Reaction in Aqueous solution

Outline
• Solute Concentrations: Molarity
• Precipitation Reactions
• Acid-Base Reactions
• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Review
• we learned about chemical reactions
• Most reactions were between pure gases, liquids
and solids
• No solvent was used
Reactions in the Laboratory
• Because water is common everywhere, most
chemical reactions take place in aqueous solution
• Water is called the universal solvent
• Three common types of reactions in solution:
• Precipitation reactions
• Acid-base reactions
• Oxidation-reduction reactions
• Before we examine each of the three reaction types,
we need to examine the concept of molarity
Solute Concentrations - Molarity
• Definition of molarity
• Molarity = moles of solute/liters of solution
• Symbol is M
• Square brackets are used to indicate
concentration in M
• [Na+] = 1.0 M
• Consider a solution prepared from 1.20 mol of
substance A, diluted to a total volume of 2.50 L
• Concentration is 1.20 mol/2.50 L or 0.480 M
Additivity
• Masses are additive; volumes are not

• The total mass of a solution is the sum of the mass

of the solute and the solvent
• The total volume of a solution is not the sum of the
volumes of the solute and solvent
Volumetric Glassware
• Volumetric pipets, burets and flasks are made so
that they contain a known volume of liquid at a given
temperature
• Preparing solutions with concentrations in M involves
using volumetric glassware
Figure 4.1 – Preparation of Molar Solution
Molarity as a Conversion Factor
• The molarity can be used to calculate
• The number of moles of solute in a given volume
of solution
• The volume of solution containing a given number
of moles of solute
Example 4.1
Dissolving Ionic Solids
• When an ionic solid is dissolved in a solvent, the
ions separate from each other
• MgCl2 (s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)
• The concentrations of ions are related to each other
by the formula of the compound:
• Molarity MgCl2 of = molarity of Mg2+
• Molarity of Cl- = 2 X molarity of MgCl2
• Total number of moles of ions per mole of MgCl2 is
3
Example 4.2
Example 4.2 (cont'd)
Precipitation
• Precipitation in chemical reactions is the formation of
a solid where no solid existed before reaction
• Precipitation is the reverse of solubility, where a solid
dissolves in a solvent to produce a solution
Will it Dissolve?
• Soluble compounds dissolve in water
• Insoluble compounds do not dissolve
Precipitates
• Precipitates are called insoluble – they do not
dissolve in solution
• Precipitation of an insoluble solid
• Mix a solution of nickel(II) chloride with one of
sodium hydroxide
• A solid forms: Ni(OH)2 (s)
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.3 – Precipitation Diagram
Solubility Trends
• From the diagram, we see that some compounds
are mostly soluble
• Compounds of Group 1 and NH4+ cations
• All nitrates
• All chlorides, except for AgCl
• All sulfates, except for BaSO4
Solubilities Trends
• Some compounds are mostly insoluble
• Carbonates and phosphates, except for the Group
I and ammonium
• Hydroxides, except for the Group 1, Group 2 and
ammonium
• Mg(OH)2 is insoluble
Working Solubility Problems
• By knowing the rules expressed, we can predict
what mixtures will precipitate, and what compounds
will form
Net Ionic Equations
• Consider the precipitation of CaCO3 from solutions of
CaCl2 and Na2CO3
• Reactants: Ca2+, Cl-, Na+ and CO32-
• Products: CaCO3, Na+ and Cl-
• Two of the ions are unchanged
• These are spectator ions
• Net ionic equation: leave out the spectator ions
• Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)→ CaCO3 (s)
Net Ionic Equations
• Must follow the rules for equations
• Atoms must balance
• Charges must balance
• Show only the ions that react
Example 4.4
Example 4.4 (cont'd)
Why Write Net Ionic Equations?
• Net ionic equations
• Focus attention on the reaction
• Simplify calculations
• We will use net ionic equations from now on
Example 4.5 - Precipitation Stoichiometry
Example 4.5 - Precipitation Stoichiometry
Example 4.5 - Precipitation Stoichiometry
Acids and Bases
• Everyday life includes contact with many acids and
bases
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
• Strong acids ionize completely to H+
• HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
• In a solution of 1.0 M HCl, there is 1M H+ and 1M Cl-
• No HCl is left un-ionized
• Other strong acids ionize in similar fashion
The Double Arrow Notation (⇌)
• Some equations use a double arrow rather than a
single arrow
• Note that the double arrow points in both directions
• For now, the double arrow indicates that a reaction
does not proceed completely to the right
Weak Acids
• Weak acids ionize only partially
• HB (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + B- (aq)
• HF (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + F- (aq)
• Commonly, weak acids are 5% ionized or less
Strong Bases
• Strong bases ionize completely to OH-
• NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
• Ca(OH)2 → Ca2+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)
Strong Acids and Bases
Weak Bases
• Weak bases ionize only partially
• NH3 (aq) + H2O ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
• CH3NH2 (aq) + H2O ⇌ CH3NH3+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
• Commonly, weak bases are 5% ionized or less
Acids and Bases - Reactions
• Acids react with bases
• Strong acid-strong base
• Weak acid-strong base
• Weak base-strong acid
Strong Acid-Strong Base Reaction
• Always the same net ionic equation
• H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O
• Note that as usual, net ionic equations use the
smallest whole number coefficients
• 2 HBr (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) → 2 H2O + CaBr2 (aq)
• Still has the same net ionic equation:
• H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O
Weak Acid-Strong Base Reaction
• Two steps
• HB (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + B- (aq)
• H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O
• Overall reaction
• HB (aq) + OH- (aq) → B- (aq) + H2O
Weak Base-Strong Acid Reaction
• Two steps
• NH3 (aq) + H2O ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
• H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O
• Overall reaction
• NH3 (aq) + H+ (aq) ⇌ NH4+ (aq)
Acid-Base Titrations
• Commonly used to determine the concentration of a
dissolved species or its percentage in a mixture
• Titration
• Measuring the volume of a standard solution
(known concentration) needed to react with a
measured quantity of a sample
Titrations
• Titrant (in the buret)
• Know concentration
• Know volume
• Analyte (in the Erlenmeyer flask)
• Know volume or mass
• Determine concentration or mass percent by
reacting with the titrant
Analyzing for Acetic Acid
• HC2H3O2 (aq) + OH- (aq) ⇌ C2H3O2- (aq) + H2O
• The objective is to determine when the reaction is
complete
• When the number of moles of acid equals the
number of moles of OH-, the equivalence point
has been reached
• Equivalence point is where the number of moles
of acid equals the number of moles of base
• The endpoint is indicated by a color change in
the acid-base indicator
Figure 4.7 – An Acid-Base Titration
Example 4.7
Example 4.7 (cont'd)
Acids and Metals
• Many metals will react with acids, producing
hydrogen gas
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Short name: Redox reactions
• Electron exchange
• Oxidation is a loss of electrons
• Reduction is a gain of electrons
Reaction of Zinc with an Acid
• Zn (s) + 2 H+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
• Consider two half equations:
• Zn loses two electrons
• Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2 e-
• H+ gains an electron
• 2H+ (aq) + 2 e- → H2 (g)
Redox Principles
• Oxidation and reduction must occur together
• There is no net change in the number of
electrons in a redox reaction
Cause and Effect
• Something must cause the zinc to lose two electrons
• This is the oxidizing agent – the H+
• Something must cause the H+ to gain two electrons
• This is the reducing agent – the Zn
• Note that
• The oxidizing agent is reduced
• The reducing agent is oxidized
• Both of these appear as reactants (not products)
Reducing Agents
• Reducing agents become oxidized
• We know that metals commonly form cations
• Metals are generally reducing agents
Oxidizing Agents
• We know that many nonmentals form anions
• To form an anion, a nonmetal must gain electrons
• Many nonmetals are good oxidizing agents
Tracking Electrons – Oxidation Numbers
• As we look at the concept of oxidation numbers it is
important to realize that
• Oxidation numbers are not real charges
• Oxidation numbers may or may not correspond
to ion charges
• Oxidation numbers may be fractional
Rules Governing Oxidation Numbers
1. The oxidation number of an element in an
elementary substance is zero.
2. The oxidation number of a element in a
monatomic ion is the charge on the ion
3. Certain elements have the same oxidation number
in most compounds
a. Group 1 metals are +1
b. Group 2 metals are +2
c. Oxygen is usually -2
d. Hydrogen is usually +1
4. Oxidation numbers sum to zero (compound) or to
the charge (polyatomic ion)
Example 4.8
Redox Reactions and Oxidation Numbers
• Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number
• This is the same as a loss of electrons
• Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number
• This is the same as a gain of electrons
Redox Titrations
• Redox reactions can be used to analyze an unknown
in the same way as is done with acid-base reactions
Key Concepts – Reactions in Solution
1. Relate molarity to moles and volume.
2. Apply the precipitation diagram.
3. Carry out stoichiometric calculations for reactions in
solution
4. Use tables 4.1 and 4.2 to write net-ionic acid-base
reactions.
5. Determine oxidation numbers.