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M363 STEAM & COMBUSTION POWER CYCLES SPREADSHEET CALCULATIONS
Copy write, © Power Cycles Spreadsheet Calculations by John R Andrew, 12 Jan 2010
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SUMMARY Rev. 19 June 2012 10 PDH
PRINCIPAL THERMAL POWER CYCLES

The pressure P versus volume V diagram illustrates a Carnot power cycle applied to gas in the
cylinder shown above. Enthalpy Qin (measured in heat units) Btu/lbm or kJ/kg is absorbed by
the gas.
The gas expands causing the piston to rise distance x feet or meters.
The work output Wout is equal to the weight of the piston multiplied by distance x ft-lbm or m-
kg.
The power output is equal to Wout divided by the time to move through distance x hp or Watts.
1. Carnot Cycle
A to B: The gas is heated at constant volume to a pressure of 4 atmospheres.
B to C: The gas is heated at constant pressure to a temperature of 650
degrees K.
C to D: The gas is cooled at constant volume to its original temperature.
D to A: The gas is cooled at constant pressure to its original volume.
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient existing cycle capable of converting a given amount of
thermal energy into work or, conversely, for using a given amount of work for refrigeration
purposes.
Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. When a system is taken through a
series of different states and finally returned to its initial state, a thermodynamic cycle is said to
have occurred. In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its
surroundings, thereby acting as a heat engine.
The Carnot cycle is a particular thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi
Carnot in 1824 and expanded by Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron in the 1830s and 40s. A system
undergoing a Carnot cycle is then a (hypothetical) Carnot heat engine.
A heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in
the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be
reversed. The system may be worked upon by an external force, and in the process, it can
transfer thermal energy from a cooler system to a warmer one, thereby acting as a heat pump
rather than a heat engine.
Carnot in 1824 and expanded by Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron in the 1830s and 40s. A system
undergoing a Carnot cycle is then a (hypothetical) Carnot heat engine.
A heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in
the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be
reversed. The system may be worked upon by an external force, and in the process, it can
transfer thermal energy from a cooler system to a warmer one, thereby acting as a heat pump
rather than a heat engine.
Isentropic Process
In thermodynamics, an isentropic process or isentropic process is one during which the
entropy of the system remains constant.
It can be proved that any reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.
Air Standard Carnot Cycle

Isentropic Pressure Ratio: for the air standard Carnot cycle illustrated below is a ratio of
pressures:
Pr or rp,s = PB/PA = PC/PD = (TD/TC)^(1/(1-k))
Isentropic Pressure Ratio: for reciprocating engines and compressors illustrated below is a
ratio of volumes:
Vr or rv,s = VA/VB = VD/VC = (TD/TC)^(1/(1-k))
Pressure, Temperature, and Volume Calculations

At A:
PA = PD*(VD/VA) = PB*(VB/VA)^k = PB*(TA/TB)^(k/(k-1)
TA = TD = TB*(VB/VA)^(k-1) =TB*(PA/PB)^((k-1)/k)
VA = VD*(PD/PA) = VB*(PB/PA)^(1/k) = VB*(TB/TA)^(1/(k-1))

ratio of volumes:
Pressure, Temperature, and Volume Calculations

At A:
PA = PD*(VD/VA) = PB*(VB/VA)^k = PB*(TA/TB)^(k/(k-1)
TA = TD = TB*(VB/VA)^(k-1) =TB*(PA/PB)^((k-1)/k)
VA = VD*(PD/PA) = VB*(PB/PA)^(1/k) = VB*(TB/TA)^(1/(k-1))
At B:
PB = PA*(VA/V)^k = PA*(TB/TA)^(k/(k-1) = PC*(VC/VB)
TB = TD = TB*(VB/VA)^(k-1) =TB*(PA/PB)^((k-1)/k)
VB = VA*(PA/PB)^(1/k) = VA*(TA/TB)^(1/(k-1)) = VC*(PC/PB)
At C:
PC = PB*(VB/VC) = PD*(VD/VC)^k = PD*(TC/TD)^(k/(k-1)
TC = TB = TD*(VD/VC)^(k-1) =TD*(PC/PD)^((k-1)/k)
VB = VB*(PB/PC) = VD*(PD/PC)^(1/k) = VD*(TD/C)^(1/(k-1))
At D:
PD = PC*(VC/VD)^k = PC*(TD/TC)^(k/(k-1) = PA*(VA/VD)
TD = TA = TC*(VC/VD)^(k-1) = TC*(PD/PC)^((k-1)/k)
VD = VC*(PC/PD)^(1/k) = VA*(PA/PD) = VC*(TC/D)^(1/(k-1))
Work and Heat Flow Terms

Qin,B-C = Thigh*(sC - sB) = PB*VB*Ln(VC/VB)
Qout,D-A = I Tlow*(sA - sD) I = I PD*VD*Ln(VA/VD)
Win = I cv*(TA - TB) I + TD*(sD - sA)
Wout = cv*(TC - TD) I + TB*(sC - sB)
Air Standard Carnot Cycle Thermal Efficiency
ηth = (Wout - Win) / Qin = (Qin - Qout) / Qin
or ηth = (Thigh - Tlow) / Thigh = (TB - TA) / TB = (TC - TD) / TC
Ideal Thermal Efficiency from Compression Ratio

ηth = 1 - rv.s^(1-k) = 1 - rp.s^((1-k)/k)
2. Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into work. The heat is
supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water (steam) as the working fluid.
This cycle generates about 80% of all electric power used throughout the world including
virtually all solar thermal, biomass, coal and nuclear power plants. It is named after William
John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath.
A Rankine cycle describes a model of the operation of steam heat engines most commonly
found in power generation plants. Common heat sources for power plants using the
Rankine cycle are the combustion of coal, natural gas and oil, and nuclear fission.
The Rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical Carnot cycle as, when an
efficient turbine is used, the TS diagram begins to resemble the Carnot cycle. The main
difference is that heat addition and rejection are isobaric in the Rankine cycle and
isothermal in the theoretical Carnot cycle.
A pump is used to pressurize liquid instead of gas. This requires about 1/100th (1%) as
much energy as compressing a gas in a compressor (as in the Carnot cycle).
The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is usually limited by the working fluid. Without the
pressure reaching super critical levels for the working fluid, the temperature range the
cycle can operate over is quite small: turbine entry temperatures are typically 565°C (the
found in power generation plants. Common heat sources for power plants using the
Rankine cycle are the combustion of coal, natural gas and oil, and nuclear fission.
The Rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical Carnot cycle as, when an
efficient turbine is used, the TS diagram begins to resemble the Carnot cycle. The main
difference is that heat addition and rejection are isobaric in the Rankine cycle and
isothermal in the theoretical Carnot cycle.
A pump is used to pressurize liquid instead of gas. This requires about 1/100th (1%) as
much energy as compressing a gas in a compressor (as in the Carnot cycle).
The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is usually limited by the working fluid. Without the
pressure reaching super critical levels for the working fluid, the temperature range the
cycle can operate over is quite small: turbine entry temperatures are typically 565°C (the
creep limit of stainless steel) and condenser temperatures are around 30°C. This gives a
theoretical Carnot efficiency of about 63% compared with an actual efficiency of 42% for a
modern coal-fired power station. This low turbine entry temperature (compared with a gas
turbine) is why the Rankine cycle is often used as a bottoming cycle in combined cycle gas
turbine power stations. Wikipedia
2. Rankin Vapor Power Cycle with Superheat

The steam boiler-turbine energy producing system above is described here.
F to A: Pump increases liquid water pressure to equal the boiler water pressure.
A to B: Water is heated to boiler saturation pressure and temperature.
B to C: Water changes state to saturated steam vapor.
C to D: Superheating increases steam temperature and enthalpy,
D to F: Steam vapor changes state to a liquid phase in the condenser.
3. Otto Cycle
A to B: Isothermal compression.
B to C: Isentropic compression.
C to D: Isothermal expansion power stroke.
D to A: Isentropic expansion.
The four-stroke engine was first patented by Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci in 1854,
followed by a first prototype in 1860. French engineer Alphonse Beau de Rochas also
originated the idea independently and published his results in 1861.
However, the German engineer Nicolaus Otto was the first to develop a functioning four-
stroke engine, which is why the four-stroke principle today is commonly known as the Otto
cycle and four-stroke engines using spark plugs often are called Otto engines. The Otto
Cycle consists of adiabatic compression, heat addition at constant volume, adiabatic
The four-stroke engine was first patented by Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci in 1854,
followed by a first prototype in 1860. French engineer Alphonse Beau de Rochas also
originated the idea independently and published his results in 1861.
However, the German engineer Nicolaus Otto was the first to develop a functioning four-
stroke engine, which is why the four-stroke principle today is commonly known as the Otto
cycle and four-stroke engines using spark plugs often are called Otto engines. The Otto
Cycle consists of adiabatic compression, heat addition at constant volume, adiabatic
expansion and rejection of heat at constant volume.
Internal combustion engine power primarily originates from the expansion of gases in the
power stroke. Compressing the fuel and air into a very small space increases the efficiency
of the power stroke, but increasing the cylinder compression ratio also increases the
heating of the fuel as the mixture is compressed (following Charles's law). Wikipedia
4. Brayton Cycle
A to B: Isentropic compression in compressor.
B to C: Constant pressure heat addition in combustor.
C to D: Isentropic expansion is turbine.
D to A: Constant pressure cooling.
In 1872 George Brayton applied for a patent for his Ready Motor. The engine used a
separate piston compressor and expander. The compressed air was heated by internal fire
as it entered the expander cylinder. Today the term Brayton cycle is generally associated
with the gas turbine even though Brayton never built anything other than piston engines.
4. Brayton Cycle
In 1872 George Brayton applied for a patent for his Ready Motor. The engine used a
separate piston compressor and expander. The compressed air was heated by internal fire
as it entered the expander cylinder. Today the term Brayton cycle is generally associated
with the gas turbine even though Brayton never built anything other than piston engines.
The Brayton cycle is the only thermodynamic cycle which can be used in both internal
combustion engines (such as jet engines) and for external combustion engines.
Although the Brayton cycle is usually run as an open system (and indeed must be run as
such if internal combustion is used), it is conventionally assumed for the purposes of
thermodynamic analysis that the exhaust gases are reused in the intake, enabling analysis
as a closed system. Wikipedia
AUTOMOTIVE FUEL ECONOMY

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_efficiency#Fuel_efficiency_of_vehicles
Barrel of Crude Oil

A 42-U.S. gallon barrel of crude oil
provides slightly more than 44 gallons
of petroleum products. This gain from
processing the crude oil is similar to
what happens to popcorn, which gets
bigger after it's popped. The gain from
processing is more than 5%.
One barrel of crude oil, when refined,

produces about 19 gallons of finished
motor gasoline, and 10 gallons of
diesel, as well as other petroleum
products. Most petroleum products are
used to produce energy. For instance,
many people across the United States
use propane to heat their homes.
AUTOMOTIVE FUEL ECONOMY
An interesting example of European cars' capabilities of fuel economy is the microcar
Smart Fortwo cdi, which can achieve up to 3.4 l/100 km (69.2 mpg US) using a
turbocharged three-cylinder 41 bhp (30 kW) Diesel engine.
The Fortwo is produced by Daimler AG and is currently only sold by one company in the
United States.
Furthermore, the current (and to date already 10 year old) world record in fuel economy
of production cars is held by the Volkswagen Group, with special production models
(labeled "3L") of the Volkswagen Lupo and the Audi A2, consuming (NEDC ratified) as
little as 2.99 liters of diesel fuel per 100 kilometers (78 miles per US gallon or 94 miles
per Imperial gallon).
Diesel engines generally achieve greater fuel efficiency than petrol (gasoline) engines.
Diesel engines have energy efficiency of 45% and gasoline engines of 30%. That is one
of the reasons why diesels have better fuel efficiency than equivalent petrol cars.
A common margin is 40% more miles per gallon for an efficient turbo diesel. For
example, the current model Skoda Octavia, using Volkswagen engines, has a combined
European fuel efficiency of 38.2 mpg for the 102 bhp (76 kW) petrol engine and 53.3 mpg
for the 105 bhp (78 kW) — and heavier — diesel engine.
The higher compression ratio is helpful in raising the energy efficiency, but diesel fuel
also contains approximately 10-20% more energy per unit volume than gasoline which
contributes to the reduced fuel consumption for a given power output. Wikapedia Online
NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is power (generally electrical) produced from controlled (ie, non-explosive)
nuclear reactions. Commercial plants in use to date use nuclear fission reactions. Electric
utility reactors heat water to produce steam, which is then used to generate electricity. In
2007, 14% of the world's electricity came from nuclear power, despite concerns about safety
and radioactive waste management. More than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion
have been built. Wikipedia
STEAM TURBINE
Steam Turbine
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam,
and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles
Parsons in 1884.
It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented by Thomas
Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily because of its greater thermal
efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is
particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all electricity
generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine
that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple
Steam Turbine
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam,
and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles
Parsons in 1884.
It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented by Thomas
Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily because of its greater thermal
efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is
particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all electricity
generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine
that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple
stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible
process. Wikipedia
COAL FIRED POWER PLANT BOILER
DIESEL ENGINE
Diesel Engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to
initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber during
the final stage of compression. This is in contrast to a petrol engine (known as a
gasoline engine in North America) or gas engine, which uses the Otto cycle, in which a
fuel/air mixture is ignited by a spark plug.
It operates using the diesel cycle (named after Dr. Rudolf Diesel). Diesel engines have
the highest thermal efficiency of any internal or external combustion engine, because of
their compression ratio. Low-speed engines diesel engines thermal efficiency exceeds
50%.
Diesel engines are manufactured in two stroke and four stroke versions. They were
originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the
1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, large trucks
and electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used
in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of diesel engines in larger on-road and
off-road vehicles in the USA increased. As of 2007, about 50 percent of all new car
sales in Europe are diesel. Wikipedia
Gasoline Engine (Spark ignition)
A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in North America) is an internal combustion
engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels.
C-Crank, E-Exhaust cam, I-Intake cam, P-Piston, R-Rod, V-Valves, W-Water cooling.
It differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in the fact that it
uses spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed
(and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into the now very hot air at the end of the
compression stroke, and self-ignites. In a petrol engine, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed
before compression (although some modern petrol engines now utilize cylinder-direct petrol
injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now (except in the smallest
engines) it is done by electronically-controlled fuel injection. Pre-mixing of fuel and air allows a
petrol engine to run at a much higher speed than a diesel, but severely limits their
compression, and thus efficiency.
The first fast-running petrol engine was invented by the German automobile pioneer Gottlieb
Daimler. Wikipedia
DEFINITIONS
1st Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics simply states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed (conservation of energy). Sum of work done W = Total enthalpy input Q
ΣW = ΣQ
2nd Law of Thermodynamics

The second law is concerned with entropy s, which is a measure of disorder. The second law
says that the entropy of the universe increases. For any thermodynamic process involving
enthalpy Q and absolute temperature T the entropy s will increase.
Δs ≥ ΔQ / T
Temperature
is the intensity of heat.
Power cycle temperatures are measured in the absolute: Kelvin (degrees C + 270) or Rankin
(degrees F + 460) scale.
Calorie
Definition of the calorie is based on the specific heat capacity of water.
The gram calorie, approximately 4.2 J, is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of
one gram of water through 1 degree Centigrade at standard temperature and pressure.
The kilogram calorie, equal to one thousand gram calories.
Btu
Power cycle temperatures are measured in the absolute: Kelvin (degrees C + 270) or Rankin
(degrees F + 460) scale.
Calorie
Definition of the calorie is based on the specific heat capacity of water.
The gram calorie, approximately 4.2 J, is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of
one gram of water through 1 degree Centigrade at standard temperature and pressure.
The kilogram calorie, equal to one thousand gram calories.
Btu
A British Thermal Unit (BTU) is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of
one pound of water by one degree F at standard temperature and pressure.
This is the standard measurement used to state the amount of energy that a fuel has as well as
the amount of output of any heat generating device.
Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is a change of a system, in which the temperature remains constant: ΔT
= 0. This typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir (heat
bath), and the change occurs slowly enough to allow the system to continually adjust to the
temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange. Wikapedia
Adiabatic Process
In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process or an isocaloric process is a thermodynamic process
in which no heat is transferred to or from the working fluid. A transformation of a thermodynamic
system can be considered adiabatic when it is quick enough that no significant heat is
transferred between the system and the outside. Wikapedia
Isobaric Process
An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the pressure remains constant.
This is usually obtained by allowed the volume to expand or contract in such a way to neutralize
any pressure changes that would be caused by heat transfer.
In an isobaric process, there are typically internal energy changes, work is done by the system,
and heat is transferred, so none of the quantities in the first law of thermodynamics readily
reduce to zero.
However, the work at a constant pressure can be fairly easily calculated with the equation:
W = p + ΔV
Since W is the work, p is the pressure (always positive) and delta-V is the change in volume,
we can see that there are two possible outcomes to an isobaric process:
•If the system expands (delta-V is positive), then the system does positive work (and vice
versa)
•If the system contracts (delta-V is negative), then the system does negative work (and vice
versa)
In a phase diagram, an isobaric process would show up as a horizontal line, since it takes place
along a constant pressure.
Isentropic Process
In thermodynamics, an isentropic process or isentropic process is one during which the entropy
of the system remains constant.
Enthalpy
In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy (denoted as H, or specific enthalpy
denoted as h) is a thermodynamic property of a thermodynamic system.
It can be used to calculate the heat transfer during a quasi-static process taking place in a
closed thermodynamic system under constant pressure (isobaric process).
Enthalpy H is an arbitrary concept but the enthalpy change ΔH is more useful because for
Isentropic Process
In thermodynamics, an isentropic process or isentropic process is one during which the entropy
of the system remains constant.
Enthalpy
In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy (denoted as H, or specific enthalpy
denoted as h) is a thermodynamic property of a thermodynamic system.
It can be used to calculate the heat transfer during a quasi-static process taking place in a
closed thermodynamic system under constant pressure (isobaric process).
Enthalpy H is an arbitrary concept but the enthalpy change ΔH is more useful because for
quasi-static processes that occur under constant pressure conditions, it is equal to the change
in the internal energy of the system, plus the work that the system has done on its
surroundings.
This means that the change in enthalpy under such conditions is the heat absorbed by a
chemical reaction. Wikapedia
Entropy
In thermodynamics, entropy is a measure of how much of the energy of a system is potentially
available to do work and how much of it is potentially manifest as heat.
In classical thermodynamics, the entropy is defined only for a system in thermodynamic

equilibrium.
A thermodynamic system is any physical object or region of space that can be described by its
thermodynamic quantities such as temperature, pressure, volume and density.
In simple terms, the second law of thermodynamics states that for a system, the differences in
intensive thermodynamic quantities such as: temperature, pressure, and chemical potential
tend to become more uniform as time goes by, unless there is an outside influence which works
to maintain the differences.
The entropy of vaporization is the increase in entropy when vaporizing a substance.
This is always positive since the degree of disorder increases in the transition from an
organized crystalline solid or a slightly less organized liquid to the extremely disorganized
structure of a gas.
It is denoted as ΔSovap and normally expressed in J/mol·K.
A natural process such as a phase change will occur when the associated change in the Gibbs
free energy is negative. It follows that the standard entropy change of vaporization is related to
the boiling point and the standard enthalpy change of vaporization:
The entropy of fusion is the increase in entropy when melting a substance. This is always
positive since the degree of disorder increases in the transition from an organized crystalline
solid to the disorganized structure of a liquid. It is denoted as ΔSfus and normally expressed in
J / mol · K
free energy is negative. It follows that the entropy of fusion is related to the melting point and
the heat of fusion. Wikapedia
Steam and Vapor Enthalpy

Introduction and definition of vapor and steam enthalpy - specific enthalpy of saturated liquid,
saturated vapor and superheated vapor.
Steam quality is the proportion of saturated steam in a saturated water/steam mixture. A steam
quality of 0 indicates 100% water while a steam quality of 1 indicates 100% steam. Steam
quality is very useful in determining enthalpy of saturated water/steam mixtures since the
enthalpy of steam (gaseous state) is many orders of magnitude higher than enthalpy of water
(liquid state).
Mathematically, quality is defined by the relationship x = [mass of vapor] / total mass. This can
be translated to x = (y − y[f]) / y[fg], where y is equal to either specific enthalpy, specific entropy,
specific volume or specific internal energy. y[f] is the value of the specific property of the
Steam and Vapor Enthalpy
Introduction and definition of vapor and steam enthalpy - specific enthalpy of saturated liquid,
saturated vapor and superheated vapor.
Steam quality is the proportion of saturated steam in a saturated water/steam mixture. A steam
quality of 0 indicates 100% water while a steam quality of 1 indicates 100% steam. Steam
quality is very useful in determining enthalpy of saturated water/steam mixtures since the
enthalpy of steam (gaseous state) is many orders of magnitude higher than enthalpy of water
(liquid state).
Mathematically, quality is defined by the relationship x = [mass of vapor] / total mass. This can
be translated to x = (y − y[f]) / y[fg], where y is equal to either specific enthalpy, specific entropy,
specific volume or specific internal energy. y[f] is the value of the specific property of the
substance in the liquid state while under saturated conditions, and y[fg] is the value of the
specific property of the substance in the gas state minus that of the liquid state.
Water - Thermal Properties

Thermal properties of water - density, freezing temperature, boiling.
Rankin Cycle
The Rankin cycle is a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into work.
The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses steam as the working
fluid.
This cycle generates about 80% of all electric power used throughout the world including
virtually all solar thermal, biomass, coal and nuclear power plants.
It is named after William John Macquorn Rankin, a Scottish polymath.

Rankin Cycle continued
There are four processes in the Rankin cycle, these states are identified by number in the
diagram to the right.
Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid is a liquid
at this stage the pump requires little input energy.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant
pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor.
Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may occur.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant
pressure and temperature to become a saturated liquid. The pressure and temperature of
the condenser is fixed by the temperature of the cooling coils as the fluid is undergoing a
phase-change.
In an ideal Rankin cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump and
turbine would generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output.
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the Ts diagram and more
closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle.
The Rankin cycle shown here prevents the vapor ending up in the superheat region after
the expansion in the turbine which reduces the energy removed by the condensers.
Properties of Saturated Steam
A Saturated Steam Table with steam properties as specific volume, density, specific
enthalpy and specific entropy.
Stoker Boiler 65 T/H, 2.5 mPa
Boiler Specifications:
Rated Steam Generated: 65 t/h
Rated Steam Pressure: 2.5 MPa
Rated Steam Temp: Saturated
Feed Water Temp: 105 deg C
Hot Air Temp: 136 deg C
Cold Air Temp: 20 deg C
Designed Coal: Bituminous Class II
Designed Efficiency: >80%
Flue Gas Exit Temp: 156 deg C
Hydraulic Testing Pressure: 3.125 MPa
The Boiler in this series is a single drum, natural circulation, water-tube boiler. It adopts a П
arrangement, with the water wall separated into multiple independent circulating loops which
are in a precise location, ensuring water circulation is safe and remains unobstructed. As a
result, the furnace contains two arches; the front arch is a tall arch, while the rear arch is lower
and longer. The boiler can create strong turbulence at the throat to form a gas eddy which
facilitates the ignition of the fuel and ensures a complete burn. A staged coal feeder is
included. Optimum ventilation is maintained in the coal layer on the grate. This is beneficial for
Hot Air Temp: 136 deg C
Cold Air Temp: 20 deg C
Designed Coal: Bituminous Class II
Designed Efficiency: >80%
Flue Gas Exit Temp: 156 deg C
Hydraulic Testing Pressure: 3.125 MPa
The Boiler in this series is a single drum, natural circulation, water-tube boiler. It adopts a П
arrangement, with the water wall separated into multiple independent circulating loops which
are in a precise location, ensuring water circulation is safe and remains unobstructed. As a
result, the furnace contains two arches; the front arch is a tall arch, while the rear arch is lower
and longer. The boiler can create strong turbulence at the throat to form a gas eddy which
facilitates the ignition of the fuel and ensures a complete burn. A staged coal feeder is
included. Optimum ventilation is maintained in the coal layer on the grate. This is beneficial for
complete coal combustion and enhances combustion efficiency, which in turn reduces the
carbon content in ash and prevents slag.
See full size image:

465 x 629 - 228k - jpg - sonichorns.com/images/Boilers/Stoker/shl65-25.jpg
Image may be subject to copyright.
Below is the image at: sonichorns.com/products/sb_65t_25.html
END OF SUMMARY WORKSHEET

STEAM & COMBUSTION POWER CYCLES SPREADSHEET CALCULATIONS
UNITS
Temperature is the intensity of heat:

Temperature is measured in: ISO degrees Centigrade, Kelvin and US degrees Fahrenheit, Rankin.
Input Input
T= 950 deg F T= 600 deg C
T =5*(deg F - 32)/9 T = (9*deg C/5) + 32
T= 510.0 deg C T= 1112 deg F
Input Input
T= 590 deg C T= 1110 deg F
T = deg C + 273 T = deg F + 460
T= 863 deg K T= 1570 deg R
CONVERT FROM ISO METRIC UNITS TO US UNITS
Input Input
T= 650 deg K T= 1170 deg R
T= 1170 deg R T= 650 deg K
INPUT QTY UNITS Divide by OBTAIN UNITS

10 m 0.3048 32.8084 ft
10 kg 0.4536 22.0459 lbm
10 s -- 10.00 sec
10 m2 0.09290 107.6426 ft2
10 m3 0.02832 353.1073 ft3
10 m/s 0.3048 32.8084 ft/sec
10 m/s2 0.3048 32.8084 ft/sec2
10 rad/s -- 10.00 sec-1
10 N 4.448 2.2482 lbf
10 kg/m3 16.02 0.62422 lbm/ft3
10 N/m3 157.1 0.0637 lbf/ft3
10 kPa 0.04788 208.86 lbf/ft2
10 J 1.356 7.375 ft-lbf
10 J 1055 0.0095 Btu
10 Watts 1.356 7.3746 ft-lbf/sec
10 Watts or J/s 1055 0.0095 Btu/sec
10 kg/s 0.4536 22.05 lbm/sec
10 m3/s 0.02832 353.11 ft3/sec
10 kJ/kg-deg K 4.187 2.3883 Btu/lbm-deg R
10 kJ/kg 2.326 4.2992 Btu/lbm
10 kJ/kg-deg K 4.187 2.3883 Btu/lbm-deg R
10 m3/kg 0.06242 160.21 ft3/lbm
10 Btu/sec 1.4148 7.07 hp
10 ft-lbf/sec 550 0.02 hp
10000 Watts 0.001341 13.410 hp
CONVERT FROM US TO METRIC UNITS

M = Mega = 10k = kilo = 103
INPUT QTY UNITS multiply by OBTAIN UNITS
10 ft 0.3048 3.0480 m
10 lbm 0.4536 4.54 kg
10 sec -- 10.00 s
10 ft2 0.09290 0.9290 m2
10 ft3 0.02832 0.2832 m3
10 ft/sec 0.3048 3.0480 m/s
10 ft/sec2 0.3048 3.0480 m/s2
10 sec-1 -- 10.00 rad/s
10 lbf 4.448 44.4800 N
10 lbm/ft3 16.02 160.2000 kg/m3
10 lbf/ft3 157.1 1571 N/m3
10 lbf/ft2 0.04788 0.4788 kPa
10 ft-lbf 1.356 13.5600 J
10 Btu 1055 10550 J
10 ft-lbf/sec 1.356 13.5600 W
10 Btu/sec 1055 10550 W or J/s
10 lbm/sec 0.4536 4.5360 kg/s
10 ft3/sec 0.02832 0.2832 m3/s
10 Btu/lbm-deg R 4.187 41.870 kJ/kg-deg K
10 Btu/lbm 2.326 23.260 kJ/kg
10 Btu/lbm-deg R 4.187 41.870 kJ/kg-deg K
10 ft3/lbm 0.06242 0.6242 m3/kg
10 hp 1.4148 14.1480 Btu/sec
10 hp 550 5500 ft-lbf/sec
10 hp 746 7460 Watts
M = Mega = 10k = kilo = 103
Specific Heat Ratio for Air

Specific heat at constant volume, Cv = 0.717 kj/kg deg C
Cv = 0.171 Btu/lbm deg R
Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.00 kj/kg deg C

Cp = 0.24 Btu/lbm deg R
Specific heat ratio for air, k = Cp/Cv = 1.4
Car Wind Drag Example

For more go to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_drag_coefficient
Car Wind Drag Example
Calculate the horse power required to overcome the wind drag on an automobile
traveling at 90 km/hr if the drag coefficient Cd is 0.20 and the projected area is 2.30
m^2. Use sea level air density 1.225 kg/m^3.
Answer: 5.90 hp
Use the Input and Calculation below to solve this and similar problems.
SI Units - Air Drag Power Input

Car traveling speed, S = 90 km/h
Car projected area, A = 2.30 m^2
Drag coefficient, Cd = 0.20 -
Air density, ρ = 1.225 kg/m^3
Calculate
Car velocity, V = S*0.277778
= 25.0 m/s
Air drag force, Fd = (1/2)*ρ*V^2*A*Cd
= 176.1 N
Air drag power, Watts = Fd*V
= 4402 Watts
Air drag horse power, Hp = W/746
= 5.90 hp
Units Conversion
km/h = 90
mph = km/h * 0.6213712
= 55.92
m = 10.00
ft = m * 3.28084
= 32.81
m^2 = 2.3
ft^2 = m^2 * 3.28084^2
= 24.76
kg/m^3 = 1.225
lb/ft^3 = (kg/m^3) * 0.0624279
= 0.07647
US Units - Air Drag Power Input

Car traveling speed, S = 60 mph
Car projected area, A = 24.76 ft^2
Drag coefficient, Cd = 0.20 -
Air density, ρ = 0.07647 lbm/ft^3
Calculate
Car velocity, V = mph*88/60
= 86.6 ft/sec
Air drag force, Fd = (1/2)*(ρ/32.2)*V^2*A*Cd
= 44 lbf
Air drag horse power, Hp = Fd*V / 550
= 6.93 hp
Air drag power, Watts = hp*746
= 5179 Watts
Drive Shaft Torque Example

The drive shaft of an automobile delivers 100 Nm of torque at
3000 rpm.
Calculate the horsepower delivered.
Answer: 42.1 hp
Use the Input and Calculation below to solve this and similar
problems.
SI Units - Drive Shaft Torque

Input
Drive shaft torque, T = 100 Nm
Shaft rotational speed, S = 3000 rpm
Calculation
Shaft rotational speed, ω = S*2*π / 60
= 314.16 rad/s
Power, Watts = T*ω
= 31416 Watts
Horsepower delivered, Hp = Watts / 746
= 42.11 hp
Units Conversion
N = 10
lbf = N / 4.448
= 2.2476961115
m = 10.00
ft = m * 3.28084
= 32.81
N*m = 100
ft-lbf = (N / 4.448) * m * 3.28084
= N*m * 3.28084 / 4.448
= 73.74
US Units - Drive Shaft Torque

Input
Drive shaft torque, T = 90 ft-lbf
Shaft rotational speed, S = 2000 rpm
Calculation
Horsepower delivered, Hp = 2*π*S*T / 33000
34.27 hp
Power, Watts = hp*746
= 25601 Watts
END OF UNITS WORKSHEET

ENTROPY
ENTROPY Rev.19June 2012

HEAT AND WORK
Heat energy transfer Q across a boundary can produce work W.
The First Law of Thermodynamics simply states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed
(conservation of energy). Sum of work done W = Total enthalpy input Q
ΣW = ΣQ
Steam and Piston Example

Water vapor (steam) in a cylinder causes a friction-less piston to rise as illustrated below. Heat is
added until the temperature reaches 400 deg C. If the initial quality of the steam is 20 %, find:
a. the initial pressure
b. the mass of water
c. the quality of the steam when it reaches the stops
d. the final pressure
e. the work done on the piston
Answers: a. 120 kPa

b. 0.001373 kg
c. 46%
d. 0.686 MPa
e. 28.2 J
Spread Sheet Method:

1. Type in values for the input data.
2. Enter.
3. Answer: X = will be calculated.
4. Automatic calculations are bold type.
When using Excel's Goal Seek, unprotect the spread

sheet by selecting: Drop down menu: Tools >
Protection > Unprotect Sheet > OK. When Excel's
Goal Seek is not needed, restore protection with:
Drop down menu: Tools > Protection > Protect Sheet.
Page 1
ENTROPY
Input
Piston mass, Mp = 16 kg
Final temperature, t2 = 400 deg C
Initial steam quality, x1 = 20 %
Piston diameter, D = 100 mm
Piston initial position, L1 = 50 mm
Piston travel, L2 = 30 mm
Calculate
Atmospheric pressure, Patm = 100 KPa
= Patm*1000
= 100,000 Pa
Piston diameter, D = 0.10 m
Piston area, A = π*(D^2)/4
= 0.007854 m^2
Piston force, Fp = Mp*9.81
= 156.96 N
Force balance, P1*A = Patm*A + Fp
P1 = (Patm + Fp / A) / 1,000,000
a. the initial pressure, P1 = 0.1200 MPa
= 120.0 kPa
STEAM TABLE CALCULATOR (shown below) download from:

Steam Tables $40 link >>
OR USE STANDARD STEAM TABLES Steam Tables
Step-1 Open the below "Steam Tables" caculator. (Metric and US units) This program provides the
thermodynamic properties of water using IFC
formulation for industrial use. Knowing any two
properties, the user is able to completely define
the properties of water/steam. Unlike most steam
table programs, this program also provides the
user with the point's location on the T-S diagram.
Multiple points can be connected by a line,
defining the user's process system. It even gives
you the steam quality. $40.00
Page 2
properties, the user is able to completely define
the properties of water/steam. Unlike most steam
table programs, this program also provides the
user with the point's location on the T-S diagram.
Multiple points can be connected by a line,
defining the user's process system. It even gives
ENTROPY
you the steam quality. $40.00
Step-2 Pick Options > Units.
Step-3 Select Metric Units.

Steam at pressure P1 Example
Step-4 Enter initial steam pressure P1 only in the Steam Table dialog box below.
Specific volumes from table above: Input

Specific volume of liquid at pressure P1, vf = 0.0010 m^3/kg
Specific gaseous volume at pressure P1, vg = 1.4281 m^3/kg
Calculate continued
Initial steam quality from input above, x1 = 0.20
the specific mass of water, v1 = vf + x1*(vg - vf)
= 0.2864 m^3/kg
from above, L1 = 0.05 m
Initial volume of steam, V1 = A*L1
Page 3
ENTROPY
= 0.0003927 m^3
b. the mass of water, M1 = V1/v1
= 0.001371 kg
Calculate continued
when piston hits the stops pressure is, P1 = 0.1200 Mpa
Steam volume increases to, V2 = A*((L1 + L2)/1000)
= 0.0006283 m^3
Steam specific volume increases to, v2 = V2/M1
= 0.4583 m^3/kg
Steam quality at pressure P1, x2 = (v2 - vf)/(vg - vf)
= 0.4576
c. Steam quality when piston is at stops, x2 = 45.8 %
Calculate continued
Using t3 = t2 = 400 deg C
Steam specific volume, v3 = v2 = 0.4583 m^3/kg
Steam at temperature t3 and specific volume v3 Example

Enter final temperature t3 and specific volume v3 in the dialog box below.
d. the final pressure Input

Final pressure from dialog box below, P3 = 0.6722 MPa
Work done on piston, W Calculate continued
Page 4
ENTROPY
e. the work done on the piston, W = P1*1000000*(v3 - v1)*M1
= 28.27 J
Steam in a Rigid Container Example
Steam in a Rigid Container Example

Steam in a rigid container at initial pressure 100 psia and 600 deg F losses heat by the
three possible heat transfer processes: conduction, convection, and radiation until the
pressure reduces to 10 psia.
Sketch the T-s diagram and calculate the total heat transfer and entropy change.
Answer: See the T-s diagram above.

Total heat transfer h = -906 Btu/lbm
Entropy change: Δs = -1.232 Btu/lbm-deg R
Use steam tables or the calculator below and the T-s diagram above and the Input and
Calculation below to solve similar problems.
Input
Given steam high pressure, P1 = 100 psia
Given steam high temperature, t1 = 600 deg F
Given steam low pressure, P2 = 10 psia
Specific volume from 1st calculator below, v1 = v2 = 6.2160 ft^3/lbm
Page 5
ENTROPY
Enthalpy from 1st calculator below, h1 = 1329.6 Btu/lbm
Entropy from calculator, s1 = 1.7586 Btu/lbm-deg R
Fluid specific volume from calculator, v2f = 0.0166
Gaseous specific volume from calculator, v3g = 38.420
Fluid enthalpy from calculator, h2f = 161.26 Btu/lbm
Gaseous enthalpy from calculator, h3g = 1143.3 Btu/lbm
Fluid entropy from calculator, s2f = 0.2836 Btu/lbm-deg R
Gaseous entropy from calculator, s3g = 1.7879 Btu/lbm-deg R
Steam at 100 psia and 600 deg F Example

Enter steam pressure P1 psia and temperature t1 deg F in the dialog box below.
Steam at 10 psia only in the Example

Enter steam pressure P2 psia only in the dialog box below.
Page 6
ENTROPY
Calculate
State b steam quality, x = (v2 - v2f) / (v3g - v2f)
= 0.1614
From gaseous entropy above, s3g = 1.7879
From fluid entropy above, s2f = 0.2836
sfg = s3g - s2f
= 1.5043 Btu/lbm-deg R
State 2 entropy, s2 = s2f + x * sfg
Steam entropy change, Δs = s2 - s1
= -1.2322 Btu/lbm-deg R
From gaseous enthalpy above, h3g = 1143.3
From fluid enthalpy above, h2f = 161.26
hfg = h3g - h2f
= 982.04 Btu/lbm
State 2 enthalpy, h2 = h2f + x * hfg
= 320 Btu/lbm
Heat transfer from the first law of thermodynamics
ΣW = ΣQ
No work was done therefore, ΣW = 0
ΣQ = h2 - h1
= -1010 Btu/lbm
Entropy

In classical thermodynamics, the entropy is defined only for a system in thermodynamic

equilibrium.
A thermodynamic system is any physical object or region

Page 7 of space that can be described by its
intensive thermodynamic quantities such as: temperature, pressure, and chemical potential tend
to become more uniform as time goes by, unless there is an outside influence which works to
Entropy

In classical thermodynamics, the entropy is ENTROPY

defined only for a system in thermodynamic
equilibrium.
A thermodynamic system is any physical object or region of space that can be described by its
intensive thermodynamic quantities such as: temperature, pressure, and chemical potential tend
to become more uniform as time goes by, unless there is an outside influence which works to
maintain the differences.
The entropy of vaporization is the increase in entropy when vaporizing a substance.
This is always positive since the degree of disorder increases in the transition from an organized
crystalline solid or a slightly less organized liquid to the extremely disorganized structure of a gas.
It is denoted as ΔSovap and normally expressed in J/mol·K.
free energy is negative. It follows that the standard entropy change of vaporization is related to the
boiling point and the standard enthalpy change of vaporization:
The entropy of fusion is the increase in entropy when melting a substance. This is always positive
since the degree of disorder increases in the transition from an organized crystalline solid to the
disorganized structure of a liquid. It is denoted as ΔSfus and normally expressed in J / mol · K
free energy is negative. It follows that the entropy of fusion is related to the melting point and the
heat of fusion. Wikapedia
Ideal Carnot Cycle

Postulate 1 It is impossible to construct an engine, operating between two given temperature
reservoirs, that is more efficient than the Carnot engine.
Postulate 2 The efficiency of the Carnot engine is not dependant on the working substance
(steam, gasoline, diesel oil, natural gas, propane etc.) used or any particular design feature of the
engine (turbine, reciprocating pistons, rotary pistons, etc.).
Postulate 3 All reversible engines, operating between two given temperature reservoirs, have the
same efficiency as a Carnot engine operating between the same two given temperature
reservoirs.
Page 8
ENTROPY
Universal Gas Constant

The universal gas constant: R = 1545.4 ft*lbf / lbmol*R in US units.
R = 8.3143 kJ / kmol*K in S.I. units.
R = 0.287 Pa*m^3/g*K
R = 0.0821 liter*atm / mole*K
Ideal Carnot Cycle continued

A cylinder with piston above contains an ideal gas at an initial pressure of 2 atmospheres.
Point A: The gas volume is 5 liters and temperature of 250 degrees K.
The number of moles:

n = PV / RT
= 2 atm x 5 liters / ((0.0821 liter*atm*mole-1 * K deg-1) x (250 deg K))
= 0.487 mole
The specific heat Cp at constant pressure is:
Cp = Cv + R = (21.0 + 8.317) J*mole-1*K deg-1
= 29.317 J*mole-1*K deg-1
A to B: The gas is heated at constant volume to a pressure of 4 atmospheres.
Universal gas law states that:

Pa Va / Ta = Pb Vb / Tb
Pa / Ta = Pb / Tb .........since volume is constant.
Tb = Ta Pb / Pa =250 deg K x 4 atm / 2 atm = 500 deg K
The heat input Qab = n CV(Tb - Ta)
= 0.487 mole x 21.0 J*mole-1*K deg-1 x (500 - 250) deg K

Page 9
= 2558 J
B to C: The gas is heated at constant pressure to a temperature of 650 degrees K.
Vb / Tb = Vc / Tc
Pa Va / Ta = Pb Vb / Tb
Pa / Ta = Pb / Tb .........since volume is constant.
Tb = Ta Pb / Pa =250 deg K x 4 atm / 2 atm = 500 deg K

ENTROPY
The heat input Qab = n CV(Tb - Ta)
= 2558 J
B to C: The gas is heated at constant pressure to a temperature of 650 degrees K.
Vb / Tb = Vc / Tc
Vc = Tc Vb / Tb = 650 deg K x 5 lit / 500 deg K = 6.5 liters.
The heat input Qbc = n CV(Tc - Tb)
= 2143 J
Ideal Carnot Cycle continued

C to D: The gas is cooled at constant volume to its original temperature.
Pc / Tc = Pd / Td
Td = Pd Tc / Pc = 2 atm x 650 deg K / 4 atm = 325 deg K
Heat rejected from c to d: Qcd = n CV(Tc - Td)
= 3325 J
Vd / Td = Va / Ta
Ta = Va Td / Vd = 5 lit x 325 deg K / 6.5 lit = 250 deg K

Page 10
Qad = n Cp ( Td - Ta) = 0.487 mole x 29.317 J*mole-1 K deg-1 x (325 - 250) deg k
= 1072 J
= 3325 J

ENTROPY
Vd / Td = Va / Ta
Ta = Va Td / Vd = 5 lit x 325 deg K / 6.5 lit = 250 deg K
Qad = n Cp ( Td - Ta) = 0.487 mole x 29.317 J*mole-1 K deg-1 x (325 - 250) deg k
= 1072 J
1. Calculate the total heat input:
Qin = Qab + Qbc = 2558 J + 2143 J = 4701 J
2. Calculate the total heat output during the cooling process
Qout = Qcd + Qda = 3325 J + 1072 J = 4397 J
3. The work done by the gas is equal to the difference between the: input and output heat energies.
W = Qin - Qout = 4701 J - 4397 J = 304 J
The mechanical work done during one cycle is equal to the area under the P-V diagram.
W = 2 atm x 1.5 lit
= 2 x 1.013 x 106 dynes*cm-2 x 105 x 103 cm3
= 3.04 x 109 ergs = 304 J
which agrees with the net heat input.
CARNOT POWER CYCLE
Page 11
ENTROPY
Ideal Carnot Power Cycle Efficiency

The second law of thermodynamics puts a fundamental limit on the thermal efficiency of
heat engines. Surprisingly, even an ideal, frictionless engine cannot convert anywhere near
100% of its input heat into work.
The limiting factors are the absolute temperature at which the heat enters the engine, T low,
and the absolute temperature of the environment into which the engine exhausts its waste
heat, Thigh, measured in the absolute Kelvin or Rankin scale.
From Carnot's theorem, for any engine working between these two temperatures:
ηth = 1- Tlow / Thigh
This limiting value is called the Carnot cycle efficiency because it is the efficiency of an
unattainable, ideal, reversible engine cycle called the Carnot cycle. No heat engine,
regardless of its construction, can exceed this efficiency.
Ideal Power Cycle Efficiency = Carnot Cycle Efficiency
Temperature Conversions Input

tC = 37 deg C
TC = 310 deg K
tF = 100 deg F
TF = 561 deg R
Given low and high vapor temperatures
Input
Low temperature entering the engine, TL 200 deg K
Page 12
ENTROPY
High temperature leaving the engine, TH 450 deg K
Calculate
Ideal Carnot cycle efficiency, ηth = (TH - TL) / TH
= 55.6%
Given Carnot Engine Power, Temperature Range and Operating Time:

Input
Power delivered by Carnot engine, PDout = 100 kW
Low temperature entering Carnot engine, TL 100 deg C
High temperature leaving Carnot engine, TH 1000 deg C
Engine operating time, Δt = 1200 sec
Calculate
TL = deg C + 273
= 373 deg K
TH = deg C + 273
= 1273 deg K
Engine efficiency, η = 1 - (Tlow) / Thigh
= 70.70% OK
High temperature heat transfer, QH = PD / η
= 141.4 kW
Low temperature heat transfer, QL = QH - PD
= 41.4 kW
High temperature entropy change, sH = - QH*Δt / TH
= -133.3 kJ/deg K
Low temperature entropy change, sL = QL*Δt / TL
= 133.3 kJ/deg K
Net entropy change, sNET = sH - sL
0 kJ/deg K
Air Heated at Constant Pressure

Input
Mass of air, m = 2 kg
Air initial volume, V = 0.8 m^3
Constant pressure, P = 200 kPa
Page 13
ENTROPY
Air heated to max temperature, tb = 500 deg C
Calculate
R= 0.287 Pa*m^3/g*K
Initial temperature, Ta = P*V / (m*R)
= 278.7 K
Final temperature, Tb = tb + 273
= 773
Entropy change, Δs = m*((Cp*ln(Tb/Ta) - (R*ln(1)
= 2.040 kJ/deg K
Throttling Devices
The orifice plate and globe valve are examples of steady flow adiabatic processes that produce a
sudden pressure drop with no significant potential energy or kinetic energy change.
A minimum straight run of 15 nominal pipe diameters upstream and 5 downstream are needed to
accurately measure flow rate with the orifice plate.
Most valves are throttling devices. They are use in many refrigeration units to cause a change in
phase of the refrigerant.
The energy equation takes the form: ha = hb

a is upstream and b downstream.
Example: Throttling Device

Superheated steam enters throttling valve 8.00 MPa and 300 deg C and leaves at a pressure of
1.60 MkPa.
Determine the steam enthalpy upstream, final downstream temperature, and quality of the steam.
Solution
Final temperature is 201.4 deg C and the specific volume is 0.1232 m^3/kg.
Use Input and Calculation below to solve similar problems.
Page 14
Final temperature is 201.4 deg C and the specific volume is 0.1232 m^3/kg.
ENTROPY
Throttling Device Input

Upstream pressure, Pa = 8.00 MPa
Upstream temperature, ta = 300 deg C
FREE STEAM TABLE CALCULATOR (shown below) download from:

http://www.topdownloads.net/software/steam-tables_2_179820.html?hl=
Input
Enthalpy upstream from calculator above or steam tables
Steam enthalpy upstream, ha = 2787.8 kJ/kg
Page 15
ENTROPY
Enter downstream pressure only above. Input

Temperature an Enthalpy downstream from calculator above or steam tables
Downstream pressure, Pb = 1.60 MPa
Downstream temperature, tb = 201.37 deg C
Enthalpy of liquid or fluid, hf = 858.56 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of gas, hg = 2791.7 kJ/kg
Specific volume of liquid or fluid, vf = 0.0012 m^3/kg
Specific volume of gas, vg = 0.1237 m^3/kg
Calculate
Enthalpy of fluid gas mixture, hfg = hg - hf
= 1933.14 kJ/kg
Steam quality, x = (ha - hf) / hfg
= 0.998
Specific volume downstream, vb = vf + x*(vg - vf)
= 0.1235 m^3/kg
Pumps
The pressure of a fluid passing through a pump is increased and energy must be supplied
to the pump.
Neglecting heat transfer and potential energy change the energy equation for a pump is:
Power = -dW/dt = dm/dt*[(PA - PB) / ρ + (va2 - vb2) / (2*32.2]
The continuity equation for a pump is:
ρa*Va*Aa = ρb*Vb*Ab
Example: Centrifugal Pump

Determine the maximum pressure increase across a pump directly coupled to a 10 hp
motor illustrated below if the inlet velocity of water is 30 ft/sec. Water density is 62.4 lbm/ft 3.
Assume all of the motor power is delivered to the pump.
Solution
Maximum pressure increase is 238.3 psi
Page 16
Solution
Maximum pressure increase is 238.3 psi
ENTROPY
Input
Power used to drive pump, P = 10.0 hp
Water inlet velocity, Va = 30.0 ft/sec
Inlet diameter, Da = 2.00 in
Outlet diameter, Db = 2.00 in
Water density, ρ = 62.4 lbm/ft^3
Calculate
Pump power, dW/dt = P*550
= 5500 ft-lbf/sec
ρa*Va*Aa = ρb*Vb*Ab
ρa = ρb
Inlet area, Aa = π*Da^2/4
= 3.1416 in^2
Outlet area, Ab = π*Db^2/4
= 3.1416 in^2
Vb = ρa*Va*Aa / ( ρb*Ab)
= Va*Aa / (Ab)
= 30.00 ft/sec
Mass flux, dm/dt = ρ*(Aa/144)*Va
= 40.84 lbm/sec
Energy equation for a pump, '-dW/dt = dm/dt*[(Pb - Pa) / ρ) + (Vb^2 - Va^2) / 2*32.2)]
(Pb - Pa)/ρ = ρ*(-dW/dt / dm/dt) - (Vb^2 - Va^2) /(2*32.2))
= 8403 lbf/ft^2
= 58.4 psi
END OF ENTROPY WORKSHEET
Page 17
ENTROPY
http://www.engineering-software.com/pr/addProd101.htm
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STEAM TURBINES Rev.26 November 2014
Steam Turbine Example

Superheated steam enters the simple turbine illustrated below.
Sketch the T-s diagram and determine the power output if the process is assumed to be reversible
and adiabatic. Neglect kinetic-energy and potential-energy changes.
Steam mass flux, dm/dt = 4 lbm/sec

Intake steam pressure, Pa = 140 psia
Intake steam temperature, Ta = 1000 deg F
Exit steam/water mixture pressure, Pb = 2 psia
Answer
Work output is 2322 hp.
Use the Input and Calculation live spreadsheet cells below and a steam calculator or steam
table to solve similar problems.
Reversible Process
A definition of a reversible process is a process that, after it has taken place, can be reversed and
causes no change in either the system or its surroundings. In thermodynamic terms, a process
"taking place" would refer to its transition from its initial state to its final state. Wikapedia
The first law of thermodynamics for an adiabatic process (rapid processes) states:
-Wout = (dm/dt)*(hb - ha)
Note entropy sa at a is assumed to be equal to entropy sb at b.

Steam Turbine Power Output Input
Steam mass flux, dm/dt = 4 lbm/sec
Intake steam pressure, Pa = 140 psia
Intake steam temperature, Ta = 1000 deg F
Exit steam/water mixture pressure, Pb = 2 psia
STEAM TABLE CALCULATOR (shown below) download from ARCHON:

Steam Tables $40 link >>
Steam at 140 psia and 1000 deg F

Enter steam pressure 140 psia and temperature 1000 deg F in the dialog box above.
Input
ha = 1530.8 Btu/lbm
Assume entropies, sa = sb = 1.8828 Btu/lbm-deg R
Enter steam, hg and sg values from calculator above into "Input" box above.
Enter steam at 2 psia only. Saturation temperature from above = 126.07 deg F.
Data reproduced from above:
Steam pressure from "Input" above, Pb = 2 psia
Steam mass flux fron "Input" above, dm/dt = 4 lbm/sec
Input
Saturation temperature from steam table, Tb = 141.47 deg F
Saturation enthalpy from above table, hf = 109.42 Btu/lbm
hg = 1122.6 Btu/lbm
Saturation liquid entropy from above, sf = 0.2009 Btu/lbm-deg R
Saturation gaseous entropy from above, sg = 1.8864 Btu/lbm-deg R
Calculate
hfg = hg - hf = 1013.18 Btu/lbm
sfg = sg - sf = 1.6855 Btu/lbm-deg R
s= sf + x*sfg
Entropy at b, sb = sf + x*sfg
sb = (sb - sf) / sfg
Steam quality at b, x = 0.9979
Enthalpy at b, hb = hf + x*hfg
= 1120 Btu/lbm
Work output, Wout = (dm/dt)*(ha - hb)
= 1641 Btu/sec
Power output, Pout = 1.4148 * Wout
= 2322 hp
Turbine with Process Steam Extraction
Turbine with Process Steam Extraction Example

10% of boiler output steam is extracted from the compressor at 0.1 MPa at point b in
the turbine for process use as illustrated below. The boiler produces steam at 1.00 MPa
and 300 deg C. The turbine exhausts to condenser at 0.010 MPa. Make-up water is
supplied as saturated liquid at condeser pressure.
a. Calculate process steam quality x at point b for the turbine with process steam
extraction illustrated below.
b. Determine process steam enthalpy hb at b.
c. Steam quality xc at turbine exhaust to condenser at point c..
d. Find the enthalpy hc at turbine exhaust to condenser point c.

Turbine with Process Steam Extraction Example
10% of boiler output steam is extracted from the compressor at 0.1 MPa at point b in
the turbine for process use as illustrated below. The boiler produces steam at 1.00 MPa
and 300 deg C. The turbine exhausts to condenser at 0.010 MPa. Make-up water is
supplied as saturated liquid at condeser pressure.
a. Calculate process steam quality x at point b for the turbine with process steam
extraction illustrated below.
b. Determine process steam enthalpy hb at b.
c. Steam quality xc at turbine exhaust to condenser at point c..
d. Find the enthalpy hc at turbine exhaust to condenser point c.
Answers:
a. xb = 96%
b. hb = 2588 Btu/lbm
c. xc = 86%
d. hc = 2258 Btu/lbm
Input
Boiler steam output pressure, Pa = 1.00 MPa
Steam extraction to process pressure, Pb = 0.10 MPa
Turbine exhaust to condenser, Pc = 0.01 MPa
Boiler steam output temperature, Tc = 300 deg C
Make-up water pressure, Pd = Pe = Pf = 0.10 MPa
Steam removed for process use, W = 10 %
Turbine entropy from calculator below, sb = sa = 7.1251 kJ/kg-degK
Turbine enthalpy from calculator below, ha = 3052.1 kJ/kg
Superheated Steam
Open the Steam Calculator and enter steam pressure and temperature at boiler output.
Saturated Steam/Water Mixture

Open the Steam Calculator below and enter steam pressure extraction point b only.
Steam/water from table directly above at b Input
Liquid entropy at b, sf = 1.3027 Btu/lbm-deg R
Gaseous entropy at b, sg = 7.3598 Btu/lbm-deg R
Liquid enthalpy at b, hf = 417.51 Btu/lbm
Gaseous enthalpy at b, hg = 2675.4 Btu/lbm
Calculate
From calculator at start, sb = sa = 7.1251 Btu/lbm-deg R
sfg = sg - sf = 6.0571 Btu/lbm-deg R
a. Process steam quality at b, xb = (sb - sf) / sfg
= 0.96
hfg = hg - hf
= 2258 Btu/lbm
b. Process steam enthalpy at b, hb = hf + xb*hfg
= 2588 Btu/lbm
Saturated Steam/Water Mixture

Open the Steam Calculator below and enter steam condenser pressure at c only.
Steam/water from table directly above at c Input

Gaseous entropy at c, sg = 8.1511 Btu/lbm-deg R
Liquid entropy at c, sf = 0.6493 Btu/lbm-deg R
Gaseous enthalpy at c, hg = 2584.8 Btu/lbm
Liquid enthalpy at c, hf = 191.83 Btu/lbm
Calculate
From calculator at start, sc = sb = 7.1251 Btu/lbm-deg R
From calculator directly above, sfg = sg - sf = 7.5018 Btu/lbm-deg R
Steam quality at c, xc = (sc - sg) / sfg
= 0.86
hfg = hg - hf = 2393 Btu/lbm
Enthalpy at turbine exhaust to condenser, hc = hf + xb*hfg
= 2258 Btu/lbm
Boiler with Superheat and Reheat
The Rankin Cycle with Superheat and Reheat

Liquid droplets will form the low pressure portion of a steam turbine operating a Rankin
cycle with high boiler pressure or a low condenser pressure.
Most metals cannot function adequately above 600 deg C.
The steam passing through the second stage of a turbine is reheated to state 5 as
illustrated in the diagrams above and below.
Example: High pressure steam enters a turbine at 600 psia and 1000 deg F.
It is reheated at a pressure of 40 psia to 600 deg F and then expanded to 2 psia.
What is the thermal efficiency of the cycle?
Answer The thermal efficiency of the cycle is 36.5%

illustrated in the diagrams above and below.
Example: High pressure steam enters a turbine at 600 psia and 1000 deg F.
It is reheated at a pressure of 40 psia to 600 deg F and then expanded to 2 psia.
What is the thermal efficiency of the cycle?
Answer The thermal efficiency of the cycle is 36.5%

Input
Steam enters turbine at pressure, P3 = 600 psia
Steam enters turbine at temperature, t3 = 1000 deg F
Steam is reheated to a pressure of, P5 = 40 psia
Steam is reheated to a temperature of, t5 = 600 deg F
Steam is expanded to condenser at, P6 = 2 psia
FREE STEAM TABLE CALCULATOR (shown below) download from:

http://www.topdownloads.net/software/steam-tables_2_179820.html?hl=
Enter steam pressure P3 and temperature t3 in calculator above or use steam tables.
Input
Enthalpy at 3 from table below, h3 = 1517.4 Btu/lbm
Entropy at 4 from table below, s3 = s4 = 1.7155 Btu/lbm-deg R
Enter steam reheat pressure P5 and temperature t5 in table below.

Input
Enthalpy at 5 from table below, h5 = 1333.6 Btu/lbm
Entropy at 5 from table below, s5 = s6 = 1.8624 Btu/lbm-deg R
Enter steam reheat pressure P2 only in table above.
Input
Liquid enthalpy at point 2 from table, h1 = h2 = 94.03 Btu/lbm
Gaseous enthalpy at point 2 from table below, hg2 = 1116.2 Btu/lbm
Liquid entropy at point 2 from table below, sf2 = 0.1750 Btu/lbm-deg R
Gaseous entropy at point 2 from table below, sg2 = 1.9200 Btu/lbm-deg R
Calculate
Steam entropy entering turbine above, s3 = 1.7155 Btu/lbm-deg R
In the quality region, s6 = s5
Fluid entropy from calculator above, sf6 = sf5 = 0.1750
Gaseous entropy from calculator, sg6 = sg5 = 1.9200 Btu/lbm-deg R
Fluid/gaseous entropy, sfg = sg6 - sf6
Steam quality at 6, x6 = (s6 - sf6) / sfg
= 0.9670
Fluid enthalpy from calculator, hf6 = hf5 = 94.03
Gaseous enthalpy from calculator, hg6 = hg5 = 1116.2
Fluid/gaseous entropy, hfg = hg6 - hf6
= 1022.17
Enthalpy at 6, h6 = hf6 + x6 * hfg
= 1082
Fluid entropy from calculator above, sf4 = 0.3921
Gaseous entropy from calculator, sg4 = 1.6765 Btu/lbm-deg R
Fluid/gaseous entropy, sfg = sg4 - sf4
Steam quality at 4, x4 = (s3 - sf4) / sfg
= 1.0304 Not ok
Fluid enthalpy from calculator, hf4 = 236.14
Gaseous enthalpy from calculator, hg4 = 1169.8
Fluid/gaseous entropy, hfg = hg4 - hf4
= 933.7
Enthalpy at 4, h4 = hf4 + x4 * hfg
= 1198 Btu/lbm
Thermal efficiency, η
Energy input, Qin = (h5 - h4) + (h3 - h2)
= 1559
Work output, Wout = (h5 - h6) + (h3 - h4)
= 570
Thermal efficiency, η = Wout / Qin
= 36.6%
Rankin Vapor Power Cycle with Superheat


Rankin Vapor Power Cycle with Superheat
D to F: Steam vapor changes state to a liquid phase in the condenser.
Rankin Cycle
A typical coal-fired steam cycle power plant the operating pressure is 2400 psi.
Steam temperature is typically 1000 or 1050 degrees F. Steam temperature is limited by

available materials that can survive at elevated temperatures.
Most larger units have a reheat cycle where the steam produced in the boiler, passes through a
portion of the turbine and is "reheated" in the boiler and then goes through
the remainder of the turbine.
This increases the efficiency of the cycle without increasing the maximum steam temperatures.
Rankin Cycle
A typical coal-fired steam cycle power plant the operating pressure is 2400 psi.
Steam temperature is typically 1000 or 1050 degrees F. Steam temperature is limited by

available materials that can survive at elevated temperatures.
Most larger units have a reheat cycle where the steam produced in the boiler, passes through a
portion of the turbine and is "reheated" in the boiler and then goes through
the remainder of the turbine.
This increases the efficiency of the cycle without increasing the maximum steam temperatures.
The operating pressure of conventional coal-fired power plants can be classified as sub critical
or supercritical.
The critical point is where the temperature and pressure are such that the fluid is no longer
classified exclusively as liquid or gas. It is thought of as a fluid above the critical point. The
critical point for water is slightly above 3200 psi.
The diagrams above and below show a typical 2400 psi sub critical Rankin cycle with single
reheat.
The critical point is shown slightly above the cycle shown.
Increasing the steam pressure improves cycle efficiency. It also provides the opportunity to go
to a "double reheat" cycle, which allows even more improvement in overall efficiency.
The overall net efficiency for a typical sub critical coal-fired unit is about 10,000 Btu/kWh.
Increasing the initial steam pressure to 3500 psi from 2400 psi improves the heat rate by about
1.5%.
The efficiency of a unit with 3500 psi initial steam pressure and double reheat is about 4%
better than a typical sub critical unit.
For a 600 MW unit burning $1.20 per million Btu fuel with an 80% annual capacity factor, this
represents an annual cost savings of about $2 million.
Existing sub critical units in the United States typically have a steam drum
where the working fluid circulates through the water walls either by heat transfer and gravity in
the case of natural circulation, or with the addition of pumps in the case of forced circulation.
END OF STEAM TURBINES WORKSHEET

http://www.engineering-software.com/pr/addProd101.htm
GASOLINE ENGINES
GASOLINE ENGINES
Air Standard Otto Cycle
The air standard Otto cycle is ideal but not practical. This power cycle has the highest
theoretical efficiency and is used to determine and also compare efficiencies of
practical gasoline engines.
Most gasoline powered automobile engines have compression ratios of, 8:1 to 8.5:1
designed to run on unleaded gasoline.
Emissions from gasoline engines include: nitrogen oxides, unburned hydrocarbons

( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and carbon monoxide as do diesel engines.
Pressure, volume, and temperature for the isentropic and constant volume ideal gas
processes can be evaluated using air tables or the ideal gas equations.
Ideal gas equation: PAVA / TA = PBVB / TB
Because the piston travel is fixed the temperature ratios are equal:
T D / T C = TA / TB
Win = cv(TB - TA) = (pBvB - pAvA) / (K - 1)
Qin = I cv(TC - TB) I (positive value)
Wout = I cv(TD - TC) I = I (pDvD - pCvC) / (K - 1) I (positive values)
Qout = I cv(TA - TD) I
Page 46
GASOLINE ENGINES
Thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle can be found by several ways:
ηth = (Qin - Qout) / Qin = (Wout - Win) / Qin
ηth = (TC - TD) / TC = (TB - TA) / TB
The ideal thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is given by:
ηth = 1 - rV^1-k
Ratio of specific heats of air and other gas at constant volume: k = cVa / cVo
Since air is the only gas in the cycle: k = cV
Compression ratio: RV = Vmax / Vmin = VA / VB = VD / VC
Specific Heat Ratio for Air
Specific heat at constant volume, Cv = 0.717 kj/kg deg C

Cv = 0.171 Btu/lbm deg R
Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.00 kj/kg deg C

Cp = 0.24 Btu/lbm deg R
Specific heat ratio for air, k = Cp/Cv = 1.4
Air Standard Otto Cycle Example

An Otto cycle spark-ignition engine is proposed to have a compression ratio of 10 while
operating a low temperature of 200 deg C and a pressure of 200 kPa.
a. If the work output is to be 1000 kj/kg, calculate the maximum possible practical thermal
efficiency.
b. Determine also the Carnot cycle efficiency.
c. Find the Mean Effective Pressure (MEP).
Answers:
a. 60.2%
b. 86.5%
c. 1640 kPa
Use the Input and Calculation below to solve this 47

Page and similar problems.
b. Determine also the Carnot cycle efficiency.
c. Find the Mean Effective Pressure (MEP).
Answers:
a. 60.2%
b. 86.5% GASOLINE ENGINES
c. 1640 kPa
Input
Compression ratio, r = V1/V2 = 10 -
Low temperature, t1 = 200 deg C
Low pressure, P1 = 200 kPa
Work output, Wout = 1000 kj/kg
Calculation
Specific heat ratio for air, k = Cp/Cv = 1.4 See "Summary"
a. Otto cycle efficiency, η = 1 - (1 / (r^(k - 1)))
= 60.2%
T1 = t1 + 273
= 473 deg K
1-2 is isentropic, T2 = T1*(v1/v2)^(k-1)
= T1*( r )^(k-1)
= 1188 deg K
Air specific heat constant vol, Cv = 0.717 kj/kg deg C
Air specific heat constant pressure, Cp = 1.00 kj/kg deg C
Given cycle net work, Wout = 1000 kg/kg
and Otto cycle net work, Wout = Cv*(T1 - T2) + Cv*(T3 - T4)
T3 - T4 = (Wout - Cv*(T1 - T2)) / Cv
T3 - T4 = 2110 Equation-1
3-4 is isentropic, T3 = T4*(v4/v3)^(k-1)
= T4*( r )^(k-1)
T3 / T4 = ( r )^(k-1)
T3 / T4 = 2.512 Equation-2
Solving equations 1 and 2 simultaneously:
T3 = 3505 deg K
T4 = 1395 deg K
b. Carnot cycle efficiency, ηcarnot = 1 - TLOW / THIGH
= 1 - (T1 / T3)
Page 48
GASOLINE ENGINES
= 86.5%
The Otto cycle efficiency is less than the ideal Carnot cycle efficiency
because the heat transfer process is not reversible.
The Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is found by the following equation:

Wout = (MEP)*(v1 - v2)
and, R = 0.287
Initial cylinder volume, v1 = R*T1 / P1
= 0.6788 m^3/kg
Top dead center cylinder volume, v2 = v1 / r
= 0.0679
Wout = (MEP)*(v1 - v2)
c. MEP = Wout / (v1 - v2)
= 1637 kPa
Otto Cycle Indicator Drawing
Plan Formula
The performance of an Otto Cycle engine can be calculated from the PLAN equation.
Page 49
GASOLINE ENGINES
Prony Brake
The maximum brake horse power that an engine can develop at any speed can be
measured with a Prony brake or dynamometer.
Progressively higher loads "W" are applied until stalling occurs.
Torque is equal to W measured by the spring balance x B foot pounds.
Standard conditions for power testing of most commercial engines are:

500 ft altitude.
29.00 inches of mercury dry barometric pressure.
0.38 inches of mercury water vapor pressure.
85 degrees F.
Both, "Continuous duty rating" and maximum "Intermittent rating" are measured.
Otto Cycle Engine Power - US Units Input

Engine crank rotational speed, n = 200 rpm
Number of strokes per power cycle, S = 4 -
Number of strokes per revolution, n = 1 -
Single cylinder bore diameter, D = 10 in
Piston stroke inches, l = 18 in
Number of cylinders, C = 1
Gross weight on Prony brake, W = 140 lb
Prony brake tare, T = 25 lb
Prony brake arm length, B = 66 in
Indicator card area, A = 1.2 in2
Indicator card area overall length, X = 3 in
Indicator card spring scale factor, F = 200 psi/in
Calculate
Indicated Horse Power IHP
Indicated mean effective pressure, P = A*F/X
= 80.00 lbf/in2
Piston stroke feet, L = l / 12
= 1.50 ft
Total area of cylinders, A = C * π * D^2 / 4
Page 50
GASOLINE ENGINES
= 78.54 in2
Number of power strokes per minute, N = 2*n*R/S
= 100 power strokes / min
Indicated horse power, IHP = PLAN / 33,000
= 28.56 hp
Brake Horse Power BHP
Engine force on Prony brake, E = W-T
= 115 lbf
BHP = 2*π*(B/12)*E*n / 33,000
= 24.09 bhp
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency, ηm = BHP / IHP
0.84
Otto Cycle Engine Power - SI Units Input

Engine crank rotational speed, n = 200 rpm
Number of strokes per power cycle, S = 4 -
Number of strokes per revolution, n = 1 -
Single cylinder bore diameter, D = 25.4 cm
Piston stroke inches, l = 45.7 cm
Number of cylinders, C = 1
Gross weight on Prony brake, W = 620 N
Prony brake tare, T = 110 N
Prony brake arm length, B = 1.7 meters
Indicator card area, A = 7.7 cm2
Indicator card area overall length, X = 7.6 cm
Indicator card spring scale factor, F = 540 kPa
Calculate
Indicated Horse Power IHP
Indicated mean effective pressure, P = A*F/X
= 547.11 kPa
Piston stroke feet, L = l / 100
= 0.457 meters
Total area of cylinders, A = C * π * D^2 / 4
= 506.71 cm2
= 0.05067 m2
Number of power strokes per minute, N = 2*n*R/S
= 100 power strokes / min
Indicated horse power, IHP = PLAN / 33,000
= 21.12 kW
Brake Horse Power BHP
Engine force on Prony brake, E = W-T
= 510.00 N
BHP = 2*π*B*E*n / (60 * 1000)
= 18.16 kW
Mechanical Efficiency
Page 51
GASOLINE ENGINES
Mechanical Efficiency, ηm = BHP / IHP
86.00%
END OF GASOLINE ENGINES WORKSHEET
Page 52
GASOLINE ENGINES
Page 53
DIESEL ENGINES
Air Standard Diesel Cycle

The piston in the cylinder of a diesel engine compresses the air above ignition temperature without
the need for a spark.
Most Diesel powered automobile engines have compression ratios of, 13.5 to 17.5:1 designed to
run on No.6 heavy fuel oil, natural gas, and light distillate fuel oils.
Emissions from diesel engines include: nitrogen oxides, unburned hydrocarbons

( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and carbon monoxide as do gasoline engines.
Air Standard Diesel Cycle

The air standard diesel cycle is ideal but not practical. This power cycle has the highest theoretical
efficiency and is used to compare efficiencies of practical diesel engines.
A to B: Isentropic compression.
Win = cv(TB - TA)
B to C: Constant pressure heating.
Qin = cp(TC - TB)
C to D: Isentropic expansion,
Win = I cv(TD - TC) + (CP - CV)(TC - TB) I (positive values)
D to A: Constant volume cooling.
Qout = I cv(TA - TD) I (positive values)
Diesel engines can be two-stroke or four stroke. The p-v and T-s diagrams are the same for both
types. The difference is the number of power strokes.
Two stroke has one power stroke per revolution.

Four stroke has one power stroke per two revolutions.
Compression ratio, Rv = VA/VB
Cut-off volume = VC
Qout = I cv(TA - TD) I (positive values)
Diesel engines can be two-stroke or four stroke. The p-v and T-s diagrams are the same for both
types. The difference is the number of power strokes.
Two stroke has one power stroke per revolution.

Four stroke has one power stroke per two revolutions.
Compression ratio, Rv = VA/VB
Cut-off volume = VC
Cut-off ratio, Rc = VC/VB = TC/TB
Pressure, volume, and temperature at each point in a cycle can be calculated from the deal gas
equations.
Ideal gas equation: PAVA / TA = PBVB / TB
Because the piston travel is fixed the temperature ratios are equal:
TD / TC = TA / TB
Pressure, volume, and temperature for the isentropic and constant volume ideal gas processes can
be evaluated using air tables or the ideal gas equations.
Thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle can be found from:
ηth = (Qin - Qout) / Qin = (Wout - Win) / Qin
ηth = 1 - (TD - TA) / (k(TC - TB)
Modern diesel engine thermal efficiencies range from: 45% to 50%.
This the highest thermal efficiency of all steam and combustion engines including turbines.
Diesel Cycle Example:

A diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 18 operates on air.
The low pressure is 200 kPa and low temperature 200 deg C.
The work output is 1000 kJ/kg.
a. Determine the diesel cycle thermal efficiency.
b. Calculate the Mean Effective Pressure MEP.
c. Find the Otto cycle efficiency operating at the same maximum pressure.
Answers:
a. Diesel cycle thermal efficiency, 62.9 %
b. MEP = 641 kPa
c. Otto cycle efficiency = 58.1%
The example below is locked.
Please use the "Problem" below to solve this and similar problems.
The example below is locked.
Please use the "Problem" below to solve this and similar problems.
CELLS BELOW ARE LOCKED Input

Compression ratio, r = V1/V2 = 18
Low temperature, t1 = 200 deg C
Low pressure, P1 = 200 kPa
Work output, Wout = 1000 kJ/kg
Calculate
Air specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.00
Air specific heat at constant volume, Cv = 0.717
Universal gas constant, R = 0.287
T1 = t1 + 273
= 473 deg K
v1 = v4= R*T1 / P1
= 0.6788 m^3/kg
v2 = v1 / 18
= 0.03771 m^3/kg
Process 1-2 is isentropic
k= 1.40
T2 = T1*(v1 / v2)^(k-1)
= 1503 deg K
P2 = P1*(v1 / v2)^k
= 11440 Pa
= 11.44 Mpa
T4 = T3*(v3 / v4)^(k-1)
T4/T3 = (v3 / v4)^0.4
T4/(T3*v3^0.4) = (1 / v4)^0.4
T4/(T3*v3^0.4) = 1.1677
C1 = 1.1677
0= C1 - T4/(T3*v3^0.4) Eq-1
Process 2-3 is constant pressure
T3 / v3 = T2 / v2
T3 / v3 = 39859
C2 = 39859
0= C2 - T3 / v3 Eq-2
Work output per cycle
Work output per cycle, Wout = Q3-4 + Q4-1
Wout = Cp*(T3 - T2) + Cv*(T1 - T4)
Wout + Cp*T2 - Cv*T1 = Cp*T3 - Cv*T4
(Wout + Cp*T2 - Cv*T1)/Cv = Cp / Cv*T3 - T4
Wout/Cv + k*T2 - T1 = k*T3 + T4
k*T3 + T4 = Wout / Cv + k*T2 - T1
k*T3 - T4 = 3026
C3 = 3026
0= C3 - 1.4*T3 + T4 Eq-3
Unknowns: T3 = ?, T4 = ?, v3 = ?
Combine equations: 1, 2, & 3 above to find: T3, T4, and v3.
0 = C1 - T4/(T3*v3^0.4) Eq-1
0 = C2 - T3 / v3 Eq-2
0 = C3 - 1.4*T3 + T4 Eq-3
T3 = C2*v3 Eq-2
T4 = C1*T3*v3^0.4 Eq-3
T3 = T4/C1*v3^0.4 Eq-1
0 = T4/C1*v3^0.4 - C2*v3 Eq-1 - Eq-2

C2*v3*C1*v3^0.4 = T4 Eq-4
0 = C3 - 1.4*T3 + T4 Eq-3
T4 = 1.4*T3 - C3
T4 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 Eq-5 = T3 in Eq-2 in Eq-3
C2*v3*C1*v3^0.4 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 Eq-4 = Eq-5

0 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 - C2*C1*v3^1.4
EXCEL'S GOAL SEEK METHOD

Guess the value of v3 and use, "Goal Seek" to adjust v3 so that
the equation 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 - C2*v3*C1*v3^0.4 will effectively equal zero.
Click on the, "MATH TOOLS" tab below and read the "Goal Seek" method.
1. Pick the yellow cell below containing Equation-6

2. To the right of the Data tab pick, “What-If Analysis” followed by, “Goal Seek”
3. Type in the, "To value" box as shown below.
4. Pick the "By changing cell" box and OK.
0 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 - C2*C1*v3^1.4
0 = 0.000 Eq-6
"Goal Seek" will iterate v3 below until the right hand side of Eq-6 equal to 0.
Guess: v3 = 0.0774 m^3/kg
From above, C1 = 1.1677
From above, C2 = 39859
T3 = C2*v3 Eq-2
= 3087 deg K
T4 = C1*T3*v3^0.4 Eq-3
= 1295 deg K
Cut-Off Ratio, rc = v3 / v2
= 2.054
a. Diesel cycle thermal efficiency, ηt = 1 - ((1 / (r^(k-1))*((rc^k - 1) / (k*(rc - 1)))))
= 62.9%
b. Mean Effective Pressure, MEP = Wout / (v1 - v2)
= 1560 kPa
Equivalent Otto cycle compression ratio, rOtto = v1 / v3
= 8.77
c. Otto cycle efficiency, ηOtto = 1 - (1 / (rOtto^(k-1)))
= 58.0%
PLEASE USE THE LIVE CELLS BELOW

Diesel Cycle Problem:
A diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 18 operates on air.
The low pressure is 200 kPa and low temperature 200 deg C.
The work output is 1000 kJ/kg.
a. Determine the diesel cycle thermal efficiency.
b. Calculate the Mean Effective Pressure MEP.
c. Find the Otto cycle efficiency operating at the same maximum pressure.
Answers:
a. 62.9 %
b. MEP = 641 kPa
Answers:
a. 62.9 %
b. MEP = 641 kPa
Input
r = V1/V2 = 18
t1 = 200 deg C
P1 = 200 kPa
Wout = 1000 kJ/kg
Calculate
Air specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.00
Air specific heat at constant volume, Cv = 0.717
Universal gas constant, R = 0.287
T1 = t1 + 273
= 473 deg K
v1 = v4= R*T1 / P1
= 0.6788 m^3/kg
v2 = v1 / 18
= 0.03771 m^3/kg
k= 1.40
T2 = T1*(v1 / v2)^(k-1)
= 1503 deg K
P2 = P1*(v1 / v2)^k
= 11440 Pa
= 11.44 Mpa
T4 = T3*(v3 / v4)^(k-1)
T4/T3 = (v3 / v4)^0.4
T4/(T3*v3^0.4) = (1 / v4)^0.4
T4/(T3*v3^0.4) = 1.1677
C1 = 1.1677
0 = C1 - T4/(T3*v3^0.4) Eq-1
Process 2-3 is constant pressure
T3 / v3 = T2 / v2
T3 / v3 = 39859
C2 = 39859
0= C2 - T3 / v3 Eq-2
Work output per cycle
Work output per cycle, Wout = Q3-4 + Q4-1
Wout = Cp*(T3 - T2) + Cv*(T1 - T4)
Wout + Cp*T2 - Cv*T1 = Cp*T3 - Cv*T4
(Wout + Cp*T2 - Cv*T1)/Cv = Cp / Cv*T3 - T4
Wout/Cv + k*T2 - T1 = k*T3 + T4
k*T3 + T4 = Wout / Cv + k*T2 - T1
k*T3 - T4 = 3026
C3 = 3026
0= C3 - 1.4*T3 + T4 Eq-3
Unknowns: T3 = ?, T4 = ?, v3 = ?
Combine equations: 1, 2, & 3 above to find: T3, T4, and v3.
0 = C1 - T4/(T3*v3^0.4) Eq-1
0 = C2 - T3 / v3 Eq-2
0 = C3 - 1.4*T3 + T4 Eq-3
T3 = C2*v3 Eq-2
T4 = C1*T3*v3^0.4 Eq-3
T3 = T4/C1*v3^0.4 Eq-1
0 = T4/C1*v3^0.4 - C2*v3 Eq-1 - Eq-2

C2*v3*C1*v3^0.4 = T4 Eq-4
0 = C3 - 1.4*T3 + T4 Eq-3
T4 = 1.4*T3 - C3
T4 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 Eq-5 = T3 in Eq-2 in Eq-3
C2*v3*C1*v3^0.4 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 Eq-4 = Eq-5

0 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 - C2*C1*v3^1.4
EXCEL'S GOAL SEEK METHOD

Guess the value of v3 and use, "Goal Seek" to adjust v3 so that
the equation 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 - C2*v3*C1*v3^0.4 will effectively equal zero.
Click on the, "MATH TOOLS" tab below and read the "Goal Seek" method.
1. Pick the yellow cell below containing Equation-6

2. To the right of the Data tab pick, “What-If Analysis” followed by, “Goal Seek”
3. Type in the, "To value" box as shown below.
4. Pick the "By changing cell" box and OK.
0 = 1.4*C2*v3 - C3 - C2*C1*v3^1.4
0 = 0.000 Eq-6
"Goal Seek" will iterate v3 below until the right hand side of Eq-6 equal to 0.
Guess: v3 = 0.0774 m^3/kg
From above, C1 = 1.1677
T3 = C2*v3 Eq-2
= 3087 deg K
T4 = C1*T3*v3^0.4 Eq-3
= 1295 deg K
Cut-Off Ratio, rc = v3 / v2
= 2.054
a. Diesel cycle thermal efficiency, ηt = 1 - ((1 / (r^(k-1))*((rc^k - 1) / (k*(rc - 1)))))
= 62.9%
b. Mean Effective Pressure, MEP = Wout / (v1 - v2)
= 1560 kPa
Equivalent Otto cycle compression ratio, rOtto = v1 / v3
= 8.77
c. Otto cycle efficiency, ηOtto = 1 - (1 / (rOtto^(k-1)))
= 58.0%
END OF DIESEL ENGINES WORKSHEET
GAS TURBINES
Combined Cycle Power Generation

Steam cycles limit the maximum temperature at which power can be extracted, mostly due to
limitations with boiler tube materials.
Theory tells us (eg. Carnot cycle) that higher efficiencies can be obtained with cycles
extracting work at higher temperatures.
Modern power stations often use what is called a “Combined Cycle”. The most common
version at present has the fuel combusted in a gas turbine, which drives an alternator, and the
gas turbine exhaust (typically still over 560°C) are then used to generate heat in an otherwise
typical Rankin steam cycle.
Western Power commissioned a 240 MW plant at Cockburn1 Power Station, with the gas
turbine generating 160 MW and the steam system generating 80 MW.
The overall thermal efficiency exceeds 50%, compared to about 38% for a modern stand-
alone steam plant.
Brayton Gas Turbine Cycle

Wcompressor = cP(TB - TA) = hB - hA
Qin = cP(TC - TB) = hB - hA
Wturbine = I cP(TD - TC) I = I hD - hC I (positive values)
Qout = I cP(TA - TD) I = I hA - hD I (positive values)
Gas Turbine Thermal Efficiency
ηth = (Qin - Qout) / Qin = (Wturbine - Wcompressor) / Qin

Qin = cP(TC - TB) = hB - hA
Wturbine = I cP(TD - TC) I = I hD - hC I (positive values)
Qout = I cP(TA - TD) I = I hA - hD I (positive values)
ηth = (Qin - Qout) / Qin = (Wturbine - Wcompressor) / Qin
ηth = ((hC - hB) - (hD - hA)) / (hC - hB)
Efficiency if ideal gas so that cP is constant:
ηth = ((TC - TB) - (TD - TA)) / (TC - TB)
Practical Combustion Turbines

The practical isentropic efficiency is less than 100% for both compressor and turbine.
The measured temperatures or enthalpies must be used to calculate: work, heat, and
thermal efficiency.
Actual enthalpy, hBact = hA + (hB - hA) / (ηs, compressor)
Actual temperature, TBact = TA + (TB - TA) / (ηs, compressor)
Actual enthalpy, hDact = hC - (ηs, turbine) (hC - hD)
Actual temperature, TDact = TC - (ηs, turbine) (TC - TD)
The full load thermal efficiency of heavy duty industrial combustion turbines is between
34% and 36%.
The new advanced gas turbines achieve 38% to 38.5% efficiencies.
Aero-derivative turbines have up to 42% thermal efficiency.
Back Work Ratio = Compressor work / Turbine work = 50% to 75%.

Actual temperature, TDact = TC - (ηs, turbine) (TC - TD)
The full load thermal efficiency of heavy duty industrial combustion turbines is between
34% and 36%.
The new advanced gas turbines achieve 38% to 38.5% efficiencies.
Aero-derivative turbines have up to 42% thermal efficiency.
Back Work Ratio = Compressor work / Turbine work = 50% to 75%.
EXAMPLE: GAS TURBINE IDEAL EFFICIENCY

Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine at 100 kPa and temperature is
25 deg C.
The exhaust to atmospressure pressure ratio is 5 and a maximum temperature of 850 deg
C,
determine the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency using the Brayton cycle.
GAS TURBINE IDEAL EFFICIENCY Input

Air enters the compressor at temperature, tA = 25 deg C
Air enters the compressor at pressure, PA = 100 kPa
Gas turbine maximum temperature, tC = 850 deg C
Exhaust to atmos pressure ratio, r = 4 Expansion pressure ratio,
Calculate
Air enters the compressor at temp., TA = tA + 273
= 298 deg K
Gas turbine absolute max temperature, TC = tC + 273
= 1123 deg K
k= 1.4
Compressor discharge temperature, TB = TA*(PB / PA)^(k-1)/k
= TA*( r )^(k-1)/k
= 442.8 deg K
Turbine discharge temperature, TD = TC*( 1 / r )^((k-1)/k)
= 755.9 deg K
Back work ratio, BWr = Cp*(TB - TA) / (Cp*(TC - TD)
BWr = (TB - TA) / (TC - TD)
= 0.394
= 39.4%
Brayton turbine thermal efficiency, ηth = 1 - r^(1-k)/k
= 0.327
= 32.7%
EXAMPLE: GAS TURBINE (CELLS ARE LOCKED BELOW)

EXAMPLE: BRAYTON CYCLE GAS TURBINE IDEAL EFFICIENCY
Air enters a gas turbine at 14.7 psia and temperature is 545 deg R.
The pressure ratio is 4.5:1.
Conditions at turbine inlet are: 64 psia and temperature is 2200 deg R.
The turbines expansion ratio is 1:4 and exhaust is to atmosphere.
The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 85%.
What is the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle?
Air enters turbine compressor at A Input

Air enters compressor at temperature, TA = 545 deg R
Air enters compressor at pressure, PA = 14.7 psia
At turbine inlet at C, PC = 64 psia
Turbine inlet temperature, TC = 2202 deg R
Compressor compression ratio, rB = (PB/PA) = 4.5
Turbine expansion ratio exhaust to atmos (PD/atmos) = 4.0

Expansion process efficiency of the turbine, η = 85 %
At A from given input above from standard air table

Input
T above hA = 540
TA = 545
T below hA = 560
h above = 129.06
h below = 133.86
Calculate
hA = ((TA - T above) / (T below - T above))*(h below - h above)) + h a
= 130.26 deg R
Input
T above pr,A = 540
TA = 545
= pr above 560
pr above = 1.3860
pr below = 1.5742
Calculate
pr,A = ((TA - T above) / (T below - T above))*(pr below - pr above)) + p
= 1.4331 deg R
At B Process A-B is isentropic
At B; Isentropic Pressure Ratio: prB = prA*(PB / PA)
= 6.4487
Input
pr above pr,B = 6.0330
pr,B = 6.2370
pr below prB = 6.5730
T above = 820 deg R
T below = 840 deg R
Calculate
TB = (((pr,B - pr above) / (pr below - pr above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) +
= 827.6 deg R
Input
T above TB = 820.0
TB = 827.6
T below TB = 840.0
h above = 196.69
h below = 201.56
Calculate
hB = ((TB - T above) / (T below - T above))*(h below - h above)) + h
= 198.54 deg R
PB = PB/PA = rB * PA
= 66.15 psia
At C: Calculate
Temperature given above, TC = 2202 deg R, given
Pressure given above, PC = 64 psia, given
Input
T above TC = 2200
TC = 2202
T below TC = 2250
h above = 560.59
h below = 574.69
Calculate
hC = ((TC - T above) / (T below - T above))*(h below - h above)) + h
= 561.15 deg R
Input
T above TC = 2200
TC = 2202
T below TC = 2250
pr above = 256.60
pr below = 281.40
Calculate
pr,C = ((TC - T above) / (T below - T above))*(pr below - pr above)) + p
= 257.59 deg R
At D: Calculate
prD = PrC*(PD / PC)
= PrC / (PC / PD)
= 64.40
Input
pr above prD = 58.78
pr,D = 63.48
pr below prD = 65.00
T above = 1520 deg R
T below = 1560 deg R
Calculate
TD = (((pr,D - pr above) / (pr below - pr above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) +
= 1550.2 deg R
Input
T above TD = 1520
TD = 1550
T below TD = 1560
h above = 374.47
h below = 385.08
Calculate
hD = (((pr,D - pr above) / (pr below - pr above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) +
= 382.5 Btu/lbm, +/-1%
Actual enthalpy at D with efficiency η
hDactual = hC - (η/100)*(hC - hD)
= 409.3 Btu/lbm
ηT = Work Output / Heat Input
= ((hC - hB) - (hDactual - hA)) / (hC - hB)
= 0.231
Gas turbine thermal efficiency, ηT = 23.1%
PROBLEM: GAS TURBINE (CELLS ARE UN-LOCKED BELOW)
PROBLEM: BRAYTON GAS TURBINE IDEAL EFFICIENCY
Air enters a gas turbine at 14.7 psia and temperature is 545 deg R.
The pressure ratio is 4.5:1.
Conditions at turbine inlet are: 64 psia and temperature is 2202 deg R.
The turbines expansion ratio is 4.0:1 and exhaust is to atmosphere.
The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 85%.
What is the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle?

Air enters turbine compressor at A Input
Air enters compressor at temperature, TA = 545 deg R
Air enters compressor at pressure, PA = 14.7 psia
At turbine inlet at C, PC = 64 psia
Turbine inlet temperature, TC = 2202 deg R
Compressor compression ratio, rB = (PB/PA) = 4.5
Turbine expansion ratio exhaust to atmos (PD/atmos) = 4.0
Expansion process efficiency of the turbine, η = 85 %
At A from given input above from standard air table

Input
T above hA = 540
TA = 545
T below hA = 560
h above = 129.06
h below = 133.86
Calculate
hA = ((TA - T above) / (T below - T above))*(h below - h above)) + h a
= 130.26 deg R
Input
T above pr,A = 540
TA = 545
T below pr,A = 560
pr above = 1.3860
pr below = 1.5742
Calculate
pr,A = ((TA - T above) / (T below - T above))*(pr below - pr above)) + p
= 1.4331 deg R
At B Process A-B is isentropic
At B; Isentropic Pressure Ratio: prB = prA*(PB / PA)
= 6.4487
Input
pr above pr,B = 6.0330
pr,B = 6.2370
pr below prB = 6.5730
T above = 820 deg R
T below = 840 deg R
Calculate
TB = (((pr,B - pr above) / (pr below - pr above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) +
= 827.6 deg R
Input
T above TB = 820.0
TB = 827.6
T below TB = 840.0
h above = 196.69
h below = 201.56
Calculate
hB = ((TB - T above) / (T below - T above))*(h below - h above)) + h
= 198.54 deg R
PB = PB/PA = rB * PA
= 66.15 psia
At C: Calculate
Temperature given above, TC = 2202 deg R, given
Pressure given above, PC = 64 psia, given
Input
T above TC = 2200
TC = 2202
T below TC = 2250
h above = 560.59
h below = 574.69
Calculate
hC = ((TC - T above) / (T below - T above))*(h below - h above)) + h
= 561.15 deg R
Input
T above TC = 2200
TC = 2202
T below TC = 2250
pr above = 256.60
pr below = 281.40
Calculate
pr,C = ((TC - T above) / (T below - T above))*(pr below - pr above)) + p
= 257.59 deg R
At D: Calculate
prD = PrC*(PD / PC)
= PrC / (PC / PD)
= 64.40
Input
pr above prD = 58.78
pr,D = 63.48
pr below prD = 65.00
T above = 1520 deg R
T below = 1560 deg R
Calculate
TD = (((pr,D - pr above) / (pr below - pr above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) +
= 1550.2 deg R
Input
T above TD = 1520
TD = 1550
T below TD = 1560
h above = 374.47
h below = 385.08
Calculate
hD = (((pr,D - pr above) / (pr below - pr above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) +
= 382.5 Btu/lbm
Actual enthalpy at D with efficiency η
hDactual = hC - (η/100)*(hC - hD)
= 409.3 Btu/lbm
ηT = Work Output / Heat Input
= ((hC - hB) - (hDactual - hA)) / (hC - hB)
= 0.231
Gas turbine thermal efficiency, ηT = 23.1%
END OF GAS TURBINES SECTION

essure ratio,
Isentropic Process
In thermodynamics, an isentropic process or isentropic process is one during which the
entropy of the system remains constant.

*Isentropic Pressure Ratio: for the air standard Carnot cycle illustrated below is a ratio of
pressures:
Pr or rp,s = PB/PA = PC/PD = (TD/TC)^(1/(1-k))
Isentropic Pressure Ratio: for reciprocating engines and compressors illustrated

below is a ratio of volumes:

Isentropic Pressure Ratio: for reciprocating engines and compressors illustrated
below is a ratio of volumes:
Ref. Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual

Properties of Low * pr = Isentropic Pressure Ratio
Standard air at 14.7 psia
T h *pr
deg R Btu/lbm Pressure Ratio
360 85.97 0.3363
380 90.75 0.4061
400 95.53 0.4858
420 100.32 0.5760
440 105.11 0.6776
e))*(h below - h above)) + h above 460 109.90 0.7913
480 114.69 0.9182
500 119.48 1.0590
520 124.27 1.2147
537 128.34 1.3593
T above pr,A = 540 129.06 1.3860 = pr above
T below pr,A = 560 133.86 1.5742 = pr below
580 138.66 1.7800
600 143.47 2.0050
e))*(pr below - pr above)) + pr above 620 148.28 2.2490
640 153.09 2.4150
660 157.92 2.8010
680 162.74 3.1110
700 167.56 3.4460
720 172.39 3.8060
740 177.23 4.1930
760 182.08 4.6070
780 186.94 5.0610
800 191.81 5.5260
T above TB = 820 196.69 6.0330
T below TB = 840 201.56 6.5730
above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) + Tabove) 860 206.46 7.1490
880 211.35 7.7610
900 216.26 8.4110
920 221.18 9.1020
940 226.11 9.8340
960 231.06 10.61
980 236.02 11.43
1000 240.98 12.30
1040 250.95 14.18
ve))*(h below - h above)) + h above 1080 260.97 16.28
1120 271.03 18.60
1160 281.14 21.18
1200 291.30 24.01
1240 301.52 27.13
1280 311.79 30.55
1320 322.11 34.31
1360 332.48 38.41
1400 342.90 42.88
1440 353.37 47.75
1480 363.89 53.04
T above TD = 1520 374.47 58.78
T below TD = 1560 385.08 65.00
1600 395.75 71.73
1700 422.59 90.95
1750 436.12 101.98
1800 449.71 114.00
1850 463.37 127.20
1900 477.09 141.50
1950 490.88 157.10
2000 504.71 174.00
2050 518.61 192.30
ve))*(pr below - pr above)) + pr above 2100 532.55 212.10
2150 546.54 233.50
T above TC = 2200 560.59 256.60
T below TC = 2250 574.69 281.40
2300 588.82 308.10
2350 603.00 336.80
2400 617.22 367.60
2450 631.48 400.50
2500 645.78 435.70
above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) + Tabove)

Ref. Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual
Properties of Low Pressure Air, by M Lindburg
* pr = Isentropic Pressure Ratio
Standard air at 14.7 psia
T h *pr
deg R Btu/lbm Pressure Ratio
360 85.97 0.3363
380 90.75 0.4061
400 95.53 0.4858
420 100.32 0.5760
440 105.11 0.6776
460 109.90 0.7913
480 114.69 0.9182
500 119.48 1.0590
520 124.27 1.2147
537 128.34 1.3593
540 129.06 1.3860
560 133.86 1.5742
580 138.66 1.7800
600 143.47 2.0050
e))*(h below - h above)) + h above 620 148.28 2.2490
640 153.09 2.4150
660 157.92 2.8010
680 162.74 3.1110
700 167.56 3.4460
720 172.39 3.8060
740 177.23 4.1930
760 182.08 4.6070
780 186.94 5.0610
e))*(pr below - pr above)) + pr above 800 191.81 5.5260
820 196.69 6.0330
840 201.56 6.5730
860 206.46 7.1490
880 211.35 7.7610
900 216.26 8.4110
920 221.18 9.1020
940 226.11 9.8340
960 231.06 10.61
980 236.02 11.43
1000 240.98 12.30
1040 250.95 14.18
above))*(Tbelow - Tabove)) + Tabove) 1080 260.97 16.28
1120 271.03 18.60
1160 281.14 21.18
1200 291.30 24.01
1240 301.52 27.13
1280 311.79 30.55
1320 322.11 34.31
1360 332.48 38.41
1400 342.90 42.88
1480 363.89 53.04
1520 374.47 58.78
1560 385.08 65.00
1600 395.75 71.73
1650 409.13 80.89
1700 422.59 90.95
1750 436.12 101.98
1800 449.71 114.00
1850 463.37 127.20
1900 477.09 141.50
1950 490.88 157.10
2000 504.71 174.00
2050 518.61 192.30
2150 546.54 233.50
2200 560.59 256.60
2250 574.69 281.40
2300 588.82 308.10
2350 603.00 336.80
2400 617.22 367.60
2450 631.48 400.50
2500 645.78 435.70
ve))*(pr below - pr above)) + pr above

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dry-air-properties-d_973.html
Some common properties like
specific heat capacity
ratio of specific heats
dynamic viscosity
thermal conductivity
Prandtl number
density
kinematic viscosity
of dry air at temperatures ranging 175 - 1900 K are indicated in the table below.
Prandtl
Temperature
Specific Heat CapacityRatio of Specific
DynamicHeats
Viscosity
Thermal Conductivity
Number Kinematic Viscosity1)
Density1)
(K) -k- -μ- 10-5 -ν- -ρ-
(cp/cv) 10 -5
(kW/m K) 10 -5
(kg/m3)
- cp - - cv - (kg/m s) (m /s)
2
(kJ/kgK) (kJ/kgK)
175 1.0023 0.7152 1.401 1.182 1.593 0.744 0.586 2.017
200 1.0025 0.7154 1.401 1.329 1.809 0.736 0.753 1.765
225 1.0027 0.7156 1.401 1.467 2.020 0.728 0.935 1.569
250 1.0031 0.7160 1.401 1.599 2.227 0.720 1.132 1.412
275 1.0038 0.7167 1.401 1.725 2.428 0.713 1.343 1.284
300 1.0049 0.7178 1.400 1.846 2.624 0.707 1.568 1.177
325 1.0063 0.7192 1.400 1.962 2.816 0.701 1.807 1.086
350 1.0082 0.7211 1.398 2.075 3.003 0.697 2.056 1.009
375 1.0106 0.7235 1.397 2.181 3.186 0.692 2.317 0.9413
400 1.0135 0.7264 1.395 2.286 3.365 0.688 2.591 0.8824
450 1.0206 0.7335 1.391 2.485 3.710 0.684 3.168 0.7844
500 1.0295 0.7424 1.387 2.670 4.041 0.680 3.782 0.7060
550 1.0398 0.7527 1.381 2.849 4.357 0.680 4.439 0.6418
600 1.0511 0.7640 1.376 3.017 4.661 0.680 5.128 0.5883
650 1.0629 0.7758 1.370 3.178 4.954 0.682 5.853 0.5430
700 1.0750 0.7879 1.364 3.332 5.236 0.684 6.607 0.5043
750 1.0870 0.7999 1.359 3.482 5.509 0.687 7.399 0.4706
800 1.0987 0.8116 1.354 3.624 5.774 0.690 8.214 0.4412
850 1.1101 0.8230 1.349 3.763 6.030 0.693 9.061 0.4153
900 1.1209 0.8338 1.344 3.897 6.276 0.696 9.936 0.3922
950 1.1313 0.8442 1.340 4.026 6.520 0.699 10.83 0.3716
1000 1.1411 0.8540 1.336 4.153 6.754 0.702 11.76 0.3530
1050 1.1502 0.8631 1.333 4.276 6.985 0.704 12.72 0.3362
1100 1.1589 0.8718 1.329 4.396 7.209 0.707 13.70 0.3209
1150 1.1670 0.8799 1.326 4.511 7.427 0.709 14.70 0.3069
1200 1.1746 0.8875 1.323 4.626 7.640 0.711 15.73 0.2941
1250 1.1817 0.8946 1.321 4.736 7.849 0.713 16.77 0.2824
1300 1.1884 0.9013 1.319 4.846 8.054 0.715 17.85 0.2715
1350 1.1946 0.9075 1.316 4.952 8.253 0.717 18.94 0.2615
1400 1.2005 0.9134 1.314 5.057 8.450 0.719 20.06 0.2521
1500 1.2112 0.9241 1.311 5.264 8.831 0.722 22.36 0.2353
1600 1.2207 0.9336 1.308 5.457 9.199 0.724 24.74 0.2206
1700 1.2293 0.9422 1.305 5.646 9.554 0.726 27.20 0.2076
1800 1.2370 0.9499 1.302 5.829 9.899 0.728 29.72 0.1961
1900 1.2440 0.9569 1.300 6.008 10.233 0.730 32.34 0.1858
1)
At pressure 1 atm
END OF AIR PROPERTIES WORKSHEET

STEAM & COMBUSTION POWER CYCLES SPREADSHEET CALCULATION
MATH TOOLS
Useful math tools applicable to this course are given below.
Insert the Microsoft Office CD for Add-

Spread Sheet Method:
Ins
1. Type in values for the input data. If Excel's, "Goal Seek" or "Solver" are
2. Enter. not installed you will need to select drop-
3. Answer: X = will be calculated. down menu: Tools > Add-Ins > Goal
4. Automatic calculations are bold type. Seek
Tools > Add-Ins > Solver
To open select Tools.
When using Excel's Goal Seek, unprotect the spread sheet by selecting:
Drop down menu: Tools > Protection > Unprotect Sheet > OK
When Excel's Goal Seek is not needed, restore protection with:
Drop down menu: Tools > Protection > Protect Sheet > OK
What if Calculations
Excel will make a, “what if calculation” using, "Goal Seek" when the calculated formula value
needs to be changed. Goal Seek will not function with percentages.
Goal Seek Example

The hypotenuse of the right angle triangle above is calculated in the table below. Columns, A and B
are intersected by rows 5 through 10 forming cells. Disregard the actual row numbers on this spread
sheet.
Cell B6 contains the value 4.00. Cell B10 contains the formula, "= (B6^2 + B7^2) ^ (1/2)".
The hypotenuse is found to be 5.00 when the other two sides are: 3.00 and 4.00. However the,
"Optimum Value" for hypotenuse is 7.00.
Select the formula cell, B10 and Goal Seek will calculate a new value (target value) for cell B7 that
will change the hypotenuse to 7.00.
A B
5 Input
6 ADJ = 4.00
7 OPP = 3.00
8 Calculations
9 HYP = (ADJ^2 + OPP^2)^(1/2)
10 = 5.00
To Create the Above Table
Type, “Input” in cell B5 as shown below. “ADJ =” in cell A6. “4” in cell B6.
Complete the spreadsheet table below in columns A and B down to row 9.
1. Select cell B9 with the mouse pointer.

2. Press keys: ctrl and C together.
3. Pick cell B10, Enter. The formula, ( ADJ^2 + OPP^2 )^(1/2) will be copied into cell B10.
4. Press: f2, home , =. Function key f2 enables editing a cell. Home key moves the mouse pointer to
the left side of the cell.
Type the, = sign and press, "Enter" to enable cell B10 to do the math calculation. See cell below
B10.
5. Cell B10 below contains the calculated value 5.00.
A B
5 Input
6 ADJ = 4.00
7 OPP = 3.00
8 Calculations
9 HYP = (ADJ^2 + OPP^2)^(1/2)
10 = 5.00
Excel will make a, “what if calculation” when the calculated formula value needs to be changed.
1. While in Excel 2007 pick the, “Data” tab shown below.

2. To the right of the Data tab pick, “What-If Analysis” followed by, “Goal Seek” illustrated
below.
3. Goal Seek allows you to pick the formula cell with the 5.00 result followed by entering the
desired value, 7.00 in the, “Goal Seek” dialog box below.
4. Next pick an input number, 3.00 in this example then pick, OK.
5. Excel has iteratively changed cell B7 to 5.74 at which point cell B10 is equal to the
desired result of 10.00, below.
5. Excel has iteratively changed cell B7 to 5.74 at which point cell B10 is equal to the
desired result of 10.00, below.
EXAMPLE: GAS TURBINE IDEAL EFFICIENCY

Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine at 100 kPa and temperature is
25 deg C.
The exhaust to atmospressure pressure ratio is 4 and a maximum temperature of 850

deg C,
determine the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency using the Brayton cycle.
GAS TURBINE IDEAL EFFICIENCY Input

Air enters the compressor at temperature, tA = 25 deg C
Air enters the compressor at pressure, PA = 100 kPa
Gas turbine maximum temperature, tC = 850 deg C
Exhaust to atmos pressure ratio, r = 4.00 Expansion pressure ratio,
Calculate
Air enters the compressor at temp., TA = tA + 273
= 298 deg K
Gas turbine absolute max temperature, TC = tC + 273
= 1123 deg K
k= 1.4
Compressor discharge temperature, TB = TA*(PB / PA)^(k-1)/k
= TA*( r )^(k-1)/k
= 442.8 deg K
Turbine discharge temperature, TD = TC*( 1 / r )^((k-1)/k)
= 755.9 deg K
Back work ratio, BWr = Cp*(TB - TA) / (Cp*(TC - TD)
BWr = (TB - TA) / (TC - TD)
= 0.394
= 39.4%
Brayton turbine thermal efficiency, ηth = 1 - r^(1-k)/k
= 0.327
= 32.7%
Excel will make a, “what if calculation” with "Goal Seek" when the calculated formula
value needs to be changed. Goal Seek will not function with percentages.
1. Pick the formula cell B216 (yellow) with the 0.394 formula result.
2. To the right of the Data tab pick, “What-If Analysis” followed by, “Goal Seek”.
3. Next pick cell B202 (green) and input number value 0.45 for pressure ratio r in place
of the 4.00 as shown in the Goal Seek dialog box below.
4. Pick the, "By changing cell:" space with the mouse pointer.
5. Now pick cell B202 (green) so that $B$202 will be placed in the, "By changing cell"
space as below.
6. Pick OK in the Goal Seek dialog box above.
7. Goal seek obtains the result that pressure ratio r needs to be 6.35 for back work
ratio.
Note that the Brayton turbine thermal efficiency has changed from 0.327 to 0.410.
8. Pick "OK" in the "Goal Seek Status" dialog box shown below.
9. Next pick the Brayton turbine thermal efficiency formula cell B219 (blue) with the
0.410 result.
10. Pick Data tab: “What-If Analysis” followed by, “Goal Seek”.
11. Type in the "To value:" space, 0.50 as below.
12. Now pick cell B219 (green) so that $B$202 will be placed in the "By changing cell"
space as below.
13. Select "OK".
14. Exhaust to atmos pressure ratio needs to be 11.31 to obtain a Brayton turbine thermal
efficiency of 0.50 or 50%.
END OF MATH TOOLS WORKSHEET

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M363 STEAM & COMBUSTION POWER CYCLES SPREADSHEET CALCULATIONS

SUMMARY Rev. 19 June 2012 10 PDH

PRINCIPAL THERMAL POWER CYCLES

It can be proved that any reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.

Air Standard Carnot Cycle

Pr or rp,s = PB/PA = PC/PD = (TD/TC)^(1/(1-k))

Vr or rv,s = VA/VB = VD/VC = (TD/TC)^(1/(1-k))

Pressure, Temperature, and Volume Calculations

PA = PD*(VD/VA) = PB*(VB/VA)^k = PB*(TA/TB)^(k/(k-1)

VA = VD*(PD/PA) = VB*(PB/PA)^(1/k) = VB*(TB/TA)^(1/(k-1))

Vr or rv,s = VA/VB = VD/VC = (TD/TC)^(1/(1-k))

Pressure, Temperature, and Volume Calculations

PA = PD*(VD/VA) = PB*(VB/VA)^k = PB*(TA/TB)^(k/(k-1)

VA = VD*(PD/PA) = VB*(PB/PA)^(1/k) = VB*(TB/TA)^(1/(k-1))

PB = PA*(VA/V)^k = PA*(TB/TA)^(k/(k-1) = PC*(VC/VB)

VB = VA*(PA/PB)^(1/k) = VA*(TA/TB)^(1/(k-1)) = VC*(PC/PB)

PC = PB*(VB/VC) = PD*(VD/VC)^k = PD*(TC/TD)^(k/(k-1)

VB = VB*(PB/PC) = VD*(PD/PC)^(1/k) = VD*(TD/C)^(1/(k-1))

PD = PC*(VC/VD)^k = PC*(TD/TC)^(k/(k-1) = PA*(VA/VD)

VD = VC*(PC/PD)^(1/k) = VA*(PA/PD) = VC*(TC/D)^(1/(k-1))

Work and Heat Flow Terms

Qout,D-A = I Tlow*(sA - sD) I = I PD*VD*Ln(VA/VD)

Win = I cv*(TA - TB) I + TD*(sD - sA)

Wout = cv*(TC - TD) I + TB*(sC - sB)

Air Standard Carnot Cycle Thermal Efficiency

ηth = (Wout - Win) / Qin = (Qin - Qout) / Qin

or ηth = (Thigh - Tlow) / Thigh = (TB - TA) / TB = (TC - TD) / TC

Ideal Thermal Efficiency from Compression Ratio

2. Rankin Vapor Power Cycle with Superheat

A to B: Water is heated to boiler saturation pressure and temperature.

B to C: Water changes state to saturated steam vapor.

C to D: Superheating increases steam temperature and enthalpy,

D to F: Steam vapor changes state to a liquid phase in the condenser.

AUTOMOTIVE FUEL ECONOMY

Barrel of Crude Oil

One barrel of crude oil, when refined,

COAL FIRED POWER PLANT BOILER

1st Law of Thermodynamics

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

The kilogram calorie, equal to one thousand gram calories.

The kilogram calorie, equal to one thousand gram calories.

It can be proved that any reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.

It can be proved that any reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.

In classical thermodynamics, the entropy is defined only for a system in thermodynamic

The entropy of vaporization is the increase in entropy when vaporizing a substance.

It is denoted as ΔSovap and normally expressed in J/mol·K.

Steam and Vapor Enthalpy

Water - Thermal Properties

It is named after William John Macquorn Rankin, a Scottish polymath.

See full size image:

END OF SUMMARY WORKSHEET

Temperature is the intensity of heat:

CONVERT FROM ISO METRIC UNITS TO US UNITS

INPUT QTY UNITS Divide by OBTAIN UNITS

CONVERT FROM US TO METRIC UNITS

M = Mega = 10k = kilo = 103

Specific Heat Ratio for Air

Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.00 kj/kg deg C

Specific heat ratio for air, k = Cp/Cv = 1.4

PA = PD(VD/VA) = PB(VB/VA)^k = PB*(TA/TB)^(k/(k-1)

VA = VD(PD/PA) = VB(PB/PA)^(1/k) = VB*(TB/TA)^(1/(k-1))

PA = PD(VD/VA) = PB(VB/VA)^k = PB*(TA/TB)^(k/(k-1)

VA = VD(PD/PA) = VB(PB/PA)^(1/k) = VB*(TB/TA)^(1/(k-1))

PB = PA(VA/V)^k = PA(TB/TA)^(k/(k-1) = PC*(VC/VB)

VB = VA(PA/PB)^(1/k) = VA(TA/TB)^(1/(k-1)) = VC*(PC/PB)

PC = PB(VB/VC) = PD(VD/VC)^k = PD*(TC/TD)^(k/(k-1)

VB = VB(PB/PC) = VD(PD/PC)^(1/k) = VD*(TD/C)^(1/(k-1))

PD = PC(VC/VD)^k = PC(TD/TC)^(k/(k-1) = PA*(VA/VD)

VD = VC(PC/PD)^(1/k) = VA(PA/PD) = VC*(TC/D)^(1/(k-1))

Qout,D-A = I Tlow(sA - sD) I = I PDVD*Ln(VA/VD)

Win = I cv(TA - TB) I + TD(sD - sA)

Wout = cv(TC - TD) I + TB(sC - sB)

= 2 atm x 5 liters / ((0.0821 literatmmole-1 * K deg-1) x (250 deg K))

= 29.317 Jmole-1K deg-1

= 0.487 mole x 21.0 Jmole-1K deg-1 x (500 - 250) deg K

= 0.487 mole x 21.0 Jmole-1K deg-1 x (500 - 250) deg K

= 0.487 mole x 29.317 Jmole-1K deg-1 x (650 - 500) deg K

= 0.487 mole x 21.0 Jmole-1K deg-1 x (650 - 325) deg K