I

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19870009094 2017-11-16T03:50:19+00:00Z

PATH DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE

AND RHUMB LINE*

Rajan Kaul
Ohio U n i v e r s i t y
Athens, Ohio

A s i m u l a t i o n o f a mathematical model t o compute p a t h d i s c r e p a n c i e s

between g r e a t c i r c l e and rhumb l i n e f l i g h t p a t h s i s p r e s e n t e d . The model
i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t t h e p a t h e r r o r s depend on t h e l a t i t u d e , t h e b e a r i n g , and
t h e t r i p l e n g t h of t h e f l i g h t .

I. INTRODUCTION

A mathematical model f o r a comparative a n a l y s i s of g r e a t c i r c l e v e r s u s

rhumb l i n e n a v i g a t i o n i n t h e c o n t i n e n t a l United S t a t e s has been developed
a t t h e Avionics Engineering C e n t e r , Ohio U n i v e r s i t y . A FORTRAN s i m u l a t i o n
of t h e model h a s been implemented on t h e IBM 370 computer. The s i m u l a t i o n
p r e d i c t s p e r t i n e n t n a v i g a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e two f l i g h t p a t h s . The
b a s i s f o r t n e p r o j e c t , svfiich is a p a r t of a~ M,S. t h e s i s , i s t o p r o v i d e a
d a t a base f o r computing d i s c r e p a n c i e s between t h e two f l i g h t p a t h s . This
document b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e s t h e model and d i s c u s s e s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e
r e s u l t s obtained.

11. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The s t a n d a r d en-route n a v i g a t i o n system used i n t h e United S t a t e s i s

t h e VOR/DME. VHF O m n i d i r e c t i o n a l Range (VOR) i s t h e b a s i s f o r d e f i n i n g t h e
a i r w a y s and i s t h e r e f o r e an i n t e g r a l part of a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l proce-
dures. Two VOR s t a t i o n s are w e d tc? defifie a radial i n t e r s e c t i o n , which i s
t h e b a s i s of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d V i c t o r airways. These V i c t o r airways f o l l o w a
f l i g h t pach which m a i n t a i n s a p a t h of c o n s t a n t heading ( i . e . t h e c o u r s e c r o s s e s
t h e m e r i d i a n s a t t h e same a n g l e ) . Thus, a rhumb l i n e c o u r s e a p p e a r s a s a
s t r a i g h t l i n e on a Mercator p r o j e c t i o n .

Area/Random N a v i g a t i o n (RNAV) as defined i n FAA Advisory C i r c u l a r 90-

4 5 A (1) i s
I . . .a method of n a v i g a t i o n t h a t p e r m i t s a i r c r a f t o p e r a t i o n s on
any d e s i r e d c o u r s e w i t h i n t h e coverage of s t a t i o n r e f e r e n c e d
n a v i g a t i o n s i g n a l s o r w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of s e l f - c o n t a i n e d
system c a p a b i l i t i e s . '

The p r i n c i p a l a d v a n t a g e of RNAV i s t h a t i t a l l o w s t h e n a v i g a t o r t o f l y
a g r e a t c i r c l e c o u r s e between two p o i n t s . The g r e a t c i r c l e c o u r s e i s t h e

3;
P u b l i s h e d as TM 89 a t Ohio U n i v e r s i t y .

39
. ..'
?--

;
i

s h o r t e s t path between two p o i n t s on t h e e a r t h , and is formed by the inter-

s e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e d e f i n e d by t h e c e n t e r of t h e e a r t h and t h e p o i n t s of
o r i g i n and d e s t i n a t i o n , p r o j e c t e d on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . The f l i g h t
p a t h i s p r o j e c t e d as a curved l i n e on a Mercator p r o j e c t i o n and hence
changes heading c o n s t a n t l y .

Loran-C, OMEGA, G P S , Doppler, and INS are considered RNAV systems.

However, VOR i n i t s b a s i c form i s n o t an RNAV system. A major concern i s
t h a t t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s between t h e two f l i g h t p a t h s may c a u s e n a v i g a t i o n
c o n f l i c t s . This r e p o r t a t t e m p t s t o q u a n t i z e t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s which depend
on v a r i o u s f a c t o r s .

111. PATH DISCREPANCIES

The magnitude of p a t h d i s c r e p a n c i e s between t h e g r e a t c i r c l e and rhumb

l i n e courses between two p o i n t s i n c r e a s e s as

1) t h e l a t i t u d e i n c r e a s e s ,
2 ) t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r l a t i t u d e s d e c r e a s e s and
3) t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r l o n g i t u d e s i n c r e a s e s .

When p l o t t e d on a Mercator p r o j e c t i o n map, t h e two f l i g h t p a t h s s t a r t

t o d i v e r g e from t h e o r i g i n of t h e f l i g h t . The d i s c r e p a n c y is a maximum a t
t h e mid-point of t h e f l i g h t , and t h e n t h e f l i g h t p a t h s s t a r t t o converge
and meet at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n p o i n t . The g r e a t c i r c l e p a t h is always curved
away from the e q u a t o r and t h e r e f o r e i n t e r s e c t s t h e m e r i d i a n s a t h i g h e r
l a t i t u d e s than t h e rhumb l i n e path. A l s o , t h e m e r i d i a n s converge as t h e y
d e p a r t from t h e equat0.r and a r e c l o s e r t o g e t h e r a t h i g h e r l a t i t u d e s . Thus,
t h e d e v i a t i o n between t h e two p a t h s i n c r e a s e a t h i g h e r l a t i t u d e s because
t h e rhumb l i n e path must curve r a p i d l y t o be a b l e t o f l y a c o u r s e of con-
s t a n t meridian c r o s s i n g a n g l e .

The bearing of t h e f l i g h t p a t h , which is a simple f u n c t i o n of t h e l a t i -

t u d e and l o n g i t u d e , a l s o has a c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t on t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s
between t h e t w o f l i g h t paths. By d e f i n i t i o n , a l l l i n e s of l o n g i t u d e are
a l s o g r e a t c i r c l e s . On a t r u e north-south f l i g h t p a t h t h e great c i r c l e and
rhumb l i n e courses a r e e x a c t l y t h e same. However, as t h e b e a r i n g becomes
more e a s t e r l y or w e s t e r l y , e r r o r s between g r e a t c i r c l e and rhumb l i n e p a t h s
s t a r t t o i n c r e a s e . The maximum p a t h e r r o r s due t o b e a r i n g a l o n e a r e on a
t r u e east-west course. I t i s important t o n o t e t h a t on an east-west c o u r s e
a t t h e equator t h e g r e a t c i r c l e and rhumb l i n e f l i g h t p a t h s are t h e same
because t h e e q u a t o r i s a l s o a g r e a t c i r c l e -path.

F i n a l l y , a n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t has an e f f e c t on p a t h d i s c r e p a n c y i s t h e
t r i p l e n g t h , which i s a l s o a f u n c t i o n of t h e l a t i t u d e and l o n g i t u d e of t h e
two p o i n t s . A s mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e g r e a t c i r c l e and rhumb l i n e c o u r s e s
s t a r t t o diverge from t h e p o i n t of o r i g i n of t h e f l i g h t and r e a c h t h e p o i n t
of maximum divergence h a l f way i n t o t h e f l i g h t . T h e r e f o r e , as t h e t r i p
l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s t h e p a t h s simply d i v e r g e f u r t h e r till t h e y r e a c h t h e h a l f -
way p o i n t .
IV. THE MODEL

The mathematical model which w a s developed u s i n g t h e h a v e r s i n e s formula

w a s o b t a i n e d from Bowditch ( 2 ) . The e q u a t i o n s developed f o r t h e model were
d e s i g n e d f o r computer a p p l i c a t i o n s . The model i s based upon a s p h e r i c a l
a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e e a r t h and a d j u s t e d using g e o d e s i c e r r o r e q u a t i o n s f o r
t h e North American datum based on t h e Clarke e l l i p s o i d . The e q u a t i o n s
d e s c r i b i n g t h e model are g i v e n below.

$1 = L a t i t u d e of o r i g i n i n d e g r e e s

X1 = Longitude of o r i g i n i n d e g r e e s

$2 = L a t i t u d e of d e s t i n a t i o n i n d e g r e e s

X 2 = Longitude of d e s t i n a t i o n i n d e g r e e s

- ($1 + $2) -- mid-latitude point

2

Dlo = X 2 - X1 -- difference i n longitude

Dlox = I n t e r v a l of l o n g i t u d e measured from p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e i n d e g r e e s

A. RHUMB LINE EQUATIONS

Rhumb l i n e b e a r i n g ( r e l a t i v e from o r i g i n t o d e s t i n a t i o n )

L a t i t u d e of p o i n t s on a rhumb l i n e path

+(RL)
= $1 + Dlox'Cos$*Tana

41
 Rhumb l i n e d i s t a n c e

B. GREAT CIRCLE EQUATIONS

I n i t i a l course of t h e g r e a t c i r c l e p a t h

Sin(D1o)
= Tan-1 ( -
Cos$l*Tan+2 Sin$l'Cos(Dlo) 1

Vertex

The v e r t e x i s t h e p o i n t of h i g h e s t l a t i t u d e on a g r e a t circle p a t h

D i f f e r e n c e i n l o n g i t u d e between v e r t e x and p o i n t of o r i g i n

-1 Cos(C)
Dlov = S i n ~TGiml

L a t i t u d e s of p o i n t s on g r e a t c i r c l e p a t h

= Tan
-1
[Tan(Lv)*Cos(Dlox - Dlov)]

Great c i r c l e d i s t a n c e

GCDIST = 6 0 * C 0 s - ~ [ S i n ( $ ) - S i n ( + 2 ) + COS($~)*~OS($~)
-Cos(Dlo)]
1

42
 C. GEODESIC ERROR EQUATIONS

The g e o d e s i c e r r o r e q u a t i o n s between t h e model and C l a r k e e l l i p s o i d

71
ERROR(east) = [9.12951'Cos(T) - 2.92495'Cos(3T)] *(A2 - A )*-
1 180

ERROR(north1 = 0.37414*(+2 - $l)*(&) - 8.88543*[Sin(2+2) - Sin(2$1)]

S i m i l a r e q u a t i o n s were a l s o used by Hogle, Markin and Toth i n t h e i r r e p o r t

' E v a l u a t i o n of V a r i o u s Navigation Concepts' ( 3 ) .

V. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The e q u a t i o n s d e t a i l e d i n t h e previous s e c t i o n were modeled i n FORTRAN

on t h e Ohio U n i v e r s i t y IBM 370 computer. F i g u r e s 1 and 2 are s i m u l a t i o n s
of great c i r c l e and rhumb l i n e p a t h s on a iiieicatoi p r c j c c t i e n . n - e results
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between the two f l i g h t p a t h s can be s i g n i f i -
cant. F i g u r e 1 i s an east-west f l i g h t path from Baltimore-Washington I n t e r n a -
t i o n a l t o Los Angeles I n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t . A t t h e p o i n t of maximum d e v i a t i o n
t h e p a t h d i s c r e p a n c y is 126 n a u t i c a l miles f o r a t r i p l e n g t h of 2017 mi. On
t h e o t h e r hand, a north-south f l i g h t path from S t . P a u l t o Houston t h e d i s c r e -
pancy a t t h e p o i n t of maximum d e v i a t i o n is o n l y 5.25 nmi f o r a t r i p l e n g t h of
903 nmi. ( F i g u r e 2.)

S i n c e s h o r t e r t r i p l e n g t h s are of major importance t o t h e p i l o t an

e f f o r t was made t o q u a n t i f y t h e p a t h e r r o r s f o r f l i g h t p a t h s of up t o 500
nmi. F i g u r e s 3 t h r o u g h 6 i l l u s t r a t e how the faetcrs m,er?tioned e a r l i e r
e f f e c t t h e p a t h d i s c r e p a n c i e s . The f l i g h t s were s i m u l a t e d a t a c o n s t a n t
b e a r i n g w i t h t h e mid-point of t h e f l i g h t a t t h e s p e c i f i e d l a t i t u d e . Com-
p a r i s o n s of t h e p l o t s i n d i c a t e t h e compound e f f e c t b e a r i n g and l a t i t u d e of
t h e mid-point of a f l i g h t have on t h e path e r r o r s . A f l i g h t a t a mid-point
l a t i t u d e of 35 d e g r e e s n o r t h and a r e l a t i v e b e a r i n g of 76 d e g r e e s has maxi-
mum p a t h e r r o r s of 1.1 m i f o r t r i p l e n g t h s of up t o 300 nmi ( F i g . 3 ) .
However, a f l i g h t a t t h e same mid-point l a t i t u d e , b u t a r e l a t i v e b e a r i n g of
39 d e g r e e s has maximum p a t h e r r o r s of more t h a n 6 nmi f o r t r i p l e n g t h s up
t o 450 nmi (Fig. 5 ) .

It i s of v i t a l importance t o n o t e here t h a t t h e e r r o r s mentioned i n

t h i s r e p o r t are s o l e l y due t o t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e g r e a t c i r c l e and
rhumb l i n e paths. The e r r o r s do n o t account f o r r e c i e v e r computational
e r r o r s o r p i l o t e r r o r s . Another s o u r c e of e r r o r may be d i s c r e p a n c i e s among
t h e e a r t h models i n v a r i o u s RNAV r e c i e v e r s . O f f s e t s due t o u s i n g d i f f e r e n t
n a v i g a t i o n systems i n t h e same a i r s p a c e a l s o may c a u s e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s -
p a r i t y ( 4 ) . It i s recommended t h a t any d e c i s i o n made r e g a r d i n g t h i s s u b j e c t
must t a k e i n t o account a l l d i s c r e p a n c i e s mentioned above, and not j u s t t h e
goemetrical e r r o r s .

43
 VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h i s work p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s t e c h n i c a l memorandum has been supported by t h e

N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space Administration-Langley Research C e n t e r and t h e
F e d e r a l Aviation A s s o c i a t i o n under g r a n t number NGR 36-009-017. It w a s per-
formed a t Ohio U n i v e r s i t y ' s A v i o n i c s E n g i n e e r i n g Center.

The author would l i k e t o acknowledge t h e h e l p of D r . Robert L i l l e y Asso-

c i a t e D i r e c t o r , and M r . James Nickum p r o j e c t e n g i n e e r a t Avionics E n g i n e e r i n g
C e n t e r , whose s u g g e s t i o n s proved i n v 5 l u a b l e i n a l l s t a g e s of t h i s r e s e a r c h .

VII. REFERENCES

[ 11 "Advisory C i r c u l a r , " Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n / F e d e r a l

Aviation Adminstration, AC 90-45A, Feburary, 1975.

[ 21 Bowditch, N., "American P r a c t i c a l N a v i g a t o r , " Defense Mapping

Agency Hydrographic C e n t e r , 1977.

[3] Hogle, L., Markin, K., and Toth, S., " E v a l u a t i o n of Various
Navigation System Concepts," prepared f o r Department of
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , F e d e r a l A v i a t i o n A d m i n s t r a t i o n , Report No.
FAA-EM-82-15.

[4] Ibid.

44
F i g u r e 1. Great c i r c l e v e r s u s rhumb l i n e . Baltimore -
Washington t o Los AxigePes.

F i g u r e 2. Great c i r c l e v e r s u s rhumb l i n e .
St. P a u l t o Houston.

45
Figure 3 . P a t h e r r o r s v e r s u s t r i p l e n g t h a t a v e r a g e b e a r i n g 76'.

Figure 4 . P a t h e r r o r s v e r s u s t r i p l e n g t h a t a v e r a g e b e a r i n g 520 .
 g-

Rl.-YS.D R l BnNC.-Y3.31

Rl.-YP.D R1 BnWC.-Yl.(n

-
I 0
0
.__
xm
t
e
E?..
a*
W

r.
#-

E?..

F i g u r e 5. P a t h e r r o r s v e r s u s t r i p l e n g t h a t a v e r a g e b e a r i n g 40'.

't

F i g u r e 6. Path e r r o r s versus t r i p l e n g t h a t average bearing 1

8
'
.

47