Processing Technology

HARDWARE:
 CPU, Central Processing Unit – measured by clock speed.
 Processing is dependent on the memory capabilities of the system. The more memory, the faster the
processing occurs.
 The system unit is the collection of hardware components that includes the central processing unit, memory
and associated technology.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT:

 Set of electronic circuits responsible for controlling and processing data within the computer
 ‘brain’ of the computer
 Accepts data from any input device and changes the data according to the instructions given to the user, the
results are then sent to the output device
 CPU consists of tens of millions of electrical components located on thin silicon wafer called and integrated
circuit or silicon chip.
 Several different types of chips e.g. Intel
 In a PC, the CPU is contained on a single integrated circuit and is called the microprocessor.
 In more powerful computers, the CPU may consist of more than one integrated circuit.
 These integrated circuits are located on a flat printed circuit board inside the computer known as the
motherboard.
 Motherboard also contains other integrated circuits for special functions such as storage, video,
arithmetic and sound.
 Constantly undergoing development to make it more powerful.
 CPU is made up of two components: the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit.
 The control unit directs and coordinates the entire computer system.
 Organizer directs the flow of data in the computer in the same way as traffic lights control the flow of
cars at an intersection.
 Control unit selects and retrieves instructions from storage in sequence, interprets them and starts the
required operation.
 Arithmetic logic unit is part of the CPU that carries out all the arithmetical and logical calculations.
 Calculations include: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
 Logical calculations have a true or false answer.
 Operational characters include (>,<,=,>=,<=,<>)
 Logical operators include (AND, OR, and NOT)
 ALU contains several types of registers
 Register is a temporary storage area for small amounts of data or instructions needed for processing.
 Provides fast access to data.
 Fetch-execute cycle/machine cycle is a cycle of events on a single instruction carried out by the CPU to process
data.
 Before an execution is processed, the instructions and data are placed in memory.
 CPU performs following steps for each instruction:
 Control unit fetches the instructions from memory.
  The control unit decodes the instructions (works out what to do) and makes the data available to
the arithmetic logic unit. The first two steps are called the instruction time or i-time.
 The arithmetic logic unit performs the operation on the data.
 The control unit places the result of the operation into memory or a register.
Steps three and four are called the execution time or e-time.
 Most processors today use
 In pipelining the CPU fetches a new instruction as soon as the preceding instruction moves onto the next
stage.
 Pipelining speeds up the fetch-execute cycle as several instructions are being processed at the same time.
E.g. as one instruction is being fetched, a second is being decoded, a third is being executed and a fourth
is storing the results.

PROCESSING SPEED - CPU:

 All computers have an electric clock to regulate the fetch-execute cycle.

 Clock generates a sequence of regular electrical pulses that the control unit synchronizes with the fetch-
execute cycle.
 Clock speed = number of pulses per second – measured in megahertz (MHz)
 The higher the clock speed, the faster the CPU can execute a particular instruction.
 In addition to the clock speed, system’s performance is measured using the word size, response time and CPU
utilization.
 WORD SIZE is number of bits processed by the CPU at one time. (The bigger the word size, the faster the
computer.)
 RESPONSE TIME is amount of time taken for the computer to respond to a command. Response time varies
according to the data entered of the command issued. Often less than one second.
 CPU UTELISATION refers to the amount of time the CPU is working. Systems lacking memory or power often
spend more time moving data to and from a disk than actually processing the data. Referred to as "thrashing".

MEMORY

 Holds data and programs before and after they have been processed by the CPU.
 Memory is internal storage.
 Integrated circuits located on the motherboard.
 Secondary storage is external storage because the data is kept away from the motherboard and the CPU.
 Memory consists of RAM, cache and rom.
 RAM is where data and instructions are held temporarily.
 Depends on a supply of electricity to maintain data storage.
 When the power to the computer is shut off, everything in RAM is lost.
RAM is volatile memory.
 Two main types of RAM:
 DYNAMIC RAM is memory that must constantly be refreshed.
Most memory uses DRAM (pronounced 'dee-ram') chips as they are small, inexpensive and
simple.
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM, pronounced 'ess-dee-ram') is a type of DRAM that is
synchronized with the CPU; it is faster than ordinary RAM.
 STATIC RAM (SRAM, pronounced 'ess-ram') is memory that doesn't have to be updated or refreshed.
 Faster access time compared to DRAM.
  SRAM chips are more expensive.
 SRAM is mainly found in portable computers.
 CACHE is a temporary storage area used to store frequently requested data and instructions.
 Makes the computer operate faster.
 The larger the cache, the faster the computer will operate.
 Two main types of cache.
 CACHE MEMORY is high speed memory located between the RAM and the CPU.
Improves performance by using SRAM and reducing the need for the CPU to access the
slower DRAM chips.
 A DISK CACHE stores the most recent data from the hard disk in RAM.
When the CPU needs access to data from the disk, it will first check the disk cache.
Disk cache improves the computer's performance because accessing data from RAM is a
thousand times faster than accessing a disk.
 Effectiveness of cache is dependent on the amount of times that the CPU finds the data in the cache.
– This is called the HIT RATE.
 ROM (random access memory) holds data and instructions that are fixed at the time of production and cannot
be changed by the user or the computer.
 Permanent memory that only allows data to be retrieved (read) and not written into storage
(written).
 Instructions stored in ROM are called firmware because they are somewhere between hardware and
software.
 Data cannot be damaged or changed within a ROM.
 Most PCs contain a small amount of ROM that stores the important programs such as booting the
computer and checking for input and output devices.
 Instructions that allow the computer to communicate with input and output devices are called the
ROM BIOS (basic input/output system)
 There are a number of different variations of ROM.
 PROGRAMMABLE ROM (PROM) chips allow data and instructions to be entered only once and
cannot be reprogrammed.
The difference between ROM and PROM is that PROM is manufactured as blank memory
whereas with ROM the firmware is entered during the manufacturing process.
 ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE ROM (EPROM, pronounced 'ee-prom') chips can be erased and
reprogrammed by the manufacturer.
Exposing the chip to ultraviolet light wipes the memory in the EPROM.
Used in PCs and arcade machines.
Enables manufacturers to erase data on the ROM to cater for new firmware and the removal
of errors.
Non-Computer tools are used to support understanding how the processing in an information system, transforms
data into information.
Prior to computers, humans have performed most processing using rulers and calculators.

Documentation:

Inform users the procedures of processing

Detailed and structured description of instructions to be followed step by step e.g. instruction manuals

Contains a user manual provided by the companies to explain their product(s)

Procedures: Series of steps required to complete a process successfully

Procedural documentation is often written form, or as a printed manual.

Data Flow Diagrams(DFD):

Graphical method of showing a system using a number of processes together with inputs, outputs and
storage

Shows the flow of data between information processes in a system

Documents essential details of the system such as the sequence, processes and precise rules for a
particular action

For each identified procedural document should include:

• What the task is and why it is required. The general statement should include the overall process and it’s
purpose.

• How the task relates to other tasks within the system.

• Who is responsible for the task and who performs the task? Each task assigned to a participant or group.

Diagrammatic representation of processing:

• Diagrams are able to communicate complex information and relationships between processes within a
system then using text.

• Various techniques to show processes diagrammatically representing processing within information

systems.

• Process - Processes are the input(s) or output(s) of data

• Data flow - Data flow arrows are used to show the movement of data between processes and external
entities

• External Entity - External Entities represent people or organizations, that process or receive data from
processes from a source or location

• Data store - Data stores represented as an open-ended rectangle is where data is stored. Can be either
computerized (e.g. Databases) or manual (e.g. hard disk, filing cabinets). The symbol doesn’t differentiate
between computer-based and non-computer based storage media
Social and ethical issues that arise from the processing of information include:

privacy of the individual

security of data and information
accuracy of data and information
changing nature of work
appropriate information use
health and safety
copyright laws

Some ethical issues concerns are:

Who can perform processing?

What type of processing can they perform?
Who owns and has the right to view processed data?
Are the processed that are being performed legitimate?

These social and ethical issues can affect:

participants within the information system

those with the purpose
those in the environment

The wide spread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for
people. These are some of the issues that relate specifically to processing data:

The type of processing raises issues of security and flexibility.

This type of processing raises issues of security and flexibility is about centralized processing and
distributing processing. One major concern when data is distributed is that computers will have a lower
security, when data is stored in only one device it can achieve a higher security. Therefore centralized
processing is more secure then distributing processing. The positive side to distributing processing is
more flexible and is not dependant on one central computer.

Ownership of processed data

The ownership of processed data is about the ownership of the data; data is questioned on who it
belonged to and who are allowed to access it.

The cost and use of static ram or dram

The major concern is RAM costing more than D-ram

The use of cache (high speed memory)

It is a high speed memory located between the CPU and Ram. It improves performance by using SRAM
and reducing the need for the CPU to access the slower DRAM
Transmitting and Receiving Hardware
By Ross and Clark

Transmitting and receiving is the transfer of data within and between information systems.
Throughout the presentation we will be discussing: communications within a computer, the role
of modems and area networks such as LAN and WAN.

Transmitting and Receiving Hardware

 Transmitting and receiving hardware refers to physical devices.
 However, it also consists of the electro-magnetic waves.
This is because wire is a physical component and so is the signal moving down the wire.
 The hardware includes:
 Internal components of the computer
 Modems
 Networks (LAN and WAN)

Communications within a computer

 Involves transferring data between:
 Peripheral devices (external electronic devices connected to the CPU of a
computer by cable)
 Hard disk
 CPU (via buses)
Bus
 Pathway of wires and connectors
 Provides the link between all the devices and components in a computer (input, storage, process
and output devices).
 The greater the width (size), the faster the speed of transmission.
 Two types: Internal bus and expansionary bus
Internal bus – located on motherboard & links the CPU and memory
Expansionary bus – connects peripheral devices to the CPU and memory

 Peripheral devices are linked to the CPU using expansion slots and ports.
Expansion Slot
 An opening where a circuit board can be inserted into the motherboard to increase the
computers capabilities.
 The circuit board that is inserted is called an expansion card or expansion board.
Ports
 A port is a socket used to connect peripheral devices.
  They use different connectors which are referred to as male and female.
 Ports are either parallel or serial.
Parallel ports – transmits eight bits (one byte) at a time along eight parallel lines.
Serial ports ‘COM’ – transmits data one bit at a time using only one communication line.

The standard ports for connecting peripheral devices

The role of modems

Modem “modulator/demodulator”
 Allows data to be transferred from one computer to another
Modulation
A modem converts (modulates) digital signals sent from a computer into analog signals
suitable for transmission on a telephone line.
Demodulation
When a signal is received by another modem, it reverses the process by converting
(demodulating) the analog signal into a digital signal suitable for the receiving computer.

A diagram of modulation and demodulation taking place

Networks
When a number of computers (or terminals) and their peripheral devices are connected it is
called a network.
 Terminals – used to send data to a computer system or receive data from a processor
 Dumb terminals do not contain a processer and usually consist of a keyboard and
monitor
 Smart terminals can do some low-level processing (e.g. Text editing)
 Intelligent terminals have both memory and processing capabilities
 Networks are classified according to the distance they cover
 Local area networks (LANs)
 Wide area networks (WANs)

Local Area Networks (LANs)

Local area networks (LANs) connect computers (or terminals) within a small geographical area
What does a LAN consist of?
 Devices/nodes ( terminals, printers, servers, modems)
 Cabling or transmission medium (coaxial or fibre optic)
 Interface between devices and transmission medium:
 buffers
 packet assembly and disassembly facilities(LAN interface card)
 Gateways (allows LAN’s using different protocols to communicate.
 Bridges ( allow LANs with similar protocols to communicate)
 Servers ( print server, disk server)
Advantages of LAN
 Allows application software to be shared
 Allows sharing of expensive hardware devices such as printers
 Allows communication among the network users (sending and receiving messages)

Wide area networks (WANs)

Connect computers (or terminals) over hundreds or thousands of kilometres.
 Often consist of main computer system (host) and a number of terminals.
 Rely on communication links such as coaxial cables, fibre optics, microwaves and satellite.
 Slower than LANs at transferring data because they are not directly connected and because of
the enormous amount of data transferred.
 Each individual link is of high quality and has a wide bandwidth, many able to achieve transfer
rates if hundreds of gigabits per second.
 TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING SOFTWARE

Communications software

The transfer of files and commands between computers is governed by different protocols. Protocols
are like languages, computers need the same languages to talk to each other.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol is a protocol used for transferring files from one computer to another - typically
from your computer to a web server. FTP is the preferred method of exchanging files because it's faster
than other protocols like HTTP.

POP

Post Office Protocol, a protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server. Most e-mail applications
(sometimes called an e-mail client) use the POP protocol.

SMTP

Simple mail transfer protocol, most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to send
messages from one server to another, the messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using
POP. It is generally used to send messages from a mail client to a mail server.

HOW AN EMAIL IS SENT

1. The IP address looks up the recipients or contacts of the user. This is called a DNS lookup
meaning domain name server.
2. The senders SMTP server establishes a connection with the recipients.
3. After the SMTP has been collected it is passed through the corresponding POP or IMAP and
placed in the mailbox of the recipient for collection.
Software for transferring text, numeric, image, audio and video data

Most data is stored in files. During a files transfer, the sender splits the file into a sequence of
chunks or packets, each packet been sent individually. However, audio and video files are often
larger and they need to be displayed progressively over time. This is where a program uses
buffering to display videos and images in real time.

The faded section is

where the video is
decompressing or
‘buffering’.

Streaming media players

Audio and video playback or display requires a continuous and a steady supply of data.
E.g. Buffering video when playing it refers to the download of data or video/audio when it is still
paying. Buffering decompressed the data into its simplest form.
 Transmitting and Receiving
Transmitting and receiving is the transfer of data and information within and
between information systems.
The hardware includes
 Modems
 Networks
 internal components of the computer.

Modem
A modem allows data to be
transferred from one
computer to another.

Types of Modems

Acoustic coupler modems

These have cradles into which
telephone handset is placed. They are prone to errors and have limited transmission
speeds.

Direct connect modems or dial-up modems.

These are more common, much reliable and quite inexpensive.
The external modem is more common and can be taken from computer to computer
with ease.
Internal modem slots inside your computer with ease and is safer from a security
viewpoint.

Optical Modems transmit data over optical fibre lines by converting electric signals
from computer into pulses of light.

Null Modem cables

The computers are linked by a special
cable through their serial ports.

Features in modems
Auto-answer, where the modem
will answer an incoming call.
Auto-disconnect, where the modem will disconnect automatically at the end of
a session.
Auto-dial, where the modem will take care of dialing.

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

 Auto-baud, where the modem will automatically adjust to the same speed as
the called or calling modem.
Auto-redial, where the modem will re-dial every couple of minutes if necessary.
Software is used to direct the use of the hardware.

Non-computer
Mail
Phone
Fax
Radio
television.

Types of Transmission
Packet switching
Is the transfer of data in small “packets”, each with a controlled format and made of
a maximum size, ranging from a few hundred bits to several thousand bits.
The data packets allow data to be checked and correctly reassembled and may take
different routes to their destinations.

Circuit switching
When a telephone call is made, a circuit-switching network is used. For the duration
of the call, one circuit or telephone line is set aside for that call. No one else can use
that telephone line during the duration of that call.
Types of data transmissions

Asynchronous data transmission

Data is sent one character at a time. Also referred
to as start/stop transmission. Data transfer is
controlled by a start bit (0 bit) and a stop bit (bit),
for each character.
When the start bit is detected, the answering device sets itself to receive the group
of eight bits that follows it. (7 bits are used for ASCII representation of the
character and 1 bit for parity). The stop bit tells the receiver to stop wait for
another start bit before receiving. The use of start and stop bits allows the receiver
to synchronise itself with the incoming transmission, character by character.

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

Application/use

Asynchronous transmission is used mainly when the sending device is operated

manually or it operates intermittently and generally at a slower transmission speeds.
The speeds are less than 1200bps or about 600 baud.
Is inexpensive
Slow
has limited error checking capabilities.

Synchronous data transmission.

This is termed as block transmission. It sends data as
blocks of hundreds or thousands of characters in
timed sequences. Clocks in the receiving and
transmitting terminals are used to make sure that
data are processed at the same rate.
When a block of data needs to be sent, no start or stop bits are used but one or
more synchronisation characters, called Sync bytes, precede each block of data. The
start and end of each block is marked by special characters.
Data is accepted until either the end character or the predetermined number of
characters in a block, have been received.

Application/Uses
Synchronous transmissions are used when transmission speeds are very high above
1200 bps. This is used in direct communication between computers or between a
computer and a peripheral device. For example many laser printers use synchronous
transmission at 9600 baud.
It is efficient
has sophisticated error checking.
It is fast but expensive.

Baud Rate
The baud rate is a measure of times per second that a data communications signal
changes: with each change one or more bits of data can be transmitted. The time

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

required sending a character depends both on the encoding method and the signaling
speed (the number of times per second that the signal changes its value or voltage).

Signal changes

1 0 0 0 01 1 10 1

Bits per second

Is the measure of the speed of data transmission: the number of bits transmitted in
one second.

Parity Bits
In both, Asynchronous and synchronous methods of data transfer, a parity bit may
be used for error checking. When parity checking is used, only seven bits from the
character byte are used to represent the character and the eighth bit is used for
parity checking. Parity can be set to odd, even or none. Parity can be odd, even or
none.

Modes of transmission
The Transmission of data between devices via a communication channel may be in one
of the three modes:
Simplex transmission
Half duplex transmission
Full duplex transmission

Simplex Transmission
This allows communication between devices in only one direction. For example
television signals.

Half Duplex Transmission

The communication can travel in both directions between stations, but in only one
direction at a time; for example, CB radios.

Full Duplex Transmission

The communication can travel in both directions, simultaneously, an example is the
telephone when it is used for voice communication.

Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, each bit has its own piece of wire along which it will travel.

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

Uses:
Is often used for sending data to printer.
Limited to short distance (less than 16 meters).
It is dependent on cable type.
Over the length of 16 meters, radio frequency interference can cause problems, due
to low level of signal or signal distortion.

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, the bits move down the wire one at a time in single file.

Uses:
Effective for transmitting over short and long distances.
It is slower than parallel transmission.

Hardware
Hardware for transmitting and receiving includes modems and networks as well as the
internal components of the computer
Communication within the computer
Communication within a computer involves transferring data between peripheral
devices, the hard disk and the CPU. Every part of the computer is linked to the CPU
either directly or indirectly by a bus.

Bus
A bus consists of electrical circuits between input, storage, process and output
devices. The greater the width, the more data that can be transmitted at the one
time
The speed of the bus is also an important factor in the performance of the
computer. A faster bus will make the applications run faster. There are two
different types of buses.
An internal bus is located on the motherboard and links the CPU and memory..
An expansion bus connects peripheral devices to the CPU and memory. If the
expansion bus connects directly to the CPU and bypasses RAM it is called a local bus.
There are different types of expansion buses, such as ISA, EISA, VESA and PCI.

Ports
Information Processes and Technology transmitting
A port is a socket used to connect peripheral devices. Ports are either parallel or
serial.

Parallel ports transmit eight bits (one byte) at a time along eight parallel lines. They
are used to connect devices that send and receive large amounts of data such as
printers and disk drives.
Serial ports transmit data one bit at a time using only one communication line. Serial
ports are used to connect almost any peripheral device, such as a mouse, keyboard,
modern or plotter. The most common type of serial port is the RS-232.

Handshaking
The process of sending pre-arranged signals to define protocols between two
computers. It establishes compatibility, correct modulation and speed. When both
devices are switched on they perform two steps:
The modem performs a self-check.
Turns on “data set ready” to signal that it is ready for work.

Communications Protocol
Protocols are strict procedures for establishing and maintaining communication. Some
rules concern who will transmit first and how fast they will transmit data, error
checking, parity type to use and the number of bits that will make up a character.

Types and Purpose of Protocols

Error Checking
When using telephone line and a modem the error can be one bit per 100,000
transmitted.
Optic fibre, the error rate will be less than one in one hundred million bits
transmitted.

Errors may be attributed to:

External electromagnetic interference from devices close to the computer.
Poor insulation of the cables.
Bad atmospheric conditions.
Crossed connections

Methods used for error detection

Parity Check
When a character code is transmitted, and the type of parity used is known, it can be
determined whether the character bit sent is correct or not by checking the number
of 1‟s against odd or even parity. Parity checking can only show if there is an error in

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

a given character: it cannot tell when any character, or any block of characters, is
totally missing.

2. Checksum
In this method, the number of „0‟ and „1‟ bits in a file or block of data is added
together and the sum (a redundancy value) is transmitted along with the file or data
block.

The receiving computer also adds the number of bits in the message and if its total
is different from the sum sent with the transmission, then an error is detected but
the position of error is not identified.

3. Block Check Character (BCC)

This is one of the most widely used error detecting codes used in synchronous
transmissions.
Such codes attach extra digits to each block of data to be transmitted. This extra
digit is called the Block Check Character (BCC).
BCC is calculated using the binary numerical value of the block.
If the transmitted BCC matches the one at the receiving end, a positive
Acknowledgement (ACK) is sent.
If the BCC does not match the one on the receiving end, a Negative
Acknowledgement (NAK) is sent, which informs the transmitting station to re-
send the block.
This use of control characters is called the Acknowledgement- negative
acknowledgement sequence (ACK-NAK).

4. Cyclic Redundancy Check

The sender calculates vertical and longitudinal parity according to a polynomial code
and sends this parity character along with the data. The receiver calculates the same
and compares the calculated values to determine errors. CRC is considered quite
reliable and is becoming a standard for error detection.

Error correction
Retransmission of damaged block is the only solution. If errors occur, only the
damaged block needs to be transmitted. Backward correction.

Forward error correction. This method is used for data correction at the receiving
end of transmission. It requires no request or reverse message to re-send a single or
block of data.

Networks
A network is three or more devices (nodes) connected in such a way that they can
communicate with each other.

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

Other features of networks:
Physical connection between devices (cables and hardware couplers).
Set of common protocols for devices to function.
Access method that allows reasonable access to nodes.
System of identifying each node with a number or name.

NODE
In a network, each device is called a node. Node in a network can be a device such as
terminal, PC, desktop workstation or a larger computer.

HOST.
Some networks have a series of nodes linked to a central computer called the host.

File Server
is a dedicated computer with a large hard disk that holds files and software to be
accessed by other nodes or workstations in a network.
Network Server
is a device, which provides file management, printing, and communication facilities to
the other devices attached on the network.

Network Topologies
Topology refers to the arrangement or layout of nodes on a network.
Types of Topologies:
Bus
Star
Ring

Star network
The central station is very
important because if it fails,
the entire network goes down.
The signals are sent through
the central station and circuit
switched to the correct
receiving station over a
physical path.
Because all messages go
through the central
station, there can be
bottlenecks.
The failure of any outer station does not affect the network.

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

 It is possible to expand the network by adding a separate cable from server or
node to the computer.
The centre of a star topology network is called the hub.
The hub accommodates the network software and directs communications
within the network.
The hub may also act as a gateway to another LAN.
The star network is an example of a point-to-point channel configuration,
where a computer is connected directly to another computer or a device.

Ring Network
Traffic can be one way or two
way.
It does not require a main
computer to control the
network.
It can be very fast if two-way
traffic is allowed.
In this form of network the
transmission is broadcast and
the destination station is able
to recognise its address on a
signal and receive that signal.

Bus network

This network is very reliable and provides for expansion.

If one station fails, the rest of the network can continue to operate.
Bus networks have their size extended by the use of repeaters that boost the
signal‟s strength.
Bus network is an example of a multipoint channel configuration, where multiple
devices are connected to a
single line.
With this topology it is easy
to add or remove a node
without affecting the
network.
The cable system must be
terminated at both ends.

A major concern in any network is to avoid having two or more devices attempting to
transmit a signal at the same time. When this occurs it is termed as collision. With
collision, data loss or network crash can happen.

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 Methods used to avoid collisions:
Carrier sense multiple access/collision detection.
Carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance.
Token passing.

Carrier sense multiple access collision detection (CSMA/CD):

The device monitors the channel to determine whether it is in use or whether it is
available for transmission. In this method the transmitting node listens to the
response from receiving node. If the response is absent, or indicates an error in the
signal, the message is retransmitted.

2. Carrier sense multiple access collision avoidance (CSMA/CA):

Any node waiting to send a signal listens to the network and when there is no traffic,
pauses for a period of time before transmitting its message.
After the message is transmitted, the sending node listens for the response from
the receiving node and if it is incorrect or absent, the message is retransmitted.

Token passing
Token passing is another method of controlling collision.
A token is only one, unique string of bits and on a network.
The token moves continuously around the network when no transmissions are
occurring.
When a node needs to transmit a signal, it must wait for the token and when it
appears, it is captured by the device and held while the message is transmitted.
Types of networks
In computer communications, there are two types of networks:
LAN: Local Area Network.
WAN: Wide Area Network

Local Area network

In a local area network, the computers and printers for example are close together
(such as in different rooms in a building or in two buildings close together).
The distance involved in LAN is short so no modems used.
What does a LAN consist of?
Cabling or transmission medium
Devices/nodes ( terminals, printers, servers, modems)
Interface between devices and transmission medium:
buffers
packet assembly and disassembly facilities(LAN interface card)
gateways (allows LAN‟s using different protocols to communicate.
Bridges ( allow LANs with similar protocols to communicate)
Servers ( print server, disk server)

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

Advantages of LAN
Allows data sharing between computers.
Allows sharing of expensive devices such as printers.
Allows people to access electronic mail.
Provides access to other LAN‟s and WAN‟s.
Have good security features.
Allows for centralised management.

Types of LAN‟s
There are two types of LAN‟s:
Peer to Peer.
Server client.

Types of LAN protocols:

Ethernet Protocol.
Ethernet is a very popular LAN protocol. It is a 10 million bit per second network.
The data is divided into packets surrounded by LAN protocol.
More than 1000 devices can be attached.
Ethernet is easy to install, has low error rates and is cheap.

Token ring
Token ring network was designed by IBM to overcome problems in ring networks.
In a ring network, a station has to wait for a lull before transmitting its message.
Uses twisted pair wire, and allow speed of up to 16million bps.
Up to 260 stations can be attached and many rings can be connected via bridges.

Wide Area Networks (WAN’S).

Wide area networks spread over a wide area such as state, a country, or the world. A
WAN is generally long distance and consists of data terminals controlled by users
and some computer communications equipment owned by for example Telecom. They
can use various communication links like telephone lines, microwave, fibre optic
cables, coaxial cables and satellites.

Packet switching is used in WAN‟s.

The devices used to send data to a computer system or receive data from a
processor are called terminals. Terminals can be
Dumb
Smart
intelligent.

Dumb terminals do not contain a processor and usually consist of a keyboard and
monitor.

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

Smart terminals can do some low-level processing such as text editing.
Intelligent terminals have both memory and processing capabilities. Most personal
computers are classified as intelligent terminals and are called workstations on a
network.

Softwore

Compression
Compression reduces the number of bits required to represent data. It compacts the
data so that it takes up less space on a disk and requires less time to download.
Compression is either
Lossy
lossless.

Electronic mail (email) allows communication with other users by sending and
receiving electronic messages using a computer. Email messages are often short and
are typed quickly. Messages are written offline and sent when the user logs onto the
LAN or the Internet. Attachments are computer files sent with email messages, such
as image, audio, video or text files.
Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted and read during
transmission. The data is 'scrambled' so that it is meaningless to anyone other than
the recipient, who uses the same encryption software to convert it back.

Social ands Ethical Issues

Accuracy
Thee accuracy of information received from the Internet is not guaranteed. Must
compare data from a number of sources and determine which data is accurate

Security
One method to protect data from deliberate or accidental damage is the use of
certificates. A certificate o digital signature is an encrypted code that identifies a
particular personal Web site. It aims to ensure that unauthorised persons cannot
access data.

Acknowledgment
To cite an Internet source it is important to include the author's name, title of the
completed work, URL of the page and download date.

Privacy
This can be an issue when receiving information from the Internet. Some Web sites
use cookies to record information about visitors to their site. Some people argue

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

that cookies store personal information about the user, and that this is an invasion of
privacy.
Nature of work
Changing nature may mean learning new skills (upskilling), requiring fewer
skills(deskilling) or learning additional skills (multiskilling)

Information Processes and Technology transmitting

Today we will be talking about the non computer based methods of
transmitting and receiving and displaying along with their social and ethical
issues.

Transmitting and Receiving

Transmitting and receiving is the process of transferring data and information within and between
information systems

Some Non computer based transmitting and receiving tools include:

• Conventional mail – makes it possible to send a letter and or parcel to the address of any
person around the world

• The Telephone – which transmits sounds or speech between distant places through the use of
telephone lines.

• Fax machine – this transmit and reproduces documents. It scans it as a document and converts
it into a bit – mapped image

• Radio – this allows people to receive up-to-date information and entertainment through the use
of a radio station.

• Television – this depicts the transmission and detection of images and sound using
electromagnetic waves that travel through the air.

Social and Ethical Issues of transmitting and receiving

• Ownership of processed data – organisations can use preference and habits to their commercial
advantage

• Bias in processing data can be caused by biased data being collected or incorrect, manipulation
of the data

• The type of processing raises issues of security. Securing data on one computer is easier than on
numerous computers, therefore centralised processing is more secure than distributed
processing

• Types of securing data include https (hypertext transfer protocol secure) and data
encryption
 9.1 Tools for Displaying
 Displaying: to show or exhibit; make visible – ‘the displaying information process outputs
information from an information system to an external entity within the system’s environment.’

 Data can be displayed in many different types. These include:

 Texts
 Numbers  Images
 Hypertexts  Video
 Audio  Animation

 Data can be displayed through the use of different technology. This can be seen in:
 Hardware  Paper based
 Software
 Electronically

 Data can be displayed in different forms in consideration of its appropriation. These include:
 Databases (computer tool): A collection of (usually) organized information in a regular structure
 Word documents (computer tool): document processed through the use of the software Microsoft word
 Booklets (non-computer tool): the displaying of information on a no. of pages/ in paper based form
 Pamphlets (non-computer tool): a small book usually having a paper cover
 Posters (non-computer tool): sign posted in a public place as an advertisement
 Receipts (non-computer tool): a written acknowledgement that a specified article or sum of money has
been received as an exchange for goods or services
 Folders (non-computer tool): An organizer that papers are kept in, usually with an index tab, to be
stored as a single unit in a filing cabinet
 Mindmaps (non-computer tool and computer): a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other
items linked to and arranged around a central key word or idea
 Flowcharts (non-computer tool and computer): a diagram of the sequence of operations in a computer
program
 Dataflow diagrams (non-computer tool and computer): A type of flow chart; a description of data and
the manual and machine processing performed on the data as it moves and changes from one stage to
the next
 Hand-draw diagrams (non-computer tool): paperbased diagrams drawn by hand of the participnt’s. No
computer software or displaying involved.
 Storyboard (non-computer tool and computer and traditional method of display): graphic organizers
such as a series of illustrations or images displayed in sequence for the purpose of pre-visualizing a
motion picture, animation, motion graphic or interactive media sequence, including website
interactivity.
 TOOLS FOR DISPLAYING

DEFINITION:
Displaying is presenting the output from an information system to meet a given purpose. It is the presentation of
information in the form of text, numerals, and images audio and video, a range of software combinations are used to display
different types of information.

Displaying software:

- All applications software transmits and receives data within an individual computer. Special communications software is
used to send and receive data over networks and using modems.

communications software manages the transfer of data files and commands between computers

display features in applications packages, including:

Reporting is the process of where Static data that is displayed on all reports is entered into controls
Data that changes during generation of a report is specified using a text box.
A text box can contain multiple fields.
Text boxes can be generating information as the report is being written.
i.e. = now () causes the date and time to be displayed and (page) displays the page number within the report.

Formatting is the Process of specifying how the information will be presented.

Includes features for altering fonts, margins, indenting, line spacing, columns, borders, shading

Spacing refers to the distance between elements on the final display

Includes the space between images
and texts, space between lines and paragraphs of text, spacing between individual words and even the space
between individual characters it includes margins, indenting, and space between headers and footers and the main
body of text

Merging is a process where information from a database or other list into a standard document to produces
multiple personalized copies. Most standard documents is produced with in a word processor and fields from data
base or list are inserted .Each and every record within the data source is used to single personalized copy of the
standard document

Tables
Tables are used to split the displayed information into distinct cells. Each cell can contain text, images, hyperlinks
or any combination of HTML elements.HTML tables must be created within the body of an HTML document a <Th>
tag specifies a table heading. Each tag is followed by the to be displayed within the current cell.

A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. They convert data in rows and columns into a picture that
can be read from a glance. Charts make data easy to understand.
Displaying – Hardware
Displaying is presenting the output from an information system to meet a given purpose. It is the
presentation of information in the form of text, numerals, images, audio and video. A range of
hardware and software combinations are used to display different types of information.

The common hardware devices used for displaying data include:

- Screens – CRT and LCD.

- Printers – Impact and Non-Impact.

- Speakers.

Screens

Screens or monitors or display units are electronic display surfaces that provide immediate visual
feedback as to what the computer is doing. Screens are made up of thousands of tiny pixels that are
used to display text, numbers, images and video data. The two most commonly used screens are
monitors and flat screens.

Monitors
- Monitors use Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) technology, where a beam of electrons are fired onto
the inside of a screen that is coated in phosphor, when the electrons hit the phosphors the
phosphors then glows for a short amount of time.
- A raster scan then repeats this process to maintain an image, this process is called
‘refreshing’.

Flat Screens
- Do not use CRT technology, but use Liquid Crystal Display technology.
- Liquid Crystal Display compromises of a layer of the liquid crystal material between two
polarising sheets.
- Light is passed through the liquid crystal material and a current causes pixels to become
activated.
- LCD’s are advantageous as they produce very little light, take up less room than monitors,
use less power than CRT’s, produce no heat or glare and emit no radiation
- However, high quality LCD’s are expensive in comparison to CRT’s.

Printers

Printers are used as devices to represent data on paper, such as text, number and image data.
Printers vary in price according to the quality of the data output and type of printer. Printers can be
classified into two main categories: Impact printers and Non-Impact printers

Impact Printers
- Impact printers involve the process of producing an image on paper through a means of
physical contact.
- An example of impact printers includes the ‘Dot Matrix Printer’. Dot Matrix Printers form an
image using dots, through the process when a pin and printer ribbon ‘impact’ onto the
paper.
 - Dot matrix printers can be described as cheap and noisy but reliable producing a resolution
of 60 dpi – 180 dpi(dots per inch)

Non-Impact Printers
- Non-impact printers produce an image using other methods rather than physical contact.
- Types of non-impact printers include laser and inkjet printers.
- Inkjet printers involve the process where characters are produced by spraying very fine
drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality data output, are light and fairly
cheap with a resolution of 600dpi or more.
- Laser printers use information from the computer to fire a laser beam to charge an ink
drum, where it is then fused onto paper using heat and pressure to form images. Laser
printers are much more expensive but effective and can produce 600-1200dpi.

Speakers
Speakers are a common technology used to produce sound. Speakers can usually be found in most
personal computers and are used for many other things in today’s society.
- Speakers are most often connected to computers using a port and sound card.
- Speakers are used for producing sounds, music and as a means of voice output.
- Voice output can be achieved through speaking into a microphone then converted and
played back for the person to hear through speakers. Or voice synthesis where the artificial
production of human speech generates voice sounds to be heard by speakers.
 Displaying

Displaying is presenting the output of data from an information system. It is the presentation of
information in the form of text, numerals, images, audio and video

Some Non computer based displaying tools include:

• Storyboard – a series of frames each representing a different action or screen image. They can
be drawn on paper and tells the story of a presentation. The four types of storyboard layouts
are:

• Linear

• Hierarchical

• Non – linear

• Combination

• Traditional methods – includes reports, newsletters, books, newspapers, magazines,

blackboard, whiteboard, overhead projector. Audio information is displayed using musical
instruments, radio, tape recorders and CD players. Video and animation is displayed using
television or a video recorder.

Social and Ethical Issues of displaying

• Communication Skills – presentations need to be effective, well organised, attractive and easy
to understand

• Visually impaired people need appropriate displays and Web designers should consider how
people with disabilities will be able to access their information

• Offensive material such as pornographic, racist and violent material is a major concern. Children
with Internet access can potentially view inappropriate material so parents and schools need to
prevent this by using blocking software like Net Nanny