Lecture 1, Week 1 Newest

CARNOT CYCLES
Sadi Carnot was a French physicist who proposed an “ideal” cycle for a
heat engine in 1824.
Historical note – the idea of an ideal cycle came about because engineers
were trying to develop a steam engine (a type of heat engine) where they
could reject (waste) a minimal amount of heat. This would produce the
best efficiency since η = 1 – (QL/QH).
Carnot proposed that a cycle comprised of completely (internally and

externally) reversible processes would give the maximum amount of net
work for a given heat input, since the work done by a system in a
reversible (ideal) process is always greater than that in an irreversible
(real) process.
THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE CYCLE CONSISTS OF FOUR

REVERSIBLE PROCESSES IN A SEQUENCE:
1 Æ 2: Reversible isothermal expansion.

Heat transfer from HTR (+) and boundary work (+) occur in
closed system
2 Æ 3: Reversible adiabatic expansion

Work output (+), but no heat transfer
3 Æ 4: Reversible isothermal compression

Heat transfer (-) and boundary work (-) occur in closed
system
4 Æ 1: Reversible adiabatic compression

Work input (-), but no heat transfer
AND Wout >>> Win
1
P-V DIAGRAM FOR CARNOT HEAT ENGINE CYCLE
P
1
2
4
3
Showing net work is POSITIVE. V
A useful example of an isothermal expansion is boiling (vaporization) at
a constant pressure in a device such as a piston-cylinder. Similarly, an
example of an isothermal compression is condensation at a constant
pressure in a piston-cylinder.
Also, heat transfer can only occur in processes 1 Æ 2 and 3 Æ4.

1 Æ 2: since work is positive (expansion) and Δu is positive (e.g.,
boiling) then heat transfer is positive (input from HTR).
3 Æ 4: since work is negative (compression) and Δu is negative (e.g.,
condensation) then heat transfer is negative (output to LTR).
CARNOT PRINCIPLES FOR HEAT ENGINES
1. The efficiency of an irreversible (real) heat engine is always less

than the efficiency for a reversible (CARNOT) heat engine
operating between the same high and low temperature reservoirs,
(regardless of type of devices, working fluid, etc.)
2. The efficiencies of all reversible (CARNOT) heat engines

operating between the same high and low temperature reservoirs
are always equal, (regardless of type of devices, working fluid,
etc.)
2
EXAMPLE
ATTEMPT THIS!!
If the rate heat input to this system is 600 MW. Calculate the work
output of this system.
EXAMPLE
A Carnot engine operates with efficiency of 40 %. How much must the

temperature of the hot reservoir increase, so that the efficiency
increases to 50 %? The temperature of the cold reservoir remains at
9 °C.
Hint
Write down the relationships for the initial efficiency of the Carnot
engine and for the efficiency after changing the temperature of the hot
reservoir. Using these equations, evaluate the initial and the final
temperature of the hot reservoir. The temperature increase of the hot
reservoir can be determined as the difference of these two temperatures.
Answer
The temperature of the hot reservoir must increase by 94 K, i.e. by

94 °C.
CARNOT REFRIGERATOR IS SIMPLY A REVERSED
CARNOT HEAT ENGINE, WITH A SEQUENCE OF FOUR
REVERSIBLE PROCESSES
1 Æ 2: Reversible isothermal expansion

Heat transfer (+) and boundary work (+) occur in closed
system
2 Æ 3: Reversible adiabatic compression

Work input (-), but no heat transfer
AND Win >>> Wout
3 Æ 4: Reversible isothermal compression

Heat transfer (-) and boundary work (-) occur in closed
system
4Æ1 Reversible adiabatic expansion

Work output (+), but no heat transfer
P-V DIAGRAM FOR CARNOT REFRIGERATOR CYCLE
P
4
3
1
2
V
Showing net work is NEGATIVE.
3
CARNOT PRINCIPLES APPLIED TO A REFRIGERATOR
1. The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator (or heat

pump) comprised of reversible processes (CARNOT) is always
greater than the COP for a sequence of irreversible (real) processes
operating between the same high and low temperature reservoirs
(regardless of type of devices, working fluid, etc.).
2. The COP’s of all reversible (CARNOT) refrigerators or heat

pumps operating between the same high and low temperature
reservoirs are always equal, (regardless of type of devices, working
fluid, etc.)
The second CARNOT principle states that the efficiency of a CARNOT

heat engine is a function of high and low temperature reservoir
temperatures (TH, TL) only when temperature is on an absolute scale
(Kelvin). That is:
η C = f (TH , TL )
then since η is by definition a function of the ratio QH/QL. For a model
system of three heat engines operating between the same reservoirs, as
shown in text figure 6-49, it can be proven that
for a reversible (CARNOT) heat engine:
⎛ QH ⎞ T
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = H
⎝ QL ⎠ reversible TL
and
TL Q
ηC = 1 − = 1− L
TH QH
where TH and TL are ALWAYS in degrees Kelvin!
4
Similarly for CARNOT refrigerator/heat pump cycles:
1 1
COPCR = =
⎛ TH ⎞ ⎛ QH ⎞
⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ TL ⎠ ⎝ QL ⎠
and
1 1
COPCHP = =
⎛ TL ⎞ ⎛ Q L ⎞
⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ TH ⎠ ⎝ Q H ⎠
where TH and TL are ALWAYS in degrees Kelvin!
5
2
Thermodynamics
Vapor Power Cycle

(Rankine Cycle)
Trained as a civil engineer, William Rankine (1820-1872)was
appointed to the chairman of civil engineering and mechanics at
Glasgow in 1855. He worked on heat, and attempted to derive Sadi
Carnot's law from his own hypothesis. He was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1853. Among his most important works are Manual of
Applied Mechanics (1858), Manual of the Steam Engine and Other
Prime Movers (1859) .
Vapor Power System Model
Rankine Cycle, Ideal
Process 1-2: Isentropic expansion Process 3-4: Isentropic
of the fluid through the turbine compression of fluid to
from saturated vapor to the compressed liquid.
condenser pressure.
Process 2-3: Heat transfer at Process 4-1: Heat transfer at
constant pressure through the constant pressure through the
condenser to saturated liquid. boiler to saturated vapor
Wcycle WT  W P
  
Q in Q in
*Energy balance, each process
*For pump
*
- For boiler
-For turbine
-For condenser
*Thermal efficiency
h2  h1  (h3  h4 )
th 
h2  h1
Usually, The properties: p1, t1 and p2 are available
for a power plant,then:
h1: From p1, t1 , get h1 , s1
h2 : From p2 , get s2f , s2fg

h2f , h2fg
s2  s1  s2 f  xs2 fg
So, x can be known
h2  h2 f  xh2 fg
h4 : From p1 , s1= s4 get h4
h3: From p2 , get h2f , s2f
h3= h3f s3= s3f ’
Real vs. Ideal Cycle
*Major difference is irreversibilities in pump and turbine
Increase Efficiency?
a) Lower condenser pressure.

b) Increase superheat temperature.
c) Increase boiler pressure.
Increase Efficiency?
a) Lower condenser pressure
b) Increase superheat temperature

- Increase Efficiency?
c) Increase boiler pressure
*Reheat
*Reheat
- Equations become:
- Purposes of reheat: keep turbine inlet temps

within limits, increase quality of steam in last
stages of turbine
Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
*Regeneration: effective use
of energy
*Open (direct contact)
feedwater heaters (mixing
chambers)
*Closed feedwater heaters
(heat exchangers)
*
Open feedwater analysis: 6
Mass Balance: m 3  m 2  m 6
3 2
Often will use the term “blend fraction”
m 6 m 2
y consequently, 1 y 
m 3 m 3
Energy Balance: 0   m i hi 
0  m 2 h2  m
 6 h6  m 3h3
m 2 m 3 m 6
0 h2  h3  h6  yh2  1  y h6  h3
m 3 m 3 m 3
Thus: h3  h6
y
h2  h3
Energy balances:
For the turbines:
WT 1
 h1  h2 and WT 2  1  y h  h 
m 2 3
m
For the condenser:
Q out
 1  y h3  h4 
m 
For the pump:
W P
 h7  h6   1  y h5  h4 

m
For the boiler:
Q in
 h1  h7
m
*
*
A more complicated cycle…
Reheat and Regenerative
As closing comment: You now have most of the tools you
would need to analyze some relatively complicated vapor
power generation units and be able to discuss their
respective efficiencies or how to suggest improvements in
their performance... (not that you would want to).

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CARNOT CYCLES

Carnot proposed that a cycle comprised of completely (internally and

THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE CYCLE CONSISTS OF FOUR

1 Æ 2: Reversible isothermal expansion.

2 Æ 3: Reversible adiabatic expansion

3 Æ 4: Reversible isothermal compression

4 Æ 1: Reversible adiabatic compression

Also, heat transfer can only occur in processes 1 Æ 2 and 3 Æ4.

CARNOT PRINCIPLES FOR HEAT ENGINES

1. The efficiency of an irreversible (real) heat engine is always less

2. The efficiencies of all reversible (CARNOT) heat engines

A Carnot engine operates with efficiency of 40 %. How much must the

The temperature of the hot reservoir must increase by 94 K, i.e. by

1 Æ 2: Reversible isothermal expansion

2 Æ 3: Reversible adiabatic compression

3 Æ 4: Reversible isothermal compression

4Æ1 Reversible adiabatic expansion

P-V DIAGRAM FOR CARNOT REFRIGERATOR CYCLE

1. The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator (or heat

2. The COP’s of all reversible (CARNOT) refrigerators or heat

The second CARNOT principle states that the efficiency of a CARNOT

for a reversible (CARNOT) heat engine:

where TH and TL are ALWAYS in degrees Kelvin!

where TH and TL are ALWAYS in degrees Kelvin!

Vapor Power Cycle

h2 : From p2 , get s2f , s2fg

a) Lower condenser pressure.

a) Lower condenser pressure

b) Increase superheat temperature

- Purposes of reheat: keep turbine inlet temps

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