
reduce resistance.
The electrodes used to ground lightning protection

systems shall not be the same ones used for the electrical
system ground electrodes but the electrodes from both
systems must be bonded together. Not only required by
Fig. 5-2 the NEC but also required for safety of all who may
come in contact with the electrical system, all grounding
This type of electrode is commonly called a “Ufer electrodes must be interconnected. Separate and isolated
Ground”. (A plastic sheet must not be used to ground systems are dangerous and are not permitted!
separate the concrete from the earth.) Figure 5-1 While separate and isolated ground systems were once
shows a #4 AWG or larger copper wire imbedded specified for many electronic systems, this practice has
in the concrete foundation. Figure 5-2 shows a #4 been shown to corrupt the data, damage the equipment
(1/2”) or larger rebar imbedded in the concrete and in addition can be extremely dangerous.
foundation. CADWELD Connections are used to
make permanent connections to either the copper
GROUND RODS
wire or the rebar.
Ground rods are commonly available as copperbonded steel
3. The copper wire ground ring encircling a building and galvanized steel. Solid stainless steel, solid copper and
or structure must be #2 AWG or larger, at least 20 occasionally plain steel are also utilized. Rods are also
feet (6 m) long and buried at least 2 1/2 feet (.76m) available with a factory welded pigtail (Fig. 5-3). While
in the earth. copper bonded steel rods have a slightly lower electrical
4. Rod or pipe electrodes shall be at least 8 ft long resistance than galvanized or plain steel rods, they are not
with a minimum of 8 feet in contact with the earth, chosen for their lower electrical resistance but rather for
installed vertically except where rock is their resistance to corrosion. Copper is a more noble metal
encountered, in which case they may be driven at a than steel and will therefore resist corrosion much better
45o angle or buried in a trench 2 1/2 feet deep. The than steel, or even galvanized steel in most soils. (Fig. 5-3)
Often, one ground rod will not provide the ground

resistance required for the particular installation. The
NEC requires the ground resistance with one rod, pipe
or plate electrode to be 25 ohms or less. If it is over 25
ohms, a second electrode is required, connected to the
first electrode and separated by 6 feet or more. The
resistance of the two electrodes does not have to meet
the 25 ohm maximum resistance requirement.
Fig. 5-3
Rods are also available with More often, a maximum resistance is called out in the
factory attached job specifications. This may be 5 ohms or sometimes as
copper wire pigtails. low as 1 ohm. Depending on the earth resistivity at the
site, a low resistance may be difficult to acquire. There
However, when copper is interconnected electrically to are several ways to lower system ground resistance:
steel in the presence of an electrolyte, the steel will corrode
to protect the copper. Since the ratio of steel to copper in Use multiple rods. Unless the surface layer of soil (top
the grounding system is usually large, the amount of steel 8 to 10 feet) is of a relatively low resistance, the use of
corrosion is usually so small it can be neglected. However, multiple rods may not be effective. Multiple rods should
in cases where the steel to copper ratio is small, the be separated 8 to 10 feet for maximum efficiency and
corrosion aspect must be considered, for example as in a economy requiring a larger area which may not be
pole having both a ground rod and a guy anchor. These may available.
be electrically connected. If the guy anchor is steel and the
electrode is a copperbonded rod, an insulator in the guy Use deep driven rods. Many high resistance sites have
wire should be used to break the electrical interconnection. a high resistivity soil in the upper levels (for example a
Otherwise, galvanic corrosion on the guy anchor may rocky surface) but a lower resistivity at lower levels.
occur. Ground rods are discussed further on page 14. Deep driven rods will reach this low resistivity layer.
Sometimes it is necessary to drive 100 to 150 feet to
If the soil resistivity is very high, a backfill material is reach this low resistivity layer. Since a continuous rod
used around the ground rod to lower the system cannot be installed, the method of splicing the rod
resistance. Care must be considered in choosing the sections must be carefully examined. The methods
material used. It should be of a material compatible with available are threaded couplers, compression
the ground rod, conductor and connection material. (threadless) type and welded type. ERICO has a full line
of ground rods and ground rod accessories. (Fig 5-5)
See the discussion on ERICO GEM™
below. (Fig. 5-4)
ERICO GEM
Ground Rod
Fig. 5-4
GEM is easily installed. Auger a 3 to 6 inch hole to
Threaded Compression CADWELD Connection
a depth equal to 6 inches less than the rod length. Coupler (Threadless) Plain Rod Threaded Rod
Coupler
Drop the rod down the hole with the lower end
centered and driven in 6 inches. Fill the hole using
Fig. 5-5
either dry GEM or premixed (slurry) GEM material.
Although the welded type are more expensive, they USE A SALT AROUND THE ROD
assure that the couplings will not become a high
resistance member in the current path over the life of the Adding salt to a trench around the ground rod is an
system. One loose coupling will render all of the lower inexpensive method to add salts to the soil. The salts
rod sections useless. must be periodically renewed. The EPA may also object
to this method. Some salts may corrode the grounding
conductors. This approach to lowering the ground
Also available is a connection which is a combination of
resistance is not recommended.
a screw coupling and a welded coupling. After the screw
coupling is installed, two CADWELD connections are
made to weld the coupling to both the top and bottom CONNECTIONS
rods. (Fig. 5-6)
The connections to the ground rod can be as important as
the rod itself. (Connectors are discussed further in the
When using deep driven rods to reach soils of low
following section.) Often, a large conductor is connected to
resistance, tests have shown that the rods do not have to
one or two ground rods. In many cases, this is a mismatch
be separated more than 10 feet for maximum efficiency.
since the rod cannot carry as much current as the conductor.
This is probably due to the fact that only the lower 10
Table 5-1 lists the equivalent copper conductor size for
feet of rod is in the lower resistance soil.
various rod sizes based on fusing formulas.
USE A GROUND ENHANCEMENT Rod Size Type Closest Equivalent

MATERIAL Copper Size
1/2” (0.447 D) Sectional (1/2” Thread) #1 AWG
Several materials are available to lower the resistance of the Copper-Bonded
installed rod electrode. They are placed around the rod 1/2” (0.475 D) Plain Copper-Bonded 1/0 AWG
which has been installed in an augured hole. Although they 1/2” (0.505 D) Sectional (9/16” Thread) 1/0 AWG
have a resistivity higher than the metal rod, their resistivity Copper-Bonded
is lower than the surrounding soil. This, in effect, increases 1/2” (0.5 D) Galvanized Steel #2 AWG
the diameter of the rod. Following are some of the materials 5/8” (0.563 D) Copper-Bonded 3/0 AWG
commonly used as ground enhancement materials along 5/8” (0.625 D) Galvanized Steel #1 AWG
with their resistivities; 3/4” (0.682 D) Copper-Bonded 4/0 - 250 KCMIL
3/4” (0.75 D) Galvanized Steel 2/0 AWG
1” (0.914 D) Copper-Bonded 400 KCMIL
concrete : 3000 to 9000 ohm-cm (30 -90 ohm-m) 1” (1.0 D) Galvanized Steel 250 KCMIL
bentonite (clay) : 250 ohm-cm. (2.5 ohm-m) (Shrinks Ground Rods

and looses contact with both rod and Table 5-1
earth when it dries)
GEM™ : 12 ohm-cm (0.12 ohm-m) or less. One must also consider the current flow into the rods. If the
o
(Permanent, sets up like concrete and current heats the surrounding soil to 100 C or higher, the
does not shrink or leach into soil) moisture evaporates and the soil resistivity increases. The
maximum one second fault current for a 5/8” x10’ ground
rod in 100 ohm-meter soil is 27 amperes to limit the
o
USE A CHEMICAL TYPE OF temperature to 60 C. (Ref IEEE Std 80-1986)
GROUNDING ELECTRODE
In areas where the amount of available land is limited
Several makes of chemical types of ground electrodes and the soil resistivity is high, the use of multiple rods
are available. They are essentially a copper pipe with with interconnecting conductors will lower the system
holes in it. The pipe is filled with a salt, such as resistance. When this is not sufficient, using GEM
magnesium sulfate. The salt slowly leaches from the around either the rods or the conductors, or both, should
holes in the pipe infiltrating the soil. The salts must be be considered. (Fig. 5-4)
periodically replaced for the electrode to remain
effective. Also, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) may object to adding salts to the soil. Chemical
type electrodes are discussed in more detail on page 15.
Description Relative Installation Codes Not

Cost Time Tests to use
Split Bolt LOW MEDIUM UL Hidden
Service Posts LOW MEDIUM UL Hidden
Pipe Clamp MEDIUM UL Hidden
Compression MEDIUM MEDIUM UL
Devices TO HIGH TO HIGH
Ground Rod VERY MEDIUM UL
CADWELD
R
Clamps LOW
Brazed LOW HIGH
Connection
Screw CADWELD MEDIUM MEDIUM IEEE Std 80,
Coupler Connection TO HIGH TO HIGH IEEE Std 837
R
and UL
+ CADWELD =
Connectors
Table 5-2
R
CADWELD
Fig. 5-6
CONNECTORS
For most connector applications there is a choice of good -
better - best. This choice depends on required life, expected
corrosion, expected level of current (lightning and faults)
and total installed cost. Grounding connections carry little
or no current until a fault occurs. Then, the currents can be
very high and the likelihood of detecting a damaged
connector is low since many of them are concealed. The
result is system degradation or failure. For connectors
hidden behind walls or in the ground, there is no way to
determine if something has degraded. Failure of even one
connection point in a grounding network may be dangerous, Braze
yet go undetected for years.
Connectors are listed in Table 5-2 showing relative cost,

installation time, applicable tests and codes, and
recommendations where they should not, in the author’s
opinion, be used. The final decision is up to the designer!
Fig. 5-7
88
Chapter 6: Special Grounding Situations 89
Chapter 6
Special Grounding
Situations
Areas Not Covered
Elsewhere
Airports
Corrosion And
Cathodic Protection
Radio Antenna Grounding
Static Grounding
Wire Mesh
Fences And Gates
AIRPORTS Lightning protection also should be installed on the

airport structures. Lightning protection is discussed in
Airports require special attention to grounding. They not detail in Chapter 2.
only handle fuel in close proximity to masses of people, but
the airport is usually on high ground and therefore subject
Anchor rods are also available for static grounding and tie
to lightning strikes. Static grounding is required whenever
downs. Installation requires augering a hole, inserting the
an airplane is refueled. This is normally accomplished by
assembly and backfilling. A large washer or steel plate with
positioning a properly installed static grounding receptacle
nuts are also required to secure the rod (Fig. 6-2).
in the tarmac near the location where the refueling takes
place. A static ground lead is attached to this receptacle
from both the refueling vehicle and from the aircraft before A combination static grounding receptacle / tie down is
the fuel hoses are attached to the aircraft. This equalizes also available. It may be welded to a rod and/or a
any potential difference between the two vehicles conductor (Fig. 6-3).
preventing a static spark.
CORROSION AND CATHODIC
Static grounding receptacles are installed flush with the PROTECTION
finished tarmac (Fig. 6-1). The receptacle is welded to
either a ground rod or ground grid or both. Receptacles Cathodic Protection. There are two general methods of
that screw onto a threaded (sectional) rod are also cathodic protection, the galvanic system and the impressed
available but the threaded connection may increase in current system. The galvanic system uses a sacrificial anode of
resistance with time. a material having a higher potential on the electromotive series
than the material to be protected (Fig. 6-4).
Static grounding receptacles have an internally cast ball
(also available with a removable ball) for attaching the Magnesium, zinc or aluminum are typical sacrificial anode
grounding clamp and are supplied with an attached materials. These anodes are designed to corrode and
cover. Static grounding receptacles can be welded “sacrifice” themselves to protect the pipe, tank, etc. The
directly to a ground rod. A ground conductor can be anodes must be large enough to provide protection for a
welded to the static grounding receptacle at the same reasonable length of time before they are dissipated. Then
time the receptacle is welded to a ground rod. they must be replaced for protection to continue.
Cover
Spring Clip, To Ball
Ball, 3/4" Dia.
B165
CADWELD Type
GB/GT Welded
Connection
Ground Rod
Fig. 6-1
Static grounding receptacles have an Static grounding receptacles A ground conductor can be weld-
internally cast ball (also available can be welded directly to a ed to the static grounding recep-
with a removable ball) for attaching ground rod. tacle at the same time the recep-
the grounding clamp and are tacle is welded to a ground rod.
supplied with an attached cover.
Electomotive Series
Material Voltage
Magnesium -2.34 Most Anodic

Aluminum -1.67
Zinc -0.76
Cast Iron/Steel -0.44
Brasses -0.28
Tin -0.14
Lead -0.13
Hydrogen 0.00
Copper +0.34
Silver +0.86
Graphite (Carbon) +0.86
Platinum +0.90
Gold +1.36 Most Cathodic
Fig. 6-2 Electromotive Series (In Seawater)

Anchor rods are also used for static grounding and Table 6-1
tie downs.
The electromotive series (Table 6-1) lists several materials
from the most anodic, or most active, at the top of the list to
the most cathodic, or least active, at the bottom of the list.
Also listed is the voltage or potential of the materials in
seawater in relation to hydrogen. Any material on the list
will protect any material listed below it.
The impressed current system uses an outside source of

electricity from a DC power supply, powered by solar, wind
or the power company. This system uses a DC current of a
magnitude greater than, and flowing in the opposite
direction to, the natural galvanic cell current. An anode is
also required with the impressed current system but it can
be of an inexpensive material such as scrap steel or graphite
(Fig. 6-5). There is practically no limit on the current
output in an impressed current system.
Fig. 6-3
A combination static grounding To conserve the current requirements for cathodic protection
receptacle/tie down. on a pipeline, normal installation practice calls for pipes to be
coated to insulate the pipe from the corrosive environment.
However, these coatings are never perfect
Steel Pipe (Cathode) Steel Pipe (Cathode)
-
DC
-
Impressed Current Anode Power
Magnesuim
(Anode) Supply
Sacrificial Anode Galvanic Impressed Current Galvanic System

System
Fig. 6-4 Fig. 6-5
+
Power
dc
Supply
Pipe Line
Stray DC Current
Fig. 6-6
and/or are damaged when the pipe is installed. The continuous current. Therefore cathodic protection
breaks in the coating (called holidays) are protected by connections do not have to be as massive as grounding
the cathodic protection system. Since the amount of steel connections.
exposed at the holidays is very small compared to a bare
pipeline, the amount of current required to protect the A very low resistance system is required for a cathodic
pipeline is reduced in a direct ratio. protection system, and it must remain low in resistance
over the life of the system. The higher the resistance, the
To protect the pipeline in the case of stray current, the less efficient is the cathodic protection system.
pipe must be bonded to the negative side of the DC CADWELD Cathodic Protection Connections meet this
power supply station with a low resistance conductor. low resistance requirement, both when installed and
This provides a direct metallic path for the return current over the life of the system.
to follow as it leaves the pipe (Fig. 6-6).
The pipe used in transmission pipeline systems is usually a
A few basic rules in designing a cathodic protection highly stressed thin wall steel pipe. Any connection to this
system include: pipe by the cathodic protection wires or the test leads must
not damage the pipe. CADWELD Cathodic Protection
1. Bonding together of all structures (tanks, pipes, Connections use a special alloy weld metal (designated as
both across joints and between different pipes, etc.) F-33) developed to minimize the effect the weld has on the
is of absolute necessity for proper protection. This pipe. These connections have been proven by independent
will provide a metallic return current path for any tests not to be detrimental to the pipe, and more than 45
cathodic current. years of usage without any detrimental effects have
provided field proof to the tests.
2. A study is needed to determine any effect of the
cathodic protection system on any “foreign” CADWELD Weld Metal for cathodic protection has a
(owned by others) nearby structures. Any cathodic green cap on the weld metal tube to properly identify it
protection current picked up by a foreign structure as F-33 alloy. The CADWELD Weld Metal used for
must also leave that structure - which may cause grounding connections should not be used to make
corrosion. cathodic connections to high stressed pipe. (CADWELD
cathodic connections should never be used to make high
current grounding connections.)
CADWELD Connections. Let us look at the electrical
connections required in a cathodic protection system and
why they are different than those required for a Making Connections. Cadweld cathodic protection
grounding system. connections can be made to live pipelines and to fuel tanks
with certain restrictions. ANSI/ASME Codes (B31.4 and
B31.8) allow cathodic connections to be made to liquid
Cathodic connections are low current connections rather
petroleum transmission lines and to gas transmission and
than grounding connections. Grounding connections are
distribution lines with a limit of a 15 gram (CADWELD
required to withstand damage while conducting huge
CA15) weld metal. The lines must be full of product with
surges of ground fault current. Cathodic protection
no air pockets and when welding to tanks, the weld must be
connections are required to carry only a small but
made below the liquid level. Pure fuel will not burn or RADIO ANTENNA GROUNDING
explode. It will burn or explode only when mixed with
oxygen (air) within certain ratios. Antennas require grounding for both lightning
protection and electrical fault protection. However,
depending upon the frequency of the radio transmission,
Codes & Standards. Section 80 of the 1994 Canadian
such as AM, a ground plane also may be required for
Electrical Code contains installation requirements for
proper and efficient transmission of energy. The ground
impressed current cathodic protection systems. The
plane may be made up of radials, all bonded to the
section includes requirements for the selection of wiring
antenna base plate, and ending at a set distance from the
methods for direct current conductors, splices, taps and
base. The radials are usually spaced at 1 or 2 degree
connections, branch circuit requirements and warning intervals. Ground rods and/or a circumferential wire are
signs and drawing requirements. commonly used at the ends of the radials. (Fig. 6-7)
Interestingly, the NEC does not contain specific The ground plane also may be made using prefabricated
requirements for the installation of cathodic protection mesh around the antenna base with radials from the edge
systems. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers of the mesh. (Fig. 6-8)
(ASME) publishes codes relating to the design and
instal-lation of pressure piping systems:
Some installations use copper tubing because of its
excellent high frequency characteristics and low cost
1. ANSI/ASME B31.8, Gas Transmission and compared to other conductors having equal high frequency
Distribution Piping Systems. characteristics. Although connections can be made on the
2. ANSI/ASME B31.4, Liquid Transportation round tube, they are both costly and difficult to make. Fig.
Systems for Hydrocarbons. 6-9 shows the preferred method. Since the tube comes in
different sizes and types (with different wall thickness), the
In both, under corrosion control, the code allows the exact specification of the tube must be given.
attachment of electrical leads using exothermic welding
but limits the weld metal size to: In addition to copper tubing, wide solid copper strip is
often used as a low impedance conductor at high
1. CADWELD CA15 for steel pipe. frequencies. CADWELD connections of strip to strip and
strip to ground rods can be utilized as shown in Fig. 6-10
2. CADWELD CA32XF19 for cast, wrought or
and 6-11. Thin strip is usually recommended over tubing.
ductile iron pipe.
These restrictions allow welding of a No. 4 AWG and The transmission conductor must also be properly
smaller conductor to steel pipe using CADWELD grounded and equipped with surge protection. This,
cathodic Type CAHA connections and No. 6 AWG and however, is beyond the scope of this book.
smaller conductor to cast, wrought or ductile iron pipe
using Type CAHB connections. When larger sized The towers themselves are grounded using standard
conductors must be welded to pipes falling under these connections to the tower legs and to the ground rod.
codes, several alternatives are available: (Fig. 6-12 and 6-13)
1. Using a formed terminal bond, a No.2 AWG can be Guyed towers also must have the guys and guy anchors
welded to a cast, wrought or ductile iron pipe with grounded. This can usually be accomplished by
a CA32XF19. grounding the anchor plate (Fig. 6-14) or the guy after it
is terminated. Do not weld or braze to any guy
2. Use a copper Bonding strap. conductor that is (or will be) under tension.
3. Use a CADWELD “Punched Strap” Bond. Since most communication towers, including broadcast
types, are located on the highest available site, the earth
4. Unstrand the larger conductor and make multiple resistivity is often very high. Extensive ground fields
welds of one (or more) strands at a time. may be required. The use of a ground enhancement
material such as ERICO GEM25™ may be a cost-
effective method of reducing system resistance. See the
discussion on GEM in Chapter 5.
Tube Splice
Fig. 6-7
Tube Tee
Tube To Ground Rod
Fig. 6-8
Cable Tap To Tube
Fig. 6-9
CADWELD Connections on copper tubing used for
high frequency grounding, with copper tube flattened.
Copper Strip
CADWELD Connection
CADWELD Connection
Fig. 6-10
Strip To Be Welded Guy Anchor
Sandwich Pieces,
Top And Bottom,
Same Size As
Strip Being CADWELD
Welded Connection
Finished
Grade
CADWELD
Connection
ERITECH
Ground Rod
CADWELD
Connection
#2 AWG, Tinned CU
Fig. 6-11
#2 AWG, Tinned CU
Tower By Others
Buried Ground Ring
CADWELD Connection To
Leg Or To Cross Bracing
2'-0" Radius Bend
ERITECH
(Minimum, Typical) Ground Rod
Crushed Finished Grade
Gravel
#2 AWG Tinned CADWELD Type
Fig. 6-14
CU (TYP.) NC To Ground
Rod
STATIC GROUNDING
Static electricity is a major cause of fires and explosions
where flammable powders and liquids are stored and
External Building Buried Ground Ring
handled. The hazard of electrostatic spark ignition of a
flammable vapor can be minimized by taking actions to
Guyed Tower Ground Detail limit the accumulation of electrostatic charges to safe
Fig. 6-12 values. Of primary importance is the proper bonding and
grounding of equipment and containers. In addition,
charge accumulation must be limited, in many instances,
Contractor To Remove by controlling the rate of charge generation and/or the
Paint To Provide
Positive Connection.
Monopole
rate of charge dissipation. Occasionally, such methods
Touch Up Paint After
Installation Of CADWELD
2'-0" Radius Bend cannot be applied and the use of an inert gas in vapor
Connection
(Minimum, Typical)
spaces must be used.
#2 Solid
Exothermic Weld Tinned CU (Typ.)
CADWELD Type VA Or VS
CADWELD
Sources of Static Generation
Grade
To Ground Rod (Typ.)
The most common generators of static electricity are
processes using flammable powders and liquids. Static
electricity is generated by materials flowing through pipes
and in mixing, pouring, pumping, filtering or agitating. The
rate of generation is influenced by conductivity, turbulence,
External Building
the interface area between the materials and other surfaces,
Buried Ground Ring velocity and the presence of impurities.
Fig. 6-13
NOTE: The statements contained in this section are based on the
experience of user. Each situation requiring static charge control
is different and is the total responsibility of the designer.
Some specific areas where static electricity is generated Flow Rates

include: Schedule 40
Pipe Size Flow Rate Flow Rate
Piping Systems - In piping systems, the generation rate (Diameter (GPM at (GPM at
and the subsequent accumulation of static charges are a in Inches) 15 Ft/Sec) 3 Ft/Sec)
function of the materials, the flow rate, flow velocity, 1 40 8
pipe diameter and pipe length. 1 1/2 95 19
2 157 31
Filling Operations - The turbulence experienced in 2 1/2 224 45
filling operations caused by high flow rates, splashing or 3 346 69
the free-falling of liquids or powder fines and the need to 3 1/2 462 92
connect and disconnect hoses, valves and the like 4 595 119
increases the charge accumulation and the chances of a
hazardous charge. Flow Rates
Table 6-2
Filtration - Filters, because of their large surface area, can
flammable liquids should be eliminated to the maximum
generate as much as 200 times the electrostatic charge extent practical by lowering the fill velocities, by providing
generated in the same piping system without filters. diverters to direct the discharge of material down the side
of the grounded vessel being filled or by submerging fill
Dispersing Operations - Dispersing operations can be pipes below the level in the vessel. Submerging of fill pipes
particularly hazardous in view of the extremely high rate of may not always be practical. In bulk filling operations, the
charge generation when particulates are present. With velocity of the incoming liquid typically should not exceed
poorly conductive materials, the charge accumulation can 3 feet per second until the pipe outlet is covered. The
cause hazardous sparking in the mixer, such as to an velocity may then be increased to the 15 feet per second
exposed agitator bar or to a conductive fill pipe in a ball or mentioned previously. Table 6-2 also lists the flow rates for
pebble mill. High charge generation rates can also occur various pipe sizes for the velocity of 3 feet per second.
when materials are mixed, thinned, combined or agitated.
Filtration - Experience has shown that the static electricity
hazard may be controlled by installing filters far enough
Methods of Static Control
upstream of the discharge point to provide a 30 second
In addition to being dependent on the charge generation relaxation time period prior to discharge. The relaxation
rate, charge accumulation is a function of the resistance of time depends upon the conductivity, the liquid velocity and
the path by which charges dissipate. Within the material, the type of filter. For example, the 30 second relaxation
the dissipation of static electricity is dependent on the time may not be necessary with a highly conductive liquid.
material’s “conductivity.” Some flammable liquids have a
very low conductivity and tend to accumulate static Dispersing Operations - For dispersing operations of
charges. Toluene, an example of such a liquid, has a long solids into liquids, the conductivity of the liquid should be
history of causing industry fires. Lange’s Handbook lists raised, if necessary, to above 2000 conductivity units
conductivity data of some pure liquids. Although the (C.U.), which is 2 x 10-5 micromho/cm, before particulates
generation of static electricity cannot be eliminated, its rate are added. If possible, polar solvents should be added
of generation and accumulation can be reduced by the before non-polar solvents or particulates are added. Polar
following procedures: solvents are more conductive than non-polar solvents. In
some instances, proprietary anti-static agents, developed for
Piping Systems - The most effective method of reducing use with fuels, can be used as additives to reduce the charge
the accumulation of static charges in piping systems is accumulation. Typically, only a few parts per million of the
through the proper pipe sizing to keep flow velocities low additive are required. Tests should be conducted to ensure
and to keep the flow as laminar as possible. The typical that the conductivity additive does not cause formulation
maximum velocity in piping systems is 15 feet per second. problems. The additive may not be suitable for use in
Table 6-2 lists the flow rates for various pipe sizes for a coatings for food containers. If the liquid conductivity
velocity of 15 feet per second. Each user must determine cannot be raised to the recommended value, the vessel
the maximum velocity that can be safely allowed. should be inerted (filled with an inert material). For
dispersing solids into solids, contact with the mixing vessel
Filling Operations - Splash filling and free fall of or agitator is the usual path to ground. Raising the humidity
level in the mixer and/or providing a liquid conductive quantity of a conductive, flammable liquid.
medium to dissipate the charge will help. If this is not
possible, the vessel should be inerted. It should be noted Stretch Wrap - Stretch wrap must be removed from
that the static accumulation in liquids should be pallets in a nonflammable location. This material is
controlled by raising the ambient humidity. usually highly charged and represents a serious hazard
in flammable locations.
Pebble mills present an additional hazard because the
porcelain lining is an insulator that will prevent the flow Semi-Bulk “Supersacks” - Electrostatic field intensity
of static charges from the liquid to ground, even if the at the bag surface should be less than 5 kV/cm (12.5
mill is grounded. This hazard is best controlled by kV/inch). Bags that contain metallic filaments must be
inerting the mill. grounded during product transfer.
Nonconductive Plastic Containers and Stretch Film. Conductive Plastic Liners and Containers - Although
The use of nonconductive plastic containers in potentially most plastic materials are nonconductive, some conductive
flammable locations may be an ignition hazard. Static plastic liners and containers are commercially available.
charge accumulations on such containers, caused by the Conductive plastic materials must be grounded during
transfer of poorly conductive materials or by contact product transfer in flammable locations.
charging, cannot be dissipated by bonding and grounding.
Contact (“triboelectric”) charging of a nonconducting Bonding and Grounding Principles

container in a low humidity environment creates a spark Bonding and grounding are very effective techniques for
ignition hazard by inducing charges in materials in a minimizing the likelihood of ignition from static electricity. A
container. These induced charges may cause sparking, bonding system connects various pieces of conductive
for example, when the material is poured into a equipment and structures together to keep them at the same
grounded safety can. Surprisingly, this hazard of charge potential. Static sparking cannot take place between objects
induction is greatest when the material is conductive. which are at the same potential. Grounding is a special form of
bonding in which the conductive equipment is connected to the
For example, experience in the coating industry suggests facility grounding system in order to prevent sparking between
the following precautions: conductive equipment and ground.
Fiberboard Drums - No hazard of static accumulation In potentially flammable locations, all conductive
except for metal rims which should be grounded during objects that are electrically isolated from ground by
product transfer. nonconductors such as nonconductive piping or hoses,
flexible hoses, flexible connections, equipment supports
Kraft Paper Bags and Plastic-Lined Paper Bags - No or gaskets should be bonded. An isolated conductive
hazard with paper bags. Plastic-lined paper bags are object can become charged sufficiently to cause a static
usually not hazardous, but the static electrification for spark. Objects that can become isolated include screens,
each bag/contents combination should be measured. All rims of nonconductive drums, probes, thermometers,
plastic bags and bags with removable plastic liners spray nozzles and high pressure cleaning equipment.
should be avoided unless measurements of electric field
intensity at the bag surface during product transfer is less In order to successfully achieve the objective of the same
than 5 kV/cm (12.5 kV/inch). ground potential for all materials and their containers when
there are additional and/or redundant grounding systems,
Plastic Bottles and Nonconductive Drum Liners - Both and particularly when there are supplementary grounding
of these items are subject to the hazard of charge induction electrodes, all such grounding electrodes and systems must
as a result of electrification. Precautions must be taken to be interconnected as required by the NEC and NFPA
minimize contact charging or to neutralize contact charges Lightning Protection Code.
before use. Removal of plastic bottles from plastic bags
may cause contact charging. Electric field intensities greater Bonding and grounding conductors must be durable and
than 5 kV/cm (12.5 kV/inch) at the surface of the bottle or of a low resistance. Connections of bonding conductors
liner should be neutralized before a conductive flammable to equipment must be direct and positive for portable
liquid is put into the bottle. It is also important to avoid
equipment. Clamps must make contact with metal
charging a plastic bottle that even contains a small
surfaces
through most paint, rust and surface contaminates. The fixed leads and the busbar are not usually subject to
Single point clamps are superior to battery type and damage or wear but should be annually checked with an
“alligator” type clamps for making direct contact. ohmmeter. They are checked between the leads or bus
and the facility ground. The measured resistance should
Caution must be exercised in the installation of static be less than 1 ohm.
grounding systems so that no part of the electrical
current-carrying system is used as a ground. Fires have Conductive hoses should be checked regularly and after
occurred in plants where static-control grounds were tied any repairs are made. The conductive segments may
into the electrical system neutrals. These neutrals must break or may not be properly repaired. Nonconductive
never be part of the ground system except at the service hoses with an internal spiral conductor should be
entrance or other approved common bonding point. installed so that the spiral conductor makes contact with
the adjacent metallic fittings. Shake the hose whenever
possible when making the measurements.
Testing and Inspection of Bonding
and Grounding Systems
Facility Ground System.
The proper installation of bonding and grounding
devices is important in the protection of personnel and The final component of the static bonding and
equipment. At the time of installation, a resistance test is grounding system is the facility ground system. The
needed to confirm electrical continuity to ground. In facility ground must conform to the rules of the NEC as
addition, an effective inspection and periodic described elsewhere in this book.
maintenance program is needed to ensure that continuity
exists throughout the system. Underground piping equipped with cathodic protection
should not be used as the grounding system.
In evaluating maintenance requirements, the bonding
and grounding requirements can be divided into three
categories: Inerting Methods and Procedures
The introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen into a
1. The point type clamps equipped with flexible leads ball or pebble mill or mixer may prevent a flash fire if
used for temporary bonding of portable containers an electrostatic spark occurs within the vessel. Care
to the facility grounding system. must be exercised that sufficient inert gas is introduced
to adequately displace the oxygen (air) throughout the
2. The fixed grounding conductors and busbars used entire vessel. The most common inert gases are nitrogen
to connect the flexible leads and fixed equipment
and carbon dioxide (CO2).
to ground.
3. The facility grounding system. Two important considerations when inerting are gas
pressure and gas velocity. High gas pressure could
The flexible leads are subject to mechanical damage and damage a closed vessel. To avoid overpressurization, a
wear, as well as corrosion and general deterioration. For relief valve is recommended on the gas line to the mill.
this reason, they usually should be uninsulated and should Inerting with carbon dioxide is potentially hazardous,
be inspected frequently. This inspection should evaluate and such systems must be carefully designed and
cleanliness and sharpness of clamp points, stiffness of the
installed. A CO2 fire extinguisher should never be used
clamp springs, evidence of broken strands in the conductor
to inert a vessel. Continuous automatic inerting systems
and quality of the conductor connections.
are available which can monitor the oxygen content in a
vessel and can adjust the flow of inert gas to maintain a
A more thorough inspection should be made regularly nonflammable environment within the vessel.
using an approved ohmmeter to test electrical resistance
and continuity. One lead of the ohmmeter is attached to a
NFPA 69 “Explosion Prevention Systems” published by
clean spot on the container, the other lead is connected to
the National Fire Protection Association further
the facility grounding system. The measured resistance
discusses inert gas systems.
should be less than 25 ohms and will usually be about 1
ohm. Shake the leads to make sure that the contact point
and the leads are sound. Do not rely on contact through
dirt or rust.
Conductor Sizing
Proper sizing of conductors is determined by many factors
such as industry standards, insurance requirements, local
codes, etc. These standards supersede any recommen-
dations in this book. The following is based on many years
of experience and NFPA 77 “Static Electricity,” 1994.
There is no single answer to conductor sizing, although

the following guidelines can be provided:
1. Conductors which are connected and disconnected

frequently should be light enough to provide an
adequate life. A 1/8 inch stainless steel, No. 6 AWG
extra flexible copper, 3/16 inch flexible bronze or
galvanized steel will carry the current required for
static grounding and will fit the majority of
applications.
2. Permanently mounted conductors are generally
recommended to be at least No. 6 AWG copper,
although conductors of #2 to 2/0 are generally used
because they are more sturdy. Copper busbar is
often used where mounted on a wall or floor. The
minimum size recommended is 1/8 inch by 1 inch
3. Outdoor grounding conductors are generally sized
for the particular facility and are larger than the
minimum required for static grounding
requirements alone. A minimum size of #2 AWG is
recommended. If fault currents must be considered,
a larger size may be necessary.
Fig. 6-15
The question of insulation is important if the static
conductor or clamp comes in contact with an object that
may be electrically energized. Another consideration is Grounding Reel, Door Operator
Mount To Door
the operator being in parallel with the static discharge Sheet Metal Hood Operator Ground To Door
path. If neither of these is a concern, then most users Operator
would probably prefer bare conductors that are easier to Door Track
(Typ. For 2)
inspect. Metal doors must be bonded to the grounding Coiling #6 Bare Copper
system in critical areas. (Fig. 6-15, 6-16, 6-17, and 6-18) Overhead Ground, CADWELD
Door Connection To Door
A personnel static ground bar is necessary to dissipate Track, Door Operator
any static charge before entering a room. (Fig. 6-19) And Sheet Metal Hood
To Steel Column.
Ground bars are available for attachment of static ground
clamps. (Fig. 6-20) CADWELD
Connection To
Overhead Door
Various bonding jumpers are available from plain or

coiled conductors to reels. (Fig. 6-21) Copper ground Coiling Overhead Door Grounding
busbars should be located at room periphery for easy Fig. 6-16
access for ground clamps. (Fig. 6-22)
Grounding Reel The Ground To

Overhead
Door Support
Exothermic
Weld To #6 Bare Copper
Overhead Door
Ground
Door Track
(Typical For 2) Exothermically

Track Type Weld To
Overhead
Overhead Door Door Track
Bonding Jumper,
Exothermically
Welded To Each
Door Section
Weld To Existing Building
Ground System
Existing Bare Copper Building Ground
Overhead Track Type Door Grounding

Fig. 6-17
Door Operator
Door
Wall
Bolt Securely
Fig. 6-19
Grounding Reel, ERICO
P/N B2618A, Mount To
Door Operator, Provide
Mounting Hardware As
Overhead Necessary, Coordinate
With Door Supplier
Door
Fig. 6-18
Item Quantity Description

1 1 14 x 2 x 18 Copper Bar
2 1 1 x 2 x 22 Phenolic Bar
3 3 Grounding Stud, Brass
4 2 Silicon Bronze Hardware
5 2 Insulated Ground Conductors
Fig. 6-20
Static ground bar with ball studs. The Aircraft Grounding

Clamp easily attaches to the stud for temporary static
grounding.
Fig. 6-21
Stand-off Bracket
2700 Insulator
CADWELD Splice
4"
1/4 x 3 Copper Bus
36" Detail "A"
Connection To Ground See Detail "A" Clamp
3/16 Insulated
See Detail "B" Flex Cable
Length "L"
1/8 x 1", 2 Hole

Copper Lug
P/N B536A "L"
"L" = Length In Feet
Detail "B"
Fig. 6-22
Following are application sketches showing a few of the

static grounding schemes. Figures 6-23 through 6-37
Bus to facility ground and pipe grounding.

Fig. 6-26
Attachments to ground bus.

Fig. 6-23
Temporary bonding jumper to pail.

Fig. 6-27
Jumper to ground bus.

Fig. 6-24
Drum pump bond.

Drum or pail bonding to ground bus. Fig. 6-28
Fig. 6-25
Drum and pail bonding.

Fig. 6-31
Drum and pail bonding.

Fig. 6-29
Mixer bonding.
Fig. 6-32
Pipe and drum.

Fig. 6-30
B2614A Spring Clamp

With A822SB111C20
Coiled Cable
Pipe Swivel Joint

B2616Axx Pipe Clamps
With A806A3F5 Cable
CADWELD
Type VV
Weld
B2600E2C
Rail Siding
CADWELD
Typical Parts Needed
Type ST
For Static Grounding
Weld
CADWELD
Type GT
Weld
Tank car bonding at siding.

Fig. 6-33
CADWELD
Type VS
B2615C
B2600E2C
B2600D1
B2610A With
Drum Storage
A822SA111C5 Typical Parts Needed
Cable For Static Grounding
Drum storage rack bonding.

Fig. 6-34
WIRE MESH
ERICO prefabricated wire mesh is a convenient,
efficient and economical means of improving grounding
systems at large facilities of high voltage installations
and wherever large area communications grounds are
required. It reduces step and touch potentials at
substations and effectively minimizes ground plane
fluctuations at communications antenna sites. This mesh
is also an excellent antenna ground plane, reflector and
Pipe Swivel Joint Bonding electronic shield for large facilities. (Fig. 6-38)
Fig. 6-35
Personnel Safety Mats of prefabricated wire mesh are
ideal safety mats to protect operators against lethal touch
potentials at manually operated disconnect switches.
1 1/2
Prefabricated wire mesh is made from solid wire, either

copper or copperbonded steel wire. The copperbonded wire
has the strength of steel and the conductivity and corrosion
resistance of copper. It is available in either 30% or 40%
conductivity of copper, although 30% is the most popular.
A
All joints of the prefabricated wire mesh are silver brazed at
the wire crossing points. This method provides joints strong
enough to resist separation during installation and to bear the
traffic of construction vehicles. Like the wire itself, the silver
brazed joints are highly resistant to corrosion. A non- corrosive
flux is used in the brazing process that will not promote
corrosion after the mesh is installed. The electrical
conductivity of a silver brazed joint is excellent because of the
low resistivity of the silver brazing material.
Static Tie Down Rod

Fig. 6-36
Fig. 6-38
Typical mechanical connectors used in
static grounding.
Fig. 6-37
Fig. 6-41
To Equipment
Ground
Fig. 6-39
CADWELD
ERICO
CADWELD
Ground
Lugs
Bar
CADWELD
CADWELD
Ground
Plate
Assembly
ERICO
Mesh
For applications of mesh used as signal reference grid (SRG) embedded in the concrete
floor, a CADWELD Cast Ground Plate is mounted flush with the finished floor and
connected to the mesh. Future equipment is then connected to the ground plate.
Fig. 6-42
Fig. 6-40
Prefabricated wire mesh is custom made to meet the needs

of the installation. Wire size can range from No.6 AWG to
40'
No.12 AWG (0.162 inch to 0.081 inch diameter). Widths up
to 20 feet (6.0 m) are available. The length will depend on Splice
See Fig.
the roll weight which has a limit of 500 pounds (227 kg). 6-44
Prefabricated mesh is easily installed with no digging or

trenching. It is simply unrolled like a roll of carpeting.
(Fig. 6-39) Adjacent rolls are easily and economically 5 Mesh Sections @ 12' = 60'
joined using CADWELD type PG connections. (Fig. 6-

Fig. 6-43
40) On large jobs, at least 30 connections per hour can
be made. Communications and shielding applications Prefabricated wire mesh, when installed in large areas
require connections to the grounding electrode system. requiring interconnections between rolls, is furnished
When used as shielding inside a building, it is attached with the cross wires overhanging the outside long wire
to the floor, walls and/or ceiling, depending upon the equal to an amount of 1/2 the mesh size plus 2 inches.
installation. It can be stapled to the wall studs or ceiling (Fig. 6-43 and 6-44) As shown, this allows the mesh to
joists before the finished surface is installed. (Fig. 6-41) be spliced side-to-side or end-to-end while still
maintaining the mesh opening at the splice area.
Mesh can also be installed in the concrete slab to be used as
a signal reference grid (SRG). Embedded ground plates When prefabricated wire mesh is used for personnel
connected to the mesh and flush with the floor are used to protection from faults at switch handles, it is usually made
connect to the equipment. While thin flat strip SRGs are in 4 by 4 feet or 4 by 6 feet rectangular sheets although
usually used and laid on top of the finished concrete, larger sizes can be made. Some users also purchase the
embedded mesh installations are also popular. (Fig. 6-42) mesh in rolls and cut off pieces as needed. The wire size
1. Electrically connect the fence grounding system to

the facility ground system (Fig. 6-46). This method
must be used when the fence is within or close to
the facility ground grid.
2. Use a separate grounding system for the fence,
isolated from the facility ground system (Fig. 6-47).
1/2 M + 2"
Fence
M M M
Grid
Fig. 6-44
most commonly used is No.6 copperbonded steel, 30%
Grid
conductivity. CADWELD connections are used to
connect the conductor between the switch handle and the
mat. (Fig. 6-45).
Fig. 6-46
Perimeter Conductor
Fence
Grid
Grid
Fig. 6-47
Fig. 6-45 When the fence is tied to the grid, this increases the grid
size which reduces both the grid resistance and the ground
FENCES AND GATES grid voltage rise. However, the internal and perimeter
gradients must be kept within safe limits because the fence
Where fences surround electrical facilities or areas is also at the full potential rise. This can often be
where a fence could be energized from a fault, either accomplished by burying a perimeter conductor 3 to 4 feet
from within the facility or one transferred in from outside the fence and bonding the fence and the perimeter
attached fences or other metallic connections, they must conductor together at frequent intervals (Fig 6-48). The
be grounded to protect both the worker in the facility and conductor could be buried under the fence line if one is
the general public who may touch it from the outside. unable to place it outside. But the touch potential for a
The normal scheme for grounding the fence is to ground person standing one meter outside the fence would be about
all corner posts and one line post every 50 feet (15 m). 60% greater than if the perimeter conductor were buried
There are two methods used in designing the fence one meter outside (see Note 1).
grounding system, especially at an electrical facility:
Note 1. Based on IEEE Std 80-1986 (16.2 and Appendix 1, example

1) with a grid spacing of 8 m and conductor burial of 0.5
m.
Perimeter Conductor
Splitbolt (Typ.)
Fence
Grid
Grid
Fig. 6-48
With the perimeter conductor one meter outside the

fence, a worker standing inside the fence will have an
increase in touch potential, but only by about 10%. If the Fig. 6-49
fence is not connected to the main grid (Fig. 6-47), the
following must be considered:
1. Could an energized line fall on the fence?

2. Could other hazardous potentials exist during other
types of faults?
3. Can the fence be completely isolated from the main
grid at all times, including future expansions?
Fence grounding specifications. Some ground

only the fence fabric, others only the fence post. Some Fig. 6-50
continue the conductor up and ground the top rail while
others ground the top barbed wire. CADWELD Type VS CADWELD
Type HS
Welding Cable
The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC), ANSI C2-

1997, states (Rule 92E) that where substation fences are
required to be grounded they shall be designed to limit
touch, step and transferred voltages in accordance with
industry practices. When the fence posts are constructed
of conducting materials the grounding conductor shall be Cable Post Connection Gate Connection
connected to the fence posts with suitable connectors. Mold* W/M Sleeve Mold* W/M Sleeve
1/0 W.C. VSC2E-PS #90 54292E16 HSC2E-PS #90 S429E16
2/0 W.C. VSC2J-PS #90 S4292J16 HSC2J-PS #90 S4292J16
When the posts are made of a non-conductive material, 4/0 W.C. VSC2S-PS #115 S4292S16 HSC2S-PS #115 S4292S16
the fence barbed wire or mesh strands shall be bonded at
*Add Pipe Size (P.S.)
each grounding conductor point. (Fig. 6-49) The NESC
also requires that fences be grounded on each side of a Rolling Gate Bonding
gate or similar opening and the gate shall be bonded to Fig. 6-51
the grounding conductor, jumper or fence. ERICO offers
a complete line of factory-made flexible bonding A second conductor, although not required by NESC, offers
jumpers and clamps for use with just about any fence. In personnel protection if installed under the swing area of the
addition, all conductive gates shall be bonded across the gates as shown in (Fig. 6-50). It is also common practice to
opening by a buried conductor. (Fig 6-50) connect the ground conductor to each corner post and to
line posts every 50 feet. Rolling gates can be bonded to the
gate post as shown in Figure 6-51.
Note: It is not necessary to Following are fence and gate grounding details which
connect to the fence fabric or
top rail (Except in Canada)
may be helpful. (Fig. 6-52, 6-53 and 6-54)
if the posts are of a
conducting material.
(Ref: NESC 92E5&6) Various styles of clamps are available for fence post
Steel Line Or
Corner Post grounding and for gate and gate post bonding and
CADWELD Fence
Post Clamp grounding. (Fig. 6-55) Various styles of welded
CADWELD Type connections are available for gate bonding and gate post
VS Or VB
grounding, including a combination of welds and a clamp
Ground Wire where the gate must occasionally be removed. (Fig. 6-56)
(3 Feet Outside
Of Fence Typical)
Alternate For Aluminum
CADWELD Type TA
Or Thin Wall Steel Posts. Both the Canadian Electrical Code (36-312 [4]) and the
NESC (92 E [4]) require that the barbed wire above the
Fig. 6-52 fence mesh at a substation to be grounded. ERICO
Typical construction drawing detail recommends that the connections to the barbed wire use
showing fence split bolt connectors. (Fig. 6-54)
line and corner post grounding.
Fence posts come in a variety of sizes and shapes. (Fig.
6-57)
Gate Post
Perimeter Ground
Cable
(Outside Fence)
CADWELD Gate 48" Min.

Swing
Type TA (Typ) (Typ) (Typ)
Ground Substation
Ground Grid
Leads (Inside Fence)
CADWELD Type TA (Typ)

Notes:
1. Perimeter ground bus to be 4'-0" from fence line. Connect to bus inside fence at 50'-0" Max.
2. Bottom of fence and gate fabric must not be more than 2" above finish grade.
3. Ground all corner and gate post. Fence posts shall be grounded at 50' Maximum intervals.
4. Fences and facilities not owned must not be attached to substation fence or ground
system unless specifically required by engineering.
Fig. 6-53
Typical construction drawing detail Fig. 6-55
showing gate
and gate post grounding.
Splitbolt
Fig. 6-56
CADWELD
Type VG
Fig. 6-54
Fig. 6-57
Chapter 7: Application Of Surge Protection Devices 113
Chapter 7
Application Of Surge
Protection Devices
SURGE PROTECTION Some suppliers of MOVs promise speed of operation of a

few nanoseconds. In industrial systems, most transients of
Good grounding without good surge protection may not be any significance are much slower. Indeed, rarely is the
totally effective in protecting equipment and data. Surge response time of the SPD component itself of significience
protection devices (SPDs) are usually needed. These because the inductance of the interconnecting conductor
devices are proven and inexpensive - the best life insurance tends to slow the transient risetime. The arrangement and
your money can buy. But SPDs must be selected and length of the SPD wiring is important. Devices tested to UL
installed properly, otherwise they are not very effective. 1449 will be assigned a Suppressed Voltage Rating (SVR)
Another term for SPDs is Transient Voltage Surge which indicates the clamping voltage of the device when
Protectors (TVSS) but we will use the term SPD here. tested with a specific impulse. The SVR is an important
figure for the SPD.
The electric power company uses surge protection devices
called lightning arresters to protect its own facilities and Branch circuits feeding valuable equipment including
equipment. The building owner or tenant must also supply process control devices, computers and PLCs need their
surge protection devices to protect his electronically own SPDs. These must be carefully sized for the voltage
controlled apparatus including computers, variable and energy levels to which they may be subjected. The
frequency drives, PLCs, etc. Residences often have energy rating of the branch circuit protection SPD can be
computers, electronically controlled heating and cooling lower than that of the service entrance protector. Its voltage
systems and appliances which should be protected. Sources rating is selected to be somewhat closer to the actual branch
of transients include induced or conducted manmade circuit voltage to provide better protection. SPDs are also
transients which arise on incoming power lines and inside needed at the point of utilization, or, better yet, inside each
the facility, as well as from lightning. In commercial and piece of equipment. The SPDs need to be coordinated so
industrial facilities most transients arise from within the the larger (and more costly) service entrance SPDs absorb
facility. The equipment itself may generate transients. most of the transient energy. This would allow the SPD at
the equipment utilization location point to minimize
SPDs are manufactured using a variety of technologies. voltage rise to a more acceptable value.
These choices all provide advantages and disadvantages.
By far the most widely used technology is the Metal Connection of each SPD is also critical to their proper
Oxide Varistor (MOV) which consists of a pellet or performance. Short leads are needed on either side of the
block of specially prepared zinc oxide with “impurities” SPD to minimize voltage drop from high frequency
added to provide the desired voltage limiting transients. It is very possible that one additional foot of
characteristics. MOVs are fast and give excellent conductor connected to the SPD may add over 1000 volts
protection at low cost in most situations. to the voltage imposed on equipment. Of course, all
connections must be clean and tight. One element of these
MOVs “clip” the voltage transient at a known level connections is the fact that when they conduct surge
which should be above the maximum possible steady current, they raise the voltage along the ground conductor
state value of the peak line voltage. A protective level of to which they are connected. This voltage rise may be large
300 volts or even 400 volts is not unreasonable for most enough to upset the same or other equipment on the same
120 volt applications. Many specifiers try to “improve” line. The solution to this unavoidable situation is to assure
the protection level by overspecifying MOVs. Not only low impedance in the grounds, especially those associated
is this unnecessary, it reduces the reliability of the with interconnected equipment. Signal Reference Grids are
overall system. The SPD will have a rating called the one form of desirable solution as described in IEEE Std
MCOV (Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage). This 1100-1992 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering
is the maximum value of continuous rms voltage which and Grounding Sensitive Electronic Equipment”.
the SPD can reliably withstand.
The supplier of SPDs should be able to supply proof of
Because MOVs have limited capability to absorb energy, conformance to ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.41- 1991 or latest
a standard has been proposed based on extensive studies revision, as well as UL1449 or appropriate CSA standards.
by the National Institute of Science and Technology IEEE Std C62.41-1991 defines three location categories
(NIST) and others, to assist the specifier. Many of these with SPDs designed separately for each location category.
findings are incorporated in ANSI/IEEE Std. C62.41,
UL1449 and corresponding CSA Standards. Location Category C is the incoming service to the
building and is the location where the highest energy is
present. (Fig. 7-1) Power line faults, power line If a Power Center is used, then it should also have its
equipment problems and lightning are the greatest threat own separate SPD protection. Its Wye secondary neutral
at this location. In many cases the local electric power should be connected to building steel if possible, to form
company provides surge protection on the high voltage a separately derived ground. Then, its SPDs should be
side of the supply transformer. The transformer itself is bonded to the output of the Power Center through the
usually provided by the local electric company. SPDs at shortest possible lead lengths.
these locations are designed to limit overvoltages to a
value sufficiently less than the transformer’s basic Each piece of equipment also should be protected at or very
insulation rating (BIL) and to protect switchgear and close to the point of entry for all data and power conductors.
main breakers from internal flashover. These SPDs must
be large enough to absorb the high energy available from
Data line surge protection also should be considered,
transients at the service entrance.
especially where data lines are long or separated by one
or more floors up or down in a multistory building.
Location Category B is the level of protection at the These specialized devices are not discussed in detail in
branch circuit level. Phase to neutral protection plus neutral this book. Typical data lines that should be protected
to ground protection is recommended. These SPDs can be include RS232 or RS485 computer serial data interfaces,
somewhat smaller than those at location category C because PLC signaling connections, LAN cabling and RF
the peak voltage and energy will be less. coaxial cables. In particular, telephone lines are often
exposed over long distances and adequate SPD
Location Category A is the level of protection at the protection is essential. Having installed both power and
point of equipment utilization level. Location category A data/telephone protection, it is essential that the ground
protection can be built into: connections on the protective devices be connected to
the same ground point to avoid potential differences.
1. The load equipment itself - such as an uninter-
ruptible power supply. The Tables which follow are derived from ANSI/IEEE Std
C62.41-1991. They may be used by the contractor or
2. A separate enclosure containing SPDs of proper engineer to define location of SPDs and the severity of
design for protecting loads whose needs are expected transients. From this information, it is possible to
known to the installer. select an appropriate SPD for the majority of applications.
3. Panels serving the above loads
4. Circuit breakers
Line to neutral, line to ground and neutral to ground

protection must be applied on single phase and three phase
systems. Neutral to ground voltage rises of more than a few
volts can cause misoperation of electronic equipment.
The coordination of the SPDs for location categories A, B

and C is important, otherwise the benefits needed for
proper protection may not be realized. If a location category
A device “sees” a surge large enough to have operated the
larger location category C device then the location category
A device and its associated load may be damaged or
destroyed. Proper coordination depends on knowledge of
surge magnitudes, as well as number and location of the
various branches of the power system circuits. While
computer simulations are possible, they are time
consuming and expensive. Easier “cook book” methods can
also be employed. Design and installation assistance is
often supplied by the manufacturers of SPDs. Table 7-1 and
7-2 should be of help in selecting SPDs for the different
location categories.
Location System <<Peak Values (3)>> 1.2/50 µs Volts

Zone (1)Exposure Volts - kV peak Current - kA peak, and 8/20 µs Amps
(2) 1.2/50 µs 0.5 µs-100kHz Ring Wave -kA pk (4)
A1 Low 2 70
A2 Medium 4 130
A3 High 6 200
B1 Low 2 170 1
B2 Medium 4 330 2
B3 High 6 500 3
C1 Low 6 3
C2 Medium 10 5
C3 High 20 10
Location Category And Exposure Levels As Defined By IEEE STD C62.41-1991

For Line-Line & Line-Neutral
Table 7-1
Note 1. See figure 7-1.
Note 2. See Section 7.3.3 of above standard.
Note 3. Waveshapes are defined in above standard.
Note 4. Combination Wave defined in above standard.
Neutral Distance System 0.5 µs/100 kHz 1.2/50 x 8/20 µs

Grounding From Exposure (3) Ring Wave Peak Peak Volt.
Practice (1) Surge (2) Voltage - kVp kVp
Neutral earthed Close All None None
at service Nearby All 1 None
entrance Far away All 3 None
Ungrounded All Low 2 2
neutral at service All Medium 4 4
entrance All High 6 6
Location Category And Exposure Levels As Defined By IEEE STD C62.41-1991

For Neutral-Ground
Table 7-2
Note 1. Bonding the Neutral to Ground at the service entrance prevents further propagation of Neutral to Ground
voltage and current from sources beyond the service entrance (or any separately derived source). When the Neutral is
not bonded to the earth or the building ground, then Neutral to Ground voltages may be similar to Line to Neutral
voltages and Table 7-1 should be consulted.
Note 2. This has not been defined and is a matter of experience and judgment.
Note 3. See section 7.3.3 of above standard.
RECOMMENDATIONS 4. Is the overall grounding system, to which the SPDs

are connected, the lowest practical impedance?
1. Specify SPDs for the voltage and energy levels
as defined in ANSI/IEEE Std C62.41. 5. Are connecting leads short, clean and tight?
2. Specify SPDs which are UL Listed. 6. Is the SPD enclosure, if any, suitable for the
operating environment?
3. SPDs can fail. They usually fail in the short circuit
mode. If this feature is important, decide what to do
about it. For example, fusing the SPD prevents its
shorting from taking out other equipment, but the SPD
no longer pro-vides protection.
Service
Entrance
Meter
Service
Entrance
Outbuilding
Meter
Underground Service
Service
Entrance
Outbuilding
Meter
Xformer
Underground Service
¥ Equipment or outlets and long ¥ Feeders and short branch circuits

A branch circuits B ¥ Distribution panel devices C ¥ Outside and service entrance
¥ Service drop from pole to building
¥ All outlets at more than 10m (30 feet) ¥ Bus and feeder industrial plants ¥ Run between meter and panel
from Category B ¥ Heavy appliance outlets with "short" ¥ Overhead line to detached building
¥ All outlets at more than 20m (60 feet) connection to service entrance ¥ Underground line to well pump
from Category C ¥ Lightning systems in large buildings
Demarcation between Location Categories B and C is arbitrarily taken to be at the meter or at the main disconnect
(ANSI/NFPA 70-1990, Article 230-70) for low voltage service, or at the secondary of the service transformer if the
service is provided to the user at a higher voltage.
Location Categories For SPD’s
Fig. 7-1
DEFINITIONS Definitions 119
Air Terminal: That component of a lightning protection
system that is intended to intercept lightning flashes,
(commonly known as lightning rod). NFPA 780 [3] Ground: A conducting connection, whether intentional
or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment
and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in
Bonding: The permanent joining of metallic parts to place of the earth. NEC 100 [1] (Also see Earth.)
form an electrically conductive path that will ensure
electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct safely
any current likely to be imposed. NEC100 [1] Ground Grid: A system of grounding electrodes
consisting of interconnected bare cables buried in the
earth to provide a common ground. UL96A [4]
An electrical connection between an electrically conductive
object and a component of a lightning protection system
Ground terminal: The portion of the lightning protection
that is intended to significantly reduce potential differences
system such as a ground rod, ground plate, or ground
created by lightning currents. NFPA 780 [3]
conductor, that is installed for the purpose of providing
electrical contact with the earth. NFPA 780 [3]
Bonding Conductor: A conductor intended to be used
for potential equalization between grounded metal boxes
and the lightning protection system. NFPA 780 [3] Grounded: Connected to earth or to some conducting
body that serves in place of the earth. NEC 100 [1]
Bonding Jumper: A reliable conductor to ensure the
required electrical conductivity between metal parts Connected to earth or some conducting body that is
required to be electrically connected. NEC 100 [1] connected to earth. NFPA 780 [3]
Bonding Jumper, Main: The connection between the Grounded Conductor: A system or circuit conductor
grounded circuit conductor (neutral) and the equipment that is intentionally grounded. NEC 100 [1] (Also see
grounding conductor at the service. NEC 100 [1] Neutral Conductor.)
Current-Carrying Part: A conducting part intended to Grounded, Effectively: Intentionally connected to earth
be connected in an electrical circuit to a source of through a ground connection or connections of
voltage. Noncurrent-carrying parts are those not sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient
intended to be so connected. ANSI C2 [5] current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of
voltages that may result in undue hazards to connected
equipment or to persons. NEC 100 [1]
Earth: The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric
potential at any point is conventionally taken as equal to
zero. (In some countries the term “ground” is used Grounding Conductor: A conductor used to connect
instead of “earth”. ITU K27 [2]. (Also see ground.) equipment or the grounded circuit of a wiring system to
a grounding electrode or electrodes. NEC 100 [1]
Earth Electrode: A conductive part or a group of
conductive parts in intimate contact with and providing Grounding Conductor, Equipment: The conductor
an electrical connection with earth. ITU K27 [2] used to connect the noncurrent-carrying metal parts of
equipment, raceways and other enclosures to the system
grounded conductor, the grounding electrode conductor,
Earthing Conductor: A protective conductor connecting
or both, at the service equipment or at the source of a
the main earthing terminal or bar to the earth electrode. ITU
separately derived system. NEC 100 [1] (Green wire)
K27 [2] (Also see grounding electrode conductor.)
Grounding Electrode Conductor: The conductor used

Earthing Network: The part of an earthing installation
to connect the grounding electrode to the equipment
that is restricted to the earth electrodes and their
grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to
intercon-nections. ITU K27 [2]
both, of the circuit at the service equipment or at the
source of a separately derived system. NEC 100 [1]
(Also see Earthing Conductor.)
Lightning Protection System: A complete system of air

terminals, conductors, ground terminals, interconnecting
conductors, surge protection devices, and other connectors
or fittings required to complete the system. NFPA 780 [3]
Main Earthing Terminal: A terminal or bar provided for

the connection of protective conductors including equipo-
tential bonding conductors and conductors for functional
earthing, if any, to the means of earthing. ITU K27 [2]
Minimum Approach Distance: The closest distance a

qualified employee is permitted to approach either an
energized or a grounded object, as applicable for the work
method being used. ANSI C2 [5]
Neutral Conductor (N): A conductor connected to the

neutral point of a system and capable of contributing to the
transmission of electrical energy. ITU K27 [2] (Also see
grounded conductor.)
Raceway: Any channel designed expressly and used solely

for holding conductors. ANSI C2 [5]
An enclosed channel of metal or nonmetallic materials

designed expressly for holding wires, cables, or busbars,
with additional functions as permitted in this Code.
Raceways include, but are not limited to, rigid metal
conduit, rigid nonmetallic conduit, intermediate metal
conduit, liquid tight flexible conduit, flexible metallic
tubing, flexible metal conduit, electrical nonmetallic
tubing, electrical metallic tubing, cellular concrete floor
raceways, cellular metal floor raceways, surface raceways,
wireways, and busways. NEC 100 [1]
REFERENCES References and Bibliography 121
[1] ANSI/NFPA 70-1996, National Electrical Code

(NEC).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[2] ITU K27-1991, Bonding Configurations and ANSI/IEEE Std 80, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC
Earthing Inside a Telecommunication Building. Substation Grounding.
(Formerly CCITT.)
ANSI/IEEE Std 81, IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth
[3] ANSI/NFPA 780-1995, Standard for the Resistivity, Ground Impedance and Earth Surface
installation of Lightning Protection Systems. Potentials of a Grounding System.
[4] UL 96A, Standard for Installation Requirements ANSI/IEEE Std 142, IEEE Recommended Practice for
for Lightning Protection Systems. Grounding of Industrial and commercial Power Systems.
[5] ANSI C2-1997, National Electrical Safety Code ANSI/IEEE Std 487, IEEE Guide for the Protection of
(NESC) Wire-line Communication Facilities Serving Electrical
Power Stations.
[6] CSA Standard C22.1-94 Canadian Electrical Code
Part I (CEC) ANSI/IEEE Std 837, IEEE Standard for Qualifying
Permanent Connections Used in Substation Grounding.
ANSI/IEEE Std 1100, IEEE Recommended Practice for

Powering And Grounding Sensitive Electronic Equipment.
ANSI/T1.313 Standard, Electrical Protection for

Telecommunications Central Offices and Similar
Facilities.
ANSI/TIA/EIA-607, Commercial Building Grounding

and Bonding Requirements for Telecommunications.
ANSI/UL 467 Standard for Grounding and Bonding

Equipment.
MIL HDBK 419A Grounding, Bonding and Shielding

for Electronic Equipment and Facilities, Vol. 1 & 2.
MIL-STD-188-124B Military Standard Grounding,

Bonding and Shielding.
NEMA CC-1, Electrical Power Connections for

Substations.
122 INDEX F (cont.) Page
A Page Filtration, static control 97
static grounding 97
Four-Point Method, ground resistance testing 3
Franklin Rod, lightning 25
G
AC System, electrode system grounding 16
Active Attraction Systems, lightning 24 Galvanic System, cathodic protection 91
Active Prevention Systems, lightning 24 Gates, grounding GEM (ERICO Ground
Air Terminal, lightning protection 24, 29 Enhancement Material) 6, 13-15, 84, 109
protective coverage calculation 27 Ground Bar, building interior grounding 61
Airports, grounding situations 91 building interior bonds 51
Ambient Electric Field, lightning 25 Ground Bus 61
Anchor Rods, airport grounding 91 Ground Current Interference 72
B Ground Fault Currents, grounding 58
Ground Loop 72 - 74
Bibliography 123 Benign 73
Bonded, lightning protection 29 Desired 73
Bonding, electrical systems 15 - 16 Unwanted 73
service equipment 49 - 50 Ground Plane, radio antenna grounding 94
static electricity 98 Ground Plates, building interior bonds 53
Bonding Conductors, static electricity 98 equipment bonding 57
Bonding Jumper 49 - 50, 57 Ground Resistance 3-4
Bonding Systems, maintenance requirements 99 Ground Ring 12
testing and inspection 99 Ground Rods 83 - 85
C building exterior 4
lightning systems 33
Cable Installations, equipment bonding 57 Grounded Service Conductor, bonding 49
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), ground current interference 72 Grounding, overview 3-4
Cathodic Protection Systems 91 - 94 Electrical service
Chemical Ground Electrode, grounding 15, 85 electronic equipment systems 68
Collection Volume, lightning 27 - 28 electrode system 10
Common Bonding Grid 51 equipment fastened in place 58 - 59
Common Grounding Electrode System, bonding 49 static electricity 98 - 99
Concrete Encased Electrode, grounding 11, 17 - 18 Grounding Analysis, lightning safety 36
Concrete Floor Embedded SRG, electronic grounding 75 Grounding Conductor 81
Conductive Floor, building interior bonds 53 equipment bonding 57
Conductive Plastic Containers 98 static electricity 98
Conductors, lightning protection sizing 29 - 31 Grounding Electrode 82 - 83
Connectors, grounding 86 Grounding Electrode Conductors (GEC) 81 - 82
lightning protection 31 Grounding Inspection Process, electrical installation 71
Cord and Plug Connected Equipment, grounding 59 Grounding Pin 60
Corrosion 91 Grounding System Components 81
Counterpoise (Network of Conductors), Grounding Systems, maintenance requirements 99
lightning protection 32 testing and inspection 99
D Grounding Type Receptacle 60
Guy Anchors, radio antenna grounding 94
Data Circuit Protection, electronic equipment systems 68 H
Definitions 121
Dielectric, lightning 23 Harmonic Current Filter (Traps) 69
Direct Strike Lightning Protection System 24 Harmonics 68 - 69
Dispersing Operations, static control 97 Hazardous Locations, grounding 58 - 59
static grounding 97 Hot Tub/Spa, bonding 51
Downconductor, lightning 26 I
Down Leader, lightning 25
E Impressed Current System, cathodic protection 91 - 92
Inerting, methods and procedures 99
Earth Resistance Tester, ground resistance 3 Inspection Wells 5
Earth Resistivity 3 Insulated Equipment Grounding Conductor 61
Effective Lightning Protection Components 25 Interconnected Electronic Equipment Systems 67
Electrode System, grounding 9, 10, 16 Interconnecting Cables, electrical installation 69
Electrical Installation, recommendations 68 - 71 Interior Bonding, building grounding 4
Electrical Noise, electronic system grounding 67 Interior Bonds, building 51 - 53, 57
Electrical Service Grounding 4, 9 - 16 Interior Piping Systems, bonding 50
Electrode Conductor, grounding 9, 15 - 16 Internally Cast Ball, airport grounding 91
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), Isokeraunic Chart, lightning 23
electronic grounding 75 Isolated Ground Receptacle 61
Electromagnetically Induced Voltages, lightning 24 Isolated/Insulated
Electronic Grounding Detail 75 Grounding, electrical installation 70, 71
Electronic System Grounding 67 Isolation Transformer, bonding 50
Electrostatically Shielded Isolation Transformer 68 Isolation Transformer, electrical installation 69, 71
Equipment Bonding, building grounding 4, 57 L
Equipment Grounding Conductors (EGC) 81
Equipment Grounding, building grounding 4 Latent Component Failure, lightning protection 29
Eriksson, Dr. A.J., lightning 27 Lighting Fixture Standards, building exterior 8
Exothermic Connections 33, 49, 51, 85, Lightning Protection Systems 4, 23-29
86, 93, 94, 107 Lightning Rod 29
Exposed Metal parts, grounding 58 - 59 Lightning Safety Analysis 36
Exterior Grounds, building grounding 4 Lightning Strike Probability 36
F Lightning Systems, overview 33
Lightning, electronic equipment systems grounding 68
Facility Ground System 99 Lightning, electronic system grounding 67
Faraday Cage, lightning 25 Lightning, overview 23
Fence Grounding, specifications 7, 109 - 110 Location Categories A, B, C, surge protection 115 -
Fence Grounding System 108 - 109 116
Fiber Optical Path, ground loop 74
Field Installed Data Cables, electrical installation 69
Filling Operations, static control 97
static grounding 97
L (Cont.) Page INDEX 123
Low Impedance Conductor, lightning 26 Structural Steel, bonding 50
Low Resistance Grounding System,
lightning protection 32
M
Suppressed Voltage Rating (SVR), surge protection 115
Made Electrodes, grounding 14, 82 Surge Protection 115, 116
Magnetic fields, cathode ray tube 72 Surge Protection Devices (SPDs) 115, 116
MCOV (Maximum Continuous recommendations 117
Operating Voltage) Rating 115 electronic system grounding 67
Metal Frame Building, grounding 10 grounding connections 69 - 71
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV), surge protection 115 Swimming Pools, bonding 51
Metal Raceways, lightning systems 33 Switching, electronic system grounding 67
Metal Underground Water Pipe, bonding 50 T
grounding 10
N Telecommunication Systems Grounding 76
Testing Ground Resistance 3
National Atmospheric Administration, lightning 23 Three-Point Method, ground resistance testing 3
Natural Grounding Electrode 82 Transient Earth Clamp, lightning protection 32
NESC (National Electric Safety Code) 6, 109, 110 Transient Voltage Surge Protectors (TVSS) 115
Network Workstation, grounding 75 Transients 67
NFPA 780, lightning protection 33 - 34 electronic systems grounding 67 - 68
Noncurrent-carrying metal parts, grounding 58 Transmission Conductor, radio antenna grounding 94
Non-residential Occupancies, grounding 59 Triad Ground Rod Arrangement, building exterior 4
Nonconductive Coatings, bonding 50 Two-Point Method, ground resistance testing 3
Nonconductive Plastic Containers 98 U
Noncurrent-carrying enclosures, bonding 50
Nonmetallic Raceway, grounding 16 Ufer Grounding 17, 83
O Up Leader, lightning 25
Upward Streamer Current, lightning 25
Optical Isolation Technique, ground loop 74 V
P
Velocity Parabola, lightning 28
Passive Neutral Systems, lightning 24 W
Performance Grounding, electronic
equipment systems 67 Water Pipe Bonding, building exterior 8
Perimeter Ground Ring, building exterior 4 Water Stop, building exterior 4
Pipe Electrodes, grounding electrode 83 Wire Mesh 6, 106 - 108
Piping Systems, bonding 50 Wireways, electrical installation 69
static control 97
static grounding 97
Plate Electrode, grounding 15, 83
Pointed Lightning Rod 24
Positive Bonding, building interior bonds 51
Proper Grounding, electronic system grounding 67
Protocol Conversion Technique, ground loop 74
Pull Box Cover Grounding, building exterior 8
R
Radio Antenna Grounding 94
Rail Siding Grounding, building exterior 8
Rebar, grounding 11 - 12
lightning protection 29
Receptacle Grounding 60 - 61
References 123
Removable Ground, equipment bonding 57
Residential Occupancies, grounding 59
Resistivity 3, 32, 84
Rod Electrodes, grounding electrode 83
Rolling Ball Theory, lightning protection 28
lightning systems 33
S
Sacrificial Anoble, galvanic system 91 - 92
Safety Grounding, electronic equipment systems 67 - 68
Salt, lowering ground resistance with 85
Separately Derived Systems, bonding 50
Service Conductor, grounding 9
Service Equipment, bonding 49
Side Flashes, lightning protection 29
Signal Reference Grid (SRG),
electrical installation 70, 71
Soil Type, as conductor 32
Soil, lightning safety analysis 36
Solid Grounding (SG), electrical installation 70
Static Control 97
Static Electricity, electronic system grounding 67
grounding 96 - 97
sources 96
Static Facility Ground System 99
Static Grounding, airports 91
Steel, bonding 51
Strike Termination Device, lightning 24
Striking Distance Hemisphere, lightning 27
124 Notes

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What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What challenges does the book aim to address for contractors?

What challenges does the book aim to address for contractors?

$28.95 U.S.

Publication W. Keith Switzer

Library Of Congress Catalog

Electrical Protection Products

Publication W. Keith Switzer

Chapter Description Page

The grounding of buildings and facilities where people work.

3 Building Interior Bonding and Grounding - The bonding and 47

grounding of building steel, electrical panels and other power

The bonding and grounding of electronic systems.

References and Bibliography 121

NEC is a copyright of NFPA. Another function of the grounding system is to provide a

Switzer is a member of IEEE Power Engineering

He is a member of the Technical Advisory Committee

BUILDING GROUNDING — With these thoughts in mind, let’s look at the

Earth Electrode Subsystem

for any building or structure on which they may work.

• The building exterior grounds

When “inspection wells” are required to expose points

ERICO T416B, Figure 1-6, can be placed over the rod.

The plastic pipe also works well when an existing

CADWELD CADWELD Type Gl Lugs

Where a stranded conductor enters a building

The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) recommends

Copper Ground Conductor ERICO Pipe Bonding Strap

in 1 Inch Conduit (Locate Within 5 Feet of

2. If a conducting gate is used, a buried bonding

10"-0" Barbed Wire (Typ.)

Bottom of fence must be above grade.

Other items that are located on the outside of the building

installed without handholes if the pole is provided with a

forget that distant lightning strikes can travel through the

To Main Ground Grid Section A

Pull Box Cover Grounding

Water Pipe Bonding

Plastic Conduit Main

Grounding Of AC Power Per NEC 250-23

Ring Ground, NEC 250-81 (d) Rod/Pipe Electrode

The third component of the grounding electrode system is

Foundation Rebar Ground Connection

See Detail "A"

Fig. 1-32 Fig. 1-34

Augered Hole 6" GEM packed

Section 250-83 contains requirements for other (frequently

CADWELD Ground Rod Connections

Downconductor No matter which grounding electrode or electrodes are used

Installers of electrical systems should be aware that Section

each end of the enclosure or raceway to the grounding

Occasionally during construction, a grounding conductor

All of these components, when installed, comprise the

CONCRETE ENCASED ELECTRODES,

Herb Ufer reported on probably the first use of concrete-

The concrete electrode, however, was never tested under

In a 1975 survey of 1414 transmission towers, a large

Based on the above and other reports, the latest edition

CADWELD To Rebar Bare Copper: