1

GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS AND

TECHNOLOGIES
3. GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
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3. GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
3.1. EXPLORATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

Exploration is a significant step in the process of utilization of the geothermal

resources. It is aiming at:

locating geothermal reservoirs for possible exploitation and

selecting the best sites for drilling production wells
with the greatest possible confidence.
Geothermal exploration involves the application of
various methods and techniques to:
⇒ locate reservoirs,
⇒ to characterize their conditions, and
⇒ to optimize the locations of wells
3
3.1. Exploration of geothermal resources
Exploration for geothermal resources typically uses:
⇒ geological mapping,
⇒ geochemical analysis of water from hot springs, and
⇒ geophysical techniques commonly used by the mining industry.

The exploration program is usually

developed on a step-by-step basis:

reconnaissance

pre-feasibility and

feasibility.
 3.1. Exploration of
4
geothermal resources
The objectives of geothermal exploration are:
1. Identify geothermal phenomena.
2. Ascertain that a useful geothermal production field exists.
3. Estimate the size of the resource.
4. Determine the type (classification) of geothermal field.
5. Locate productive zones.
6. Determinate the heat content of the fluids.
7. Compilation of a body of basic data against for future monitoring.
8. Determine the pre-exploitation values of environmentally sensitive parameters.
9. Acquire knowledge of any characteristics that might cause problems during field
development.
 5
3.1. Exploration of geothermal resources
3.1.1. Geochemical Methods in Geothermal
Exploration
The major goals of geochemical exploration are:

to obtain the subsurface composition of the

fluids in a geothermal system

use this to obtain information on temp.,

origin, and flow direction, which help locating

the subsurface reservoir.
Geochemical methods are extensively used and
play a major role in geothermal exploration and
exploitation.
6
3.1.1. Geochemical Methods in Geothermal Exploration
Subsurface waters classification:

Meteoric water

Ocean water

Metamorphic water

Magmatic water

Geothermal waters classification based on major ions:

Alkali-chloride water

Acid sulfate water

Acid sulfate-chloride water

Bicarbonate water
7
3.1.1. Geochemical Methods in Geothermal Exploration
In the exploratory phase the task of geochemistry is mainly to:
 Estimate subsurface temperatures,
 Identify the origin of the geothermal fluid,

 Define chemical properties of the fluid with respect to environmental issues,

 Provide data for the concept model.

In the phase of exploration drilling the main task of geochemistry is to:

 Provide information on water to steam ratio in the reservoir,

 Assess the quality of the geothermal fluid with respect to the intended use,

 Assess the quality of the geothermal fluid with respect to the environment,

 Provide information on scaling tendencies of the fluid,

 Provide additional information to the concept model of the geothermal reservoir.

8
3.1.1. Geochemical Methods in Geothermal Exploration

In the phase of production drilling and operation of a power plant:

 Identify recharge into the reservoir of shallow groundwater or deeper
hot water
 Assess boiling processes in production aquifers

 Identify changes in the chemistry of the geothermal fluid

 Quantify changes in scaling and corrosion tendencies

 Monitor the quality of the geothermal fluid with respect to the

environment
9
3.1.2. Geophysical Methods in Geothermal Exploration
Geophysical methods used in geothermal exploration can be
divided as:
 potential methods,

 electrical and electromagnetic (EM) methods,

 seismic methods,

 radiometric methods.

Gravimetric methods are comparatively easy to use and fairly economical; they
provide a good estimate of the extent of bodies with certain density.
Magnetic methods are very popular during for the rapidity with which the
measurements can be made and the low cost of operation.
Electromagnetic methods are the most commonly used today.
Seismic methods use the propagation of elastic waves.
 3.1.2. Geophysical Methods in Geothermal Exploration

10

Electromagnetic methods. Electro-

magnetic induction (EM), uses the
principle of induction to measure the
electrical conductivity of the subsurface.
Unlike conventional resistivity tech-
niques, no ground contact is required.
Electrical methods. Various methods for
measuring electrical resistivity are used
in geothermal exploration, based on the
premises that temperature affects the
electrical properties of rocks.
11
3.1.2. Geophysical Methods in Geothermal Exploration

Magnetic methods. This is an

efficient and effective method to
survey large areas for under-
ground iron and steel objects such
as tanks and barrels.
 3.1.2. Geophysical Methods in Geothermal Exploration
12

Seismic methods. Seismic

techniques are commonly used
to determine site geology,
stratigraphy, and rock quality.
Gravity methods. State-of-the-
art gravity meters can sense
differences in the acceleration
(pull) of gravity to one part in
one billion.
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3.2. DRILLING AND COMPLETION

Drilling of exploratory wells represents the final phase of any

geothermal exploration program and is the only means of
determining the real characteristics of the geothermal
reservoir and thus of assessing its potential.

The data provided by exploratory wells should be capable of

verifying all the hypotheses and models elaborated from the
results of surface exploration and of confirming that the
reservoir is productive and contains enough fluids of adequate
characteristics for the utilization for which it is intended.
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3.2.1. Nature of Geothermal Formations
The geothermal formations are, by definition, hot (production intervals from 160°C
to above 300°C), often hard (240+ MPa compressive strength), abrasive (quartz
content above 50%), highly fractured (fracture apertures of centimeters), under-
pressured, often contain corrosive fluids, and some formation fluids have very high
solids content (TDS in some Imperial Valley brines is above 250,000 ppm). These
conditions mean that drilling is usually difficult.

Common geothermal systems almost always contain dissolved or free CO2 and H2S
gases.

Depth and temperature of geothermal resources vary considerably.

15
3.2.1. Nature of Geothermal Formations
Well Cost Drivers. Geothermal drilling is expensive mainly due to:
1. Technical challenge.
2. Large diameters.
3. Uniqueness.
Re-injection.

Well design

Directional drilling

Drilling hazards
16
3.2.1. Nature of Geothermal Formations
Rate of penetration (ROP): Many of the costs attributed to drilling are time-dependent
(primarily related to the rental rate on the rig and service company expenses), so
anything that speeds up the hole advance without compromising safety, hole stability,
or directional path is beneficial.
The 3 parameters that can be easily changed for any bit/formation combination are
rotary speed, weight on bit (WOB), and hydraulics (combination of jet size and flow rate)
and it often takes some experimentation to determine the best combination of these
values.
Bit and tool life: Improved tool life means, that the expense of replacing a bit or other
piece of equipment can be avoided or delayed, but there is also a time saving if trips can
be eliminated. The 3 factors that most affect bit and tool life are lithology, drilling
parameters (including well path), and bottom-hole assembly design. The drilling
engineer has little or no control over lithology, but significant improvements can
sometimes be made by changes in the latter two factors.
17
3.2.1. Nature of Geothermal Formations
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3.2.2. Planning Geothermal Well

There are two separate but closely related parts of preparing for a drilling
project:
 planning the well and
 designing the well.

“Planning” means to list, define, schedule, and budget for all the
multitude of individual activities required to drill the well.

“Designing” means to specify all the physical parameters (depth,

diameter, etc.) that define the well itself.
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3.2.2. Planning Geothermal Well
Drilling specification of an interval between two given depths and running casing:

Hole size and suggested bit type

Definition of all components of the bottom-hole assembly, and whether
downhole motors are to be used:
 Expected rate of penetration and bit life,
 Any directional drilling instructions,
 Drilling fluid type and flow rate.

Any required logging during drilling or before casing is run,

Any required testing after cementing an interval of casing or at completion of
the well,

Size, weight, connection, and grade of casing, and whether it is a liner,

Proposed cementing program,

Any problems expected in that interval, or special precautions to be taken.
20
3.2.2. Planning Geothermal Well

To begin designing of a well, a great variety of information is desirable, such are:

purpose of the well, surface or shallow hole conditions, reservoir conditions,
logistical requirements, likely problems in drilling, casing requirements.

Drill Rig Selection. Most of the criteria used to select a drill rig will be derived
from well parameters, specifically: diameter, depth, and casing design.

Several factors define the minimum hole diameter, and also bear upon whether
a core rig can be used for the hole: logging tools, core size, packers, flow test.
21
3.2.3. Classification of drilling methods
The drilling equipment is fed by energy, often obtained by diesel or electrical
driven motors and hydraulic loops.

By regarding the process of destruction, the cleaning of the borehole and the
forces applied on the drilling equipment, the most common drilling methods can
be described as:

Cable tool drilling,

Hammer drilling with air,

Conventional Rotary Drilling,

Auger drilling,

Sonic drilling.
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Cable tool drilling
In China it was used for more than 2600 years ago. In Europe (for water supply) up
till the 1950-ies.
It was gradually replaced with the more efficient and much faster rotary drilling
methods.

Hammer drilling with air

Hammer drilling using pneumatic top hammers was introduced in the early last
century. At that time it was used for construction drilling.
In the 1970-ies hammer was introduced for water well drilling in hard rocks.
From then it is commonly used for drilling boreholes in crystalline rocks, as well as
in consolidated sedimentary rocks.
An advantage with hammer drilling is that the holes can be drilled directional.
 Hammer drilling
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with water
In later years a hydraulic water
driven DTH hammer has been
developed and introduced on the
shallow geothermal drilling
market (Wassara), preferably in
Scandinavia.
The hammer drilling with water is used for deeper holes in crystalline
rocks and in regions with younger sedimentary rocks.
A system for cleaning the return water from cuttings is still to be
developed to make the system fully compatible on the market.
24
Conventional rotary drilling
Governed by geological conditions, conventional rotary is the dominating
drilling method in areas with sedimentary rocks (originally developed in
oil and natural gas industry in late 1800 - early 1900).
In consolidated sedimentary rocks a three cone
“roller bit” is used to crush or break the rock
into pieces (cuttings).
For drilling in soft rocks another type of drill bit
is used, a drag bit. This will carve pieces of the
rock at the borehole bottom.
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Conventional rotary drilling

The rotary method has several advantages compared to hammer

drilling with air. The most pronounced one is that:

the borehole can be kept stable by the hydrostatic overpressure
that is created in the borehole compared to the hydrostatic
pressure in the formation.
This is of course not the case if an artesian aquifer is reached.

On the other hand an obvious disadvantage is that:

the conventional rotary in hard rocks will be comparatively slow,
and in practice not even suitable for magmatic rock types.
26
Auger drilling

The auger drilling method is based on a well

known way of making boreholes into a soft
material by a carving principle. It is commonly
used for geotechnical site investigations, but is in
a larger scale also used for shallow geothermal
applications to a moderate depth.

For shallow geothermal applications the method may be used for moderate
depths and for closed loop systems penetrating fine grained sediments.
27
Sonic drilling
The sonic drilling method is fairly new on market. The
driving force for penetration is a high frequency
vibration that is transferred from the rotary head
down to a drill bit.
The method was originally developed for core
sampling in unconsolidated formation, but has then
been further developed also to drill open boreholes in
almost any type of rocks.
For making that possible it also contains a flushing
possibility, ether by air or a fluid.
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Sonic drilling

Advantages of sonic drilling for geothermal installations:

 Fastest drilling method on earth.
 Ability to…
 Economical drilling rates due to the efficient sonic drilling method,
especially in gravel and boulder ground.
 Full length cased hole allows for:
 Steal casing is vibrating out of the ground after geo-loop installation and
placement of thermally enhanced grout.
 Cased borehole provides the ability to deal with free-flowing borehole or
artesian conditions.
29
3.2.4. Shallow geothermal drilling methods
Shallow geothermal systems are commonly drilled to a depth of less
than 200 m and consist of boreholes for closed loop systems or wells
for open loop systems. All the methods mentioned in the
classification are in use for shallow
boreholes; which one would be
applied at specific location depends
on the geological conditions and
available equipment, methods and
drilling procedures in the country.
 3.2.5. Advanced geothermal drilling
30
technology
The objective of advanced drilling and logging technologies is to promote
ways and means to reduce the cost of geothermal drilling.
Drilling is an essential and expensive part of geothermal exploration,
development, and utilization.
The consequences of reducing cost are often impressive, because drilling and well
completion can account for more than half of the capital cost for a geothermal
power project.
Geothermal drilling cost reduction can take many forms, e.g.:
 faster drilling rates,
 increased bit or tool life,
 less trouble (twist-offs, stuck pipe, etc.),
 higher per-well production through multilaterals, and others.
 3.3. GEOHEAT EXTRACTION AND
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PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
Thermal energy is extracted from the reservoir by coupled transport processes:

convective heat transfer in porous and/or fractured regions of rock, and

conduction through the rock itself.

Typically, hot water or steam is produced and its energy is converted into a
marketable product (electricity, process heat, or space heat).
Techniques for extracting heat from low-permeability hot dry rock (HDR) are:

drill a well to sufficient depth to reach a useful temperature,

create a large heat-transfer surface area by hydraulically fracturing the rock, and

intercept those fractures with a second well, and

by circulating water from one well to the other through the stimulated region,

heat can be extracted from the rock.

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3.3.1. Steam production
Steam may be produced from:

compressed liquid,

two phase liquid/vapor or

superheated vapor reservoirs.

Fluid may also change state during production further to pressure depletion.
In hole flashing. Most commercially developed fields are of the liquid
dominated type and are likely more to two phases during exploitation above a
230°C temperature.
Well bore flashing may cause scaling shortcomings by precipitation, above the
flash front, of calcium carbonates for instance, whenever the well head
pressure is depleted below CO2 partial pressure.
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3.3.1. Steam production

Vapor/liquid separation is completed by cylindrical vessels of either the vertical

or horizontal type. Both apply a forced vortex principle.
The vertical separator is based on streamlined inlet fluid admission and
centrifugal steam separation whereas in the horizontal outfit the fluid enters
tangentially and the steam is recovered by gravity.
A reasonable compromise would consist of dedicating vertical units to, first
stage, high pressure separation and horizontal vessels to, second stage, low
pressure separation.
The quality of the steam is controlled by the liquid level in the separator(s).
Steam needs to be kept dry, almost 100%, to avoid carryover of water droplets
and subsequent mechanical (impact) and chemical (scaling) damage to turbine
blades and ancillary equipment.
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3.3.1. Steam production
Non condensable gases. Carbon dioxide, a major constituent in geothermal
vapor, affects brine thermo chemistry turbine efficiency and steam condensing.
Depending on non condensable gas content two extraction systems may be
contemplated, a part from pre-flashing, ejectors and compressors respectively.
Ejectors display poor efficiencies (15%) and require 12% of the steam mass flow
available at well head to extract 1% (vol) of non condensable gases.
Higher gas volumes require, because of low inlet pressure, large multistage
compressors, with compression rates as high as 8 and high (80%) efficiencies and
related costs.
Consumption amounts to 3% (mass) of well head vapor flow per 1% (vol) of CO2.
35
3.3.1. Steam production
Waste water disposal. Assuming a 250°C, 40 bar fluid pressure, i.e. a single
phase compressed liquid state at reservoir conditions, a 7 bar turbine inlet
pressure, a 50 MWe rated geoelectric plant with a 20% conversion
efficiency, the waste water discharge rate would amount to cca 4200 m3/h.
Therefore, waste disposal and environmental consequences become a
major concern, to which, water injection, seems the most relevant
remedial solution.
A superheated steam field would not face such constraints, the sole liquid
waste consisting of steam condensates.
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3.3.2. Hot water production
The circulation of hot water from the well can be either:

self-flowing or

artificial lift (forced circulation with pump).

Self flowing is by far the most attractive production mode provided it can
supply target flow rates without excessively depleting well head pressures,
in which case adequate degassing/gas abatement facilities would be
required.
Therefore artificial lift is most often the rule in geothermal, low grade heat,
direct uses. It is best achieved thanks to the three submersible pumping
alternatives: line shaft, electro submersible, turbine respectively.
37
3.3.2. Hot water production
Line shaft pumps (a), widely used in ground
water production, are quite popular in
Iceland and in the Western United States.
Many operators rely on electro submersible
pump sets (b).
Turbine pumps apply hydraulic motor
concept (c).
All three sustained production concepts
exhibit reliable operation records with
life-times close to 5 years in-hole continuous
service.
Down-hole production pump types
 3.3.3. Deep borehole heat exchangers
38
(ground source heat exchangers)
Deep borehole heat exchangers have been installed to depths
of about 1500 m – 3000 m and maximum temperatures of
about 60°C – 110°C.
In contrast to shallow borehole heat exchangers, U-pipes
cannot be used due to the much greater depth of the
boreholes.
These systems consist of a coaxial arrangement of an inner
production pipe inserted into an outer borehole casing.
Deep borehole heat exchangers indicate a specific power of
about 20– 54 W·m-1, similar to that of shallow systems.
39
3.4. ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
The term enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), refers to a variety of engineering
techniques used to artificially create hydrothermal resources that can be used to
generate electricity.
Traditional geothermal plants exploit naturally occurring hydrothermal reservoirs.
EGS technologies use the heat of the earth’s crust to generate electricity.
EGS, attempts to artificially reproduce the conditions of naturally occurring
hydrothermal reservoirs by fracturing impervious hot rocks at 3 to 10 kilometers
depth, pumping fluid into the newly porous system, and then extracting the heated
fluid to drive an electricity-generating turbine.
An EGS is a man-made reservoir, created where there is hot rock but insufficient or
little natural permeability or fluid saturation.
40
41
3.4.1. Current EGS drilling technology
Fluid temperatures in excess of 190°C may damage components such as
seals and elastomeric insulators. Bit-bearing seals, cable insulations, surface
well-control equipment, and sealing elements are some of the items that
must be designed and manufactured with these temperatures in mind.
Logging. The use of well logs is an important diagnostic tool that is not yet
fully developed in the geothermal industry.
Thermal expansion of casing. Thermal expansion can cause buckling of the
casing and casing collapse, which can be costly.
Drilling fluids/“mud” coolers. Surface “mud coolers” are commonly used to
reduce the temperature of the drilling fluid before it is pumped back down
the hole.
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3.4.1. Current EGS drilling technology
Drill bits and increased rate of penetration. Many EGS resources are in formations
that are igneous, influenced by volcanic activity, or that have been altered by high
temperatures and/or hot fluids.
Drilling in these formations is generally more difficult.
However, not all geothermal formations are slow to drill. Many are drilled
relatively easily overall, with isolated pockets of hard, crystalline rock. In these
conditions, drill bit selection is critical.

Lost circulation. Lost circulation is a drilling problem that arises when the
circulation of the drilling fluid is interrupted and it does not return to the surface.
The drilling fluid must be mixed and pumped fast enough to sustain flow and keep
the bit clean, which can be an expensive process.
43
3.4.1. Current EGS drilling technology

Directional drilling. Directionally drilled wells reach out in different

directions and permit production from multiple zones that cover a greater
portion of the resource and intersect more fractures through a single
casing.

An EGS power plant typically requires more than one production well. In
terms of the plant design, and to reduce the overall plant “footprint,” it is
preferable to have the wellheads close to each other.

Directional drilling permits this while allowing production well bottom-

spacing’s of 900 m or more.