3.

1: Recap of Kinematics of Particles

Before we start module 3 which is about the kinetics of particles, let us revise what we learned
in module 2.

In the previous module, we treated physical objects as particles irrespective of its shape or size
and assumed that all of its mass is concentrated at a single point. As a result of modeling object
as a particle, we could not acknowledge its ability to rotate or change orientation.

Secondly, we came across the primary quantities such as position vector (~r), differential displace-
~ velocity (~v ) and acceleration (~a). We analyzed motions of particles and computed
ment vector (dr),
these quantities primarily using three coordinate systems: cartesian coordinate system, tangent-
normal system and polar coordinate system.

Cartesian Coordinate System:

~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂
~v = ẋî + ẏ ĵ + ż k̂
~a = ẍî + ÿ ĵ + z̈ k̂

Tangent-Normal Coordinate system:

~v = v eˆt
v2
~a = v̇ eˆt + eˆn
ρ

Polar Coordinate System:

~r = r eˆr
~v = ṙeˆr + rθ̇ eˆθ
~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 ) eˆr + (2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈) eˆθ

1
 3.2: Kinetics of Particles - Force Laws

Kinetics is the branch of classical mechanics in which we study the relationship between forces
and motion. As opposed to the kinematics of particles in which motion is analyzed without consid-
ering the forces causing it, kinetics studies motion as well as forces that are involved.

Later, while studying kinetics in detail, we will treat objects as rigid bodies, but in this mod-
ule, physical objects will be modeled as particles.

As per Newton’s second law of motion,

ΣF~ = m~a
This is the equation that relates forces acting on a particle and its acceleration which is one of the
kinematical property. As kinetics relates forces and motion, this law would be of primary impor-
tance in this module.

Nature of Forces:

To understand and study the kinetics of particles, firstly we need to know, what exactly is force.
It is not sufficient to describe it just as mass times acceleration. Force depends on the nature of
interaction between an object that exerts a force and an object on which force is being exerted.
This will be explained using following examples.

• Gravitational Force:

The interaction between the Sun and the Earth is the universal gravitational attraction and
the force exerted by one of them on the other is given as,
me ms
FG = G
r2
Where,

G = Gravitational constant,
me = Mass of the Earth,
ms = Mass of the Sun,
r = Distance between the Earth and the Sun.

1
• Friction Force:

Depending on the interaction, friction force can be divided into drag friction force and dry
friction force.

Drag forces are the forces exerted by a fluid medium on the solid object moving through
it. For example, when an aircraft moves through the air, its outer surface experiences a drag
friction force exerted by the air. This friction force depends on the velocity of an object, its
surface properties and medium properties.

The dry friction force, also referred as Coulomb friction, arises when there is a relative motion
or in other words, interaction, between two solid objects.
Consider that a heavy solid block is at rest on a surface as shown.

F
M

Ff

Let force F is applied on a block. If block does not move then it means that there is some
friction force exerted by a surface on a block which is opposing the external force, F . As long
as a block is not moving, friction force Ff can be given as, Ff = F . Now if external force F is
slowly increased, there will be a situation when a block will just start moving. This is called
as ‘impending slip’ situation. The friction force exerted by a surface would be maximum in
this case and it is given as,
F f = µs N
where,
Ff = Static friction force,
µs = Static coefficient of friction,
N = Normal reaction force
When the external force is large enough to move a block, the friction force exerted by a surface
is given as,
F f = µk N
where,
Ff = Kinetic friction force,
µk = Kinetic coefficient of friction
Most of the times, µk ≤ µs .

2
• Linear Elastic Force:

Unstretched
K

Linear Elastic forces are exerted by objects which have elastic material properties. These
objects can be modeled as spring with appropriate spring stiffness and the force exerted by
them can be given as,
Fe = Kδ
where,

Fe = Linear elastic force,

K = Spring stiffness or spring constant,
δ = deformation (stretch or compression)

3
 3.3: Direction of Kinetic Friction Forces

Consider a block A which is moving towards right on the top of block B with velocity, vA as
shown and the velocity of block B is vB .

Let suppose that vA = 5 m/s towards right and vB = 0 m/s. In this case, the direction of
kinetic friction force can be determined very easily. On block A, the kinetic friction force would act
towards left.

Now, consider another situation in which vA = 5 m/s towards right and vB = 3 m/s also to-
wards right. Compared to previous case, to determine the direction of friction is slightly difficult
in this situation as both the blocks are moving. The key point to remember about the friction is
this that, it acts in such a way that it opposes the relative motion between two objects. So, in this
case, the relative velocity is given as,
vA/B = vA − vB
= (5 − 3) m/s
= 2 m/s
The relative velocity is 2 m/s rightwards. So, the friction would act towards left.

Let us increase the velocity of block B further and make it move at 8 m/s towards right while
keeping the velocity of block A constant at 5 m/s towards right. What would be the direction of
friction in this case? Again, it would be decided by the direction of relative motion.
vA/B = vA − vB
= (5 − 8) m/s
= −3 m/s
As the relative velocity is negative, it is acting leftwards with the magnitude of 3 m/s. So, the
kinetic friction force on block A would act towards right.

1
 3.4: Newton’s Second Law

As per Newton’s second law of motion, the sum of the forces acting on an object is equal to the
mass of that object multiplied by its acceleration. Mathematically it is given as,

ΣF~ = m~a

It is very important to understand that this equation is valid only when acceleration is measured in
an inertial or Newtonian frame which is a non-accelerating frame of reference. To understand this,
consider following examples.

Let suppose that there are two persons A and B travelling upward in an elevator which is ac-
celerating with an acceleration, a0 m/s2 as shown.

a0
A B

Relative to B, person A is at rest. So if person B analyzes the motion and forces on person A
and applies Newton’s second law, he would write,

NA − mA g = 0

NA = mA g
Where,

NA = Normal reaction force on person A

mA = mass of person A

But, as per our own experience, we know that this analysis is not correct because, we feel more
weight while travelling upward in the elevator. So, the normal reaction force on A should be more
than just mA g. But, what is wrong with the analysis done by person B?
The mistake in the analysis is this that, the person B measured the acceleration of A with respect

1
to himself and did not consider that he is travelling with acceleration a0 m/s2 upward along with
the elevator. So, the reference frame is non-Newtonian and Newton’s second law of motion cannot
be applied in this frame.
To fix the error in the analysis, the motion of person A should be analyzed from inertial or Newtonian
reference frame. In an inertial frame, Newton’s second law for person A is given as,

NA − mA g = mA a0

NA = mA a0 + mA g
NA = mA (a0 + g)
It can be verified from the above equation that a person will feel heavier while travelling in an
elevator which is moving upward.

Consider another example in which block A is moving downward with an acceleration of aA m/s2
on an inclined surface of wedge B which is moving rightward with an acceleration of aB m/s2 as
shown.

A y
aA
aB
x
B

What would be the acceleration of block A in an inertial frame?

In the given coordinate system, the acceleration of A is given as,

aA/B = aA (− cos θî − sin θĵ)

But is is the acceleration of A with respect to block B which has its own acceleration. To find out
the acceleration of A in inertial frame, acceleration of block B need to be considered.

~aA0 = ~aA/B + ~aB0

Where,

aA0 = Acceleration of A in an inertial frame

aB0 = Acceleration of B in an inertial frame
aA/B = Acceleration of A with respect to B

2
 ~aA0 = aA (− cos θî − sin θĵ) + aB î
~aA0 = (aB − aA cos θ)î − sin θĵ

This is the required acceleration of block A in an inertial frame.

To conclude, Newton’s second law of motion should be used only in an inertial frame.

3
 3.5: Newton’s Second Law in Different
Coordinate Systems

In the previous module, we have studied different coordinate systems such as cartesian, tangent-
normal and polar coordinate system. Let us analyze how Newton’s second law of motion would be
applied in these coordinate systems.
• Cartesian Coordinate System:

Let us consider that a particle ‘P’ is moving along a curved path as shown.

F2 F1
y
P
F3 a

F~1 , F~2 , F~3 are the external forces acting on a particle because of which a particle is accelerating
with an acceleration of ~a as shown. If F~ is the resultant force such that F~ = F~1 + F~2 + F~3 ,
then after resolving resultant force and acceleration along x and y axis, as per the Newton’s
second law,
Fx î + Fy ĵ = max î + may ĵ
Where,
Fx = component of a resultant force along x axis
Fy = component of a resultant force along y axis
ax = component of an acceleration along x axis
ay = component of an acceleration along x axis
It implies that,
F~x = m~ax

1
 F~y = m~ay

• Tangent-Normal Coordinate System:

Again consider the same particle ‘P’ moving along a curved path shown above. But in this
case instead of resolving force and acceleration along x and y axis, we will resolve them along
tangential and normal direction. So,

Ft êt + Fn ên = mat êt + man ên (1)

The acceleration in tangent-normal system is given as,

v2
~a = v̇ êt + ên
ρ
Where,

v = velocity of particle
ρ = radius of curvature

Substituting this expression for acceleration in equation (1),

mv 2
Ft êt + Fn ên = mv̇ êt + ên
ρ
It implies,
F~t = mv̇

mv 2
F~n =
ρ

• Polar Coordinate System:

After resolving the resultant force and acceleration along êr and êθ , Newton’s second law
of motion can be written as,

Fr êr + Fθ êθ = mar êr + maθ êθ (2)

Acceleration in polar coordinate system is,

~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )êr + (2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈)êθ

2
After substituting the expression of acceleration in (2),

Fr êr + Fθ êθ = m(r̈ − rθ̇2 )êr + m(2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈)êθ

So,
F~r = m (r̈ − rθ̇2 )

F~θ = m (2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈)

3
 3.6: General Methods for Kinetics of Particles

Before starting the problems based on kinetics, let us revise the method to perform the kinematic
analysis of particles. It involves following steps:

• Choose coordinate system.

• Show the chosen coordinate system and position variables.

• Write down the velocity and acceleration expressions in the chosen coordinate system.

• Solve for the unknown quantities.

This kinematic analysis would also be a part of a general method to solve problems based on
kinetics. This method is explained below:

• Step I - Choose a coordinate system:

This step is similar to the first step in kinematic analysis. Based on the information given in
a problem, choose appropriate coordinate system.

• Step II - Perform the kinematic analysis:

Based on the information given, perform a kinematic analysis of a problem as much as possible
and find out the expressions for velocity and acceleration.

• Step III - Draw a free body diagram:

Isolate the chosen particle(s) of interest from surrounding and show the coordinate system
overlaid on the particle.

• Step IV - Apply Newton’s second law:

Apply Newton’s second law of motion (ΣF~ = m~a) by resolving forces and acceleration along
the chosen coordinate system.

• Step V - Solve for the unknown quantities:

1
 3.7: Example on Kinetics of Particles 1

Let us look at some of the examples based on kinetics of particles and perform a kinetic analysis
using general method that has been explained in the previous section.

Example 3.2 The crate of mass m = 45 kg is moving down the incline with speed, v0 = 8 m/s
at the instant that the spring with the elastic constant k = 100 N/m is unstretched. Modeling the
crate as a particle, determine the distance ‘d’ the crate moves from the given position before it mo-
mentarily comes to a stop. Friction between the crate and the incline is negligible. The unstretched
length of the spring is L0 = 1.2 m and θ = 25◦ .

Given:
1) m = 45 kg
2) v0 = 8 m/s (unstretched)
3) k = 100 N/m
4) vf = 0 m/s
5) L0 = 1.2 m
6) θ = 25◦

As per the general method to solve the kinetics problems, firstly, coordinate system need to be
selected. Here, as the block is undergoing a straight line motion along the incline, cartesian coordi-
nate system would be convenient. Secondly, a reference frame is selected at a distance of unstretched
length, L0 from the support because the distance ‘d’ is from the given position of block.

1
 L0

m
y vf = 0
d
x

Now let us perform the kinematic analysis.

~v = ẋî
~a = ẍî
The free body diagram for a block at a distance x from the chosen reference frame is,

kx

As the chosen reference frame is inertial (not moving), Newton’s second law can be applied.
ΣF~ = m~a
(−kx + mg sin θ)î + (N − mg cos θ)ĵ = m(ax î + ay ĵ)
Comparing the forces and acceleration along x axis,
−kx + mg sin θ = max
 
k
ax = g sin θ − x
m
(Here, as the acceleration is a function of x and not constant, Galileo’s equations of motion cannot
be used.)  
dv k
v = g sin θ − x
dx m
Z vf Z d   
k
vdv = g sin θ − x dx
v0 0 m
vf2 v02
  2
k d
− = dg sin θ −
2 2 m 2
After substituting the given values,
d = 7.546 m

2
 3.8: Examples on Kinetics of Particles 2

Example 3.3: The truck is travelling at v0 = 100 km/h when the driver slams on the brakes
and comes to stop as quickly as possible. If the coefficient of static friction between the crate A
and the bed of the truck is 0.35, determine the minimum stopping distancedmin and the minimum
stopping time tmin of the truck such that the crate does not slide forward on the truck.

Given:
1) v0 = 100 km/h = 27.77 m/s
2) µs = 0.35

As it has been asked in the question to find out minimum distance and minimum stopping time,
the limiting condition i.e impeding slip condition need to be considered.

As the motion of a truck is linear, cartesian coordinate system is chosen. (This coordinate sys-
tem is attached to the ground and not to the truck).

Velocity and acceleration is given as,

~v = ẋî
~a = ẍĵ
The free body diagram of the crate is,

1
 mg

A
μsN

As per the Newton’s second law of motion,

ΣF = m~a

−µs N î + (N − mg)ĵ = max î + may ĵ

As there is no motion in the y direction, ay = 0. It implies,

N = mg

Comparing the terms on left hand side and right hand side along x direction,

−µs N = max
dv
= −µs g
dt
In this case acceleration is constant. So Galileo’s equations of motion can be applied. Otherwise
the expression for velocity can also be found out by integrating the above equation.
Z 0 Z tmin
dv = −µs g dt
v0 0

−v0 = −µs gtmin

Substituting the given values in the above equation,

tmin = 8.09 s

This is the minimum stopping time of the truck so that the crate does not slide forward on the
truck. The acceleration is given as,
dv
a=v
dx
Integrating above expression with appropriate limits,
Z 0 Z dmin
vdv = adx
v0 0

v02
= µs gdmin
2

2
 dmin = 112.301 m

This is the required minimum stopping distance of the truck.

Example 3.8: A race car moves at a constant speed v along a banked turn. Let the bank angle
and turn radius of curvature be those of Talladega Super speed way in East Aboga, Alabama which
means that ρ is 1100 ft and turn bank angle is 33◦ . For this turn, determine the maximum value of
v such that the car does not slide. Assume that the static friction coefficient between the car and
track is µs = 0.9.

Given:
1) v = constant
2) ρ = 1100 ft = 335.3 m
3) θ = 33◦
4) µs = 0.9

Drawing the free body diagram for the car,

⋀
eb
⋀
en ⋀
et

μsN N
mg
θ

Here, ⊗ represents the direction of eˆt . Let us introduce a new unit vector eˆb such that,

eˆb = eˆt × eˆn

Applying Newton’s second law,

(N cos θ − mg − µs N sin θ)eˆb + (µs N cos θ + N sin θ)eˆn + Ft eˆt = m(ab eˆb + an eˆn + et eˆt )

3
Where, Ft represents the total forces along tangential direction and ab , an , at are the accelerations
along eˆb , eˆn , eˆt .
v2
 
(N cos θ − mg − µs N sin θ)eˆb + (µs N cos θ + N sin θ)eˆn + Ft eˆt = m ab eˆb + eˆn + v̇ eˆt
ρ
As the car is moving with the constant speed, v̇ = 0 and also as it is not moving along eˆb , ab = 0.
Additionally, as there is no acceleration along eˆt , Ft = 0. Therefore,

N cos θ − mg − µs N sin θ = 0
mg
N=
(cos θ − µs sin θ)
Comparing forces and acceleration along eˆn ,
mv 2
µs N cos θ + N sin θ =
ρ
Substituting the value of N and v = vmax ,

2 ρg(µs cos θ + sin θ)

vmax =
(cos θ − µs sin θ)
After putting the given values,
vmax = 110.74 m/s

Example 3.9: A small sphere is at rest at the top of a frictionless semicylindrical surface. The
sphere is given a slight nudge to the right so that it slides along the surface. Determine the angle
θ at which the sphere separates from the surface.

Given: v0 = 0 and radius = R

In the problem, it has been given that the sphere slides along the surface instead of rolling. It
suggests that the sphere is considered to be a particle and not rigid body because only particles

4
would slide in the given condition while rigid body would have rolled.

Let θf is the angle measured from vertical that represents angle at which sphere would separate
from surface. So, at θ = θf , normal reaction force, N would be zero.

To analyze this problem, a polar coordinate system is used. The velocity and acceleration ex-
pressions in this coordinate system are,

~v = ṙeˆr + rθ̇eˆθ

As R = constant and ṙ = 0,
~v = Rθ̇eˆθ
and acceleration is,
~a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )eˆr + (2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈)eˆθ
After substituting ṙ = r̈ = 0,

~a = −Rθ̇2 eˆr + Rθ̈eˆθ (1)

Now, the Free body diagram for sphere is,

⋀
er

⋀
eθ

Applying Newton’s second law,

(N − mg cos θ)eˆr + mg sin θ eˆθ = m~a

substituting the expression for acceleration from equation (1),

(N − mg cos θ)eˆr + mg sin θ eˆθ = m(−Rθ̇2 eˆr + Rθ̈eˆθ )

Comparing the coefficients of unit vectors,

N − mg cos θ = −mRθ̇2 (2)

mg sin θ = mRθ̈ (3)

from equation (3),

g sin θ
θ̈ =
R

5
 dθ̇ g sin θ
θ̇ =
dθ R
Z θ̇ Z θf
g sin θ
θ̇dθ̇ = dθ
0 0 R
It gives,
2g(1 − cos θf )
θ̇2 =
R
Substituting the value of θ̇2 in equation (2) and putting N = 0 (at θ = θf ),

cos θf = 2(1 − cos θf )

It gives,
θf = 48.12◦

6
 3.9: System of Particles

So far we have studied Newton’s second law of motion for a single particle. So, if F~1 + F~2 +
F3 ......F~n are the forces acting on the particle then as per Newton’s second law,
~

ΣF~ = m~a

Where, ΣF~ = F~1 + F~2 + F~3 ......F~n

Now, we will extend this concept to the system of particles and apply Newton’s second law of
motion.

Fi

Above is the system of particles consisting of particles 1, 2, 3,.....n. Let us concentrate on ith
particle with mass mi . Consider that this particle is interacting with all the particles in the vicinity.
Let P~12 , P~13 .....P~1n are the internal forces applied on particle 1 (i = 1) by other particles in the
vicinity (P~ij represents force applied by j th particle on ith particle) and let Fi is the external force
applied on particle 1.

1
Drawing the free body diagram for particle 1,

P1n

1
P13

Fi
P12

Applying Newton’s second law for this particle,

F~i + P~12 + P~13 + ..... + P~1n = mi~ai

Similarly, Newton’s second law can be applied to other particles as well. After adding all the
equations of Newton’s second law for all the particles we get,
n
X
(F~1 + F~2 + F~3 .....F~n ) + (P~12 + P~21 + 13
~ + 31......
~ P~ij + P~ji ) = mi ai
i=1

Considering the second term on the left hand side of the equation which represents total internal
forces, we know that P~ij = −P~ji . So, after adding all the internal forces for all the particles, the
second term would become zero.
The equation (1) becomes,
n
X
F~1 + F~2 + F~3 .....F~n = mi ai
i=1

In this equation, the right hand side of the equation term can be written as,
n
X d2 ri (t)
mi ai = Σmi
i=1
dt2
d2
= (M~rcm )
dt2
Where ~rc m is the position vector of centre of mass and M is the total mass of the system. So, to
conclude,
Xn
F~i = M~acm
i=1

2
3.10: Examples on Kinetics of System of Particles

Example 3.13 The pulley system is designed to lift a heavy load at A by attaching a mass at P
(or alternatively, though not equivalently, by pulling on the cable at P with some force). Assuming
that the payload A has mass mA and the pulley housing B (which includes pulleys) has mass mB ,
determine the acceleration of A and P if mass mP is attached at P .

The general method that has been developed to solve kinetics problems for a single particle can
also be used to solve kinetics problems for the system of particles with an exception that the free
body diagram should be drawn for the system and not for the individual particles.

The coordinate system is attached to the ceiling such that y is positive in the downward direc-
tion. Let the positions of mass A, P and B are yB , yP and yB respectively as shown,

1
 y

cable G y yB
A
yP

P
A
cable H

For cable H,
LH = yA − yB = constant
After differentiating this equation twice,

aA − aB = 0

aA = aB
For cable G,
LG = 4yB + yP
After differentiating twice,

4aB + yP = 0 (1)

Free body diagrams for mass A, mass P and pulley housing B are given below.

Applying Newton’s second law of motion for all the masses,

• For mass A:
ΣF~A = mA~aA

mA g − TH = mA aA (2)

Where TH is the tension in cable H

2
 • For mass B:
ΣF~B = mB~aB
mB g + TH − 4T = mB aB
Where, T is the tension in cable G.
As aA = aB

mB g + TH − 4T = mB aA (3)

• For particle P:
ΣF~P = mP ~aP

mP g − T = mP aP (4)

Now, equations (1), (2), (3), (4) can be solved to find out unknown quantities T, TH , aA and aP .
So from equation 2,
TH = mA g − mA aA
Substituting this value of TH in equation 3,

mB g + mA g − mA aA − 4T = mB aA

(mA + mB )(g − aA )
T =
4
Substituting the value of T in equation 4,

(mA + mB )(g − aA )
mP g − = −4mP aA
4

(mA + mB − 4mP )g
aA = m/s2
(mA + mB + 16mP )
From equation 1, as aP = −4aA ,

−4g(mA + mB − 4mP )
aP = m/s2
(mA + mB + 16mP )

Example 3.14: A pair of stacked books with masses m1 = 1.5 kg and m2 = 1 kg is thrown on a
table. The books strike the table with essentially zero vertical speed, and their common horizontal
speed is v0 = 0.75 m/s. Letting µk1 = 0.45 be the coefficient of kinetic friction between the bottom
book and the table, and letting µs2 = 0.4 and µk2 = 0.3 be the coefficient of static and kinetic
friction between the two books, respectively, determine the book’s final positions relative to where
they it the table and their position relative to one another. Model both books as particles with the
same initial horizontal position.

3
 Given:

m1 = 1.5 kg
m2 = 1 kg
v0 = 0.75 m/s
µk1 = 0.45
µk2 = 0.3
µs2 = 0.4

Fixing cartesian coordinate system on the table at the initial position of book 1.

The accelerations of books 1 and 2 are,

~a1 = a1 î
~a2 = a2 î
Drawing free body diagram for book 1,

Where,

N1 = Normal reaction force applied by table on book 1

N2 = Normal reaction force applied by book 2 on book 1
F1 = Kinetic friction force between book 1 and table = µk1 N1
F2 = Friction force between books 1 and 2

Book 2 may or may not slide with respect to book 1. So, initially let assume that there is no sliding
between books 1 and 2.
Drawing free body diagram for book 2,

4
 Applying Newton’s second law for book 1,

(F2 − F1 )î + (N1 − N2 − m1 g)ĵ = m1~a1 î

After comparing,

F2 − F1 = m1 a1 (5)
N1 − N2 − m1 g = 0 (6)

Similarly, for book 2,

−F2 î + (N2 − m2 g)ĵ = m2 a2 î
Above equation implies,

F2 = −m2 a2 (7)
N2 = m2 g (8)

As we have assumed that book 2 is not sliding with respect to book 1, a1 = a2 . So, equation 7
becomes,

F2 = −m2 a1 (9)

substituting F2 in equation 5,
F1 = −(m1 + m2 )a1

µk1 N1 = −(m1 + m2 )a1 (10)

Substituting the value of N2 from equation 8 in equation 6,

N1 = (m1 + m2 )g

After substituting the value of N1 in equation 10, a1 is,

a1 = −µk1 g

To check the correctness of the initial assumption that there is no sliding between the books, let us
find out the value of F2 .
F2 = m2 µk1 g
F2 = 4.415 N

5
Now, if the book 2 is really not sliding with respect to book 1, then F2 ≤ µs2 N2 . So, let us find out
µs2 N2 and compare.

µs2 N2 = 0.4 × 1 × 9.81

= 3.924 N.

As F2 ≥ µs2 N2 , the initial assumption is wrong. That means book 2 is actually sliding with respect
to book 1 and a1 6= a2 . So now,

F2 = µk2 N2
= 2.943 N

Using equation 7, the value of acceleration of book 2, can be computed as,

a2 = −2.943 m/s2

Similarly, using equations 5 and 6, acceleration of book 1 can be given as,

a1 = −5.4 m/s2

As a1 and a2 are constant accelerations, Galileo’s equations of motion can be used to find out the
final positions of books 1 and 2.

Applying Galileo’s third equation of motion for book 1,

v 2 = v02 + 2a1 s1

0 = 0.752 − 2 × 5.4 × s1
s1 = 0.052 m = 5.2 cm
Similarly for book 2,
v 2 = v02 + 2a2 s2
0 = 0.752 − 2 × 2.943 × s2
s2 = 0.0955 m = 9.556 cm
These are the required positions of books 1 and 2 from the chosen reference frame. Position of book
2 with respect to book 1 can be found out as,

s12 = s2 − s1
= 4.356 cm

This is the relative position of book 2 with respect to book 1.