Carnot and Rankine cycle

Carnot and Rankine cycle are two thermodynamic cycles upon which
functioning of most heat engines are based. Carnot cycle is a
theoretical cycle but Rankine is a Practical cycle but having efficiency
lower than that of the Carnot cycle. Why we shall see in the
subsequent description.

CARNOT CYCLE:

T Boile
r

4 1
WP WT

Pump
32

Q2
Condensor

Carnot cycle is a theoretical cycle, which describes the functioning of a heat

engine. Before explaining the Carnot cycle, few terms have to be defined. Heat
source is defined as a constant temperature device, which will provide infinite
heat. The heat sink is a constant temperature device, which will absorb infinite
amount of heat without changing the temperature. The engine is the device or the
process, which converts heat from the heat source to work. The Carnot cycle
consists of four steps.
Process:- 4-1 Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas – The engine is thermally
connected with the source. In this step, the expanding gas absorbs
heat from the source and does work on the surroundings. The
temperature of the gas remains constant.
Process:- 1-2 Reversible adiabatic expansion of the gas – The system is adiabatic
meaning no heat transfer is possible. The engine is taken out of the
source and insulated. In this step, the gas does not absorb any heat
from the source. The piston continues to do work on the surrounding.
Process:- 2-3 Reversible isothermal compression – The engine is placed on the sink
and thermally contacted. The gas is compressed so that the
surrounding is doing work on the system.
Process:- 3-4 Reversible adiabatic compression – The engine is taken out of the
sink and insulated. The surrounding continues to do work on the
system.

In the Carnot cycle, the total work done is given by difference between the work
done on the surroundings (step 1 and 2) and the work done by the surroundings
(step 3 and 4). Carnot cycle is the most efficient heat engine in theory. The
efficiency of the Carnot cycle depends only on the temperatures of the source and
sink.
 Sat. temp. at boiler pressure

1
4
6 Tm
7
4'

3 2

3'
Steam part
Steam part

b a
W

Rankine cycle is also a cycle, which converts heat into work. The
Rankine cycle is a practically used cycle for systems consisting of a
vapor turbine. There are four main processes in the Rankine cycle
1. The working of fluid into high pressure from a low pressure
2. The heating of the high pressure fluid into a vapor
3. The vapor expands through a turbine turning the turbine, thereby
generating power
4. The vapor is cooled back inside the condenser.

These limitations can be overcome by complete condensation of vapor up

to point 3 for this a large amount of cooling water is supplied in the
condenser. The water thus formed is pumped to point 4 and sent to
boiler for addition of sensible and latent heat to get it converted into
steam. The area under 34 -4-3 is sensible heat addition and area under 3-
4-1-2 is latent heat addition. The cycle thus formed by the process 1-2- 3-
4-4-1 becomes Rankine cycle, which is being used in Thermal power plants.

What is the difference between Carnot Cycle and

Rankine Cycle?
•Carnot cycle is a theoretical cycle whereas the
Rankine cycle is a practical one. Why
•Carnot cycle ensures the maximum
efficiency under ideal conditions, but the
Rankine cycle ensures the operation in real
conditions.
•The efficiency obtained by the Rankine cycle is
always lower than that of the Carnot cycle.
 Thermodynamics Power Cycles for Thermal Power Plants

Carnot Cycle :

It is a reversible cycle proposed by Sadi Carnot. In the Carnot cycle the working substance receives heat at
one temperature & rejects at another temperature. The cycle consists of two isothermal processes & two
reversible adiabatic processes, as shown in schematics, T-s and P-v diagram

Turbine T Boiler
1

WT 4 1
G
Boiler WP WT
Q1
Pump
2 32
4 Q1 Condensor
WP Q2
Condensor

Pump S

Process 1–2  Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion in turbine

Process 2–3  Reversible Isothermal heat rejection
Process 3–4  Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) compression
Process 4–1  Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition

All the above processes of Carnot cycle are reversible hence cycle is also reversible. The same can also
be represented by a heat engine which operates between two thermal reservoirs maintained at
temperature T1 and T2 and generates work.
T1

Q1

Q2 > 0

T2
As per the Kelvin Planck’s statement of 2nd law of thermodynamics, the heat engine is possible only
when Q2 > 0, i.e. some heat has to be rejected to other reservoir.

As per the sign convention of thermodynamics, Work produced by the system, and heat supplied to the
system, both are taken as positive (+ve). For a substance undergoing in a cyclic change, cyclic integral
of work is equal to cyclic integral of heat. Thus,

WT – WP =Q1 – Q2

and efficiency ( can be represented by :

Net work
 = Heat supplied
WT  WP
= ,
Q1
Q2
Q1  Q2 = 1 –
= Q1
Q1

T1
4 1

Q1

3 2

Q2

The area enclosed by 1 2 3 4 represent net heat (Q1 – Q2) or net work (WT – WP) interaction.

Steady state energy equation (S.S.E.E.) for components of Carnot cycle :

Generalized S.E.E.E. for an open system is:

2
V V
2
h1  1
 gz1  q = h2  2
 gz2  W
2 2

q  heat input unit mass and w is work per unit mass

(1) Turbine
1

If V1 = V2
z1 = z2
 q = 0

Then the S.S.E.E. for turbine becomes

WT = h1 – h2
h1 and h2 can be found from steam table at a given temperature and pressure

(2) Condenser
Q2
2 3

If V2 = V3 z2 = z3, W=0, q2 = h2 – h3
Q2 = m (q2 )
(3) Pump

WP
3 4

If V3 = V4, z3 = z4, and q=0

Then the S.S.E.E. for pump is W = h 
p 4

Pump work can also be calculated, wp= vdP

Where v is Specific volume (m3/kg) and P pressure in bar. To convert the work in kJ/kg :
m3 N
5 Nm J thus
×10 = kg =
kg in kJ/kg
kg m2
W = 105

p ud p ×
1000

Wp = 100 × v × dP in kJ/kg

(4) Boiler
If w = 0

V4 = V1
z4 = z1

then the S.S.E.E. for the boiler can be written as

q = h1 – h4,

h1 and h4 can be found from steam table at a given temperature and pressure

Q2
From figure Efficiency = 1 
Q1

T2 (S2  S3 )
= 1
T1(S1  S4 )

T2
 =1 
T1
Since, Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle, hence no cycle working between the same temperature
reservoirs can be more efficient than this.
LIMITATIONS OF CARNOT CYCLE :
1. Termination of condensation process at point 3 from where compression leads to point 4
on saturation line, i.e. water is saturated condition and needs only latent heat for

Sat. temp. at boiler pressure

1
4
6 Tm
7
4'

3 2

3'
Steam part
Steam part

W
conversion into vapor, is not practically feasible.
b a

2. During compression of the mixture of steam and water in pump from point 3 to point 4,
steam is getting condensed and vanishes at the end of compression. When steam gets
converted into water, a large difference in specific volume causes cavitations over the
pump impellers and will damage the impellor very fast.
3. Designing of pump/compressor which can handle two phase flow is another difficulty.

RANKINE CYCLE

These limitations can be overcome by complete condensation of vapor up to point 3 for this a large
amount of cooling water is supplied in the condenser. The water thus formed is pumped to point 4 and
sent to boiler for addition of sensible and latent heat to get it converted into steam. The area under 34
is sensible heat addition and area under 3- 4-1-2 is latent heat addition. The cycle thus
formed by the process 1-2-3-4-4-1 becomes Rankine cycle, which is being used in Thermal
power plants.

Comparison of Carnot and Rankine cycle :

As discussed above the efficiency of Carnot cycle is given in terms of condenser and boiler temperature.

T2  Condensor temp.
 = 1
T1  Boiler temp.

For comparison let us assume that entire heat addition in Rankine cycle takes place at a some imaginary
temperature Tm, i.e. Area b – 44 – 1 – a – b = area b – 6 – 7 – a – b,
Thus, the equivalent cycle with heat addition at constant temperature becomes 7-2-3-6-7, with heat
addition at Tm and heat rejection at T2. The efficiency of this equivalent cycle becomes :
T
R = 1  2 , where Tm < T1
Tm

Since Tm is lower than T1 in Carnot cycle, the efficiency of Rankine is lower than the Carnot cycle
 .
R  C
Calculation of Tm
(h1 – h4) = Tm(S2 – S3)

Tm = h 1  h 4
S2  S3

TEMPERATURE ENTROPY DIAGRAM:

The temperature entropy diagram is probably the most useful diagram of all for illustrating certain
fundamental points about steam cycle. Ideal condition for an unit on a T-S diagram are indicated in
the following figure -1. The unit uses steam at a pressure say 100 bars absolute, temperature 5660C
(8390K) and reject to the condenser pressure at 30mm bar abs. ( saturation temp. 24.10C).

S
Figure-1, Sensible, latent and Superheat, 100 bars, 5660C cycle on T-S Diagram

At Point „A‟ the condensate is at boiling temp. corresponding to the back (Condensate) pressure.
Heat sensible is added to this water to raise it‟s temp. and pressure. At
Point „B‟ it reaches it‟s saturation temp. (310.961 0C obtainable from
steam table) at a pressure of 100 bar. Evaporation begins at point „B”.
Heat (latent-because of no rise in temp.) continues to be added till point
“C” till entire water is converted into dry saturated steam at „C”.
Further heating beyond „C‟ superheating commences till point „D‟ and
curve CD represent superheating and superheating steam temp. is 5660C.

Steam then expands isentropically i.e enters the turbine and rotate it, as shown by the line DEF.
At E there is no superheat left in the steam and as it expands below
saturation line wetness start. At „F‟ the steam enter condenser at a back
pressure of 30mm bar abs. In the condenser condensation of steam
exhausted from turbine is completed till point „A‟. From here onward it is
ready to start another cycle starting from Boiling point at „A‟. To
summarize the above:

AB – Heating of feed water (i.e sensible heat)

BC – Evaporation of feed water in Boiler (i.e latent heat addition)
CD – Superheating of water in boiler ( latent Heat addition)

DF – Expansion of steam in turbine. Point E differentiate between superheated and wet steam.
FA – Condensation of steam in the condenser.

More Information from T-S diagram

In the above figure sensible heat addition is represented by area AB. At A the temperature is
24.10C and at „B‟ it is 3110C. Net amount of sensible heat added can be
found:

Sensible heat at „A‟ = 101 KJ/Kg

Sensible heat at „B‟ = 1408 KJ/Kg both from steam tables

So sensible heat added from A to B is 1408 – 101 = 1307 KJ/Kg

It should be noted the as the higher capacity units use more & more high pressure steam, More
sensible heat can be added to feed water by way of feed water heaters and
economizers at higher feed water pressure.
The following table will show increase of sensible heat with corresponding pressure.

Figure-2 Sensible heat at saturation temperature.

Absolute pressure Saturation temperature (0C) Sensible heat

(bar) KJ/Kg
50 263.9 1154.5
100 311.0 1408.0
150 342.1 1611.0
200 365.7 1826.5
221.2 374.15 2107.4

Table -1 Sensible heat at saturation temperature at various pressure

LATENT HEAT ADDITION:
As stated before almost all sensible heat is added to feed water in heaters and economizer. Water
enter the boiler wall tubes is almost at saturation temperature and starts
receiving latent heat along line BC at constant temp.The area nBCl
represents latent heat addition. Its amount can be calculated in the

following way:
Figure – 3 Latent Heat at Various pressures

Latent heat required is given by = T(S1 – S2)

Temp. of Boiling water at B = 3110C = 5840K
S2 = Entropy at C = 5.6198KJ/KgK from T-S diagram

S1 = Entropy at B = 3.3605 (from T-S diagram) also available from steam table
So latent heat required = 584.111 (5.6198 – 3.3605) = 1319.7 KJ/Kg

It should be noted unlike saturation temp. which increases with the increase in pressure, latent
heat required goes on decreasing as the saturation pressure is increased.
Following table shows the latent heat required at increased saturation
pressure.

Absolute pressure (bar) Saturation temperature (0C) Latent heat

KJ/Kg
50 263.9 1639.7
100 311.0 1319.7
150 342.1 1004.0
200 365.7 591.9
221.2 374.15 0

Table – 2 Saturation temp. and latent heat at different abs. pressure

SUPERHEAT ADDITION:
The curve CD in the figure 4 shows the process of steam being superheated at constant pressure of
100 bars from the state of dry saturated steam at 3110C to the designed
stop valve temp. of 5660C. The area plcd represent the amount of
superheat. The amount of superheat is obtained by deducting total heat
at C from total heat at D and is equal to 811.6 KJ/Kg Quantity of heat
required to superheat the steam at given temp. Varies with pressure as

given below. Figure-4

Absolute pressure Superheat required

(bar) KJ/Kg
50 800.9
100 821.5
150 885.4
200 1033.2

Table -3 Amount of superheat at saturation and superheat pressure against constant temp.
(Variation of superheat for different pressure)

THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF THE CYCLE:

Figure-5 Modified Basic Cycle to incorporate reheat

Thermal efficiency of the cycle is defined as: Figure -5

Thermal efficiency = Useful Heat/Total heat
Useful heat means the part of total heat which is used in rotating turbine, i.e when the steam
expands adiabatically in the turbine, representing by the line DEF and
expanding up to a pressure of 30mm bar abs (24.1 0C). The condensation
takes place at constant temp. as indicated by line FA until all latent heat is
removed.

Heat removed from steam or useless heat is shown by the rectangle pmAF. Amount of this heat
rejected can be calculated as follows.
Heat rejected = T(S3-S4)

T abs temp. of FA = 24.10C = 273.15) = 297.250K

S2 = Entropy at F = 6.8043 KJ/KgK S1 =
Entropy at 1 = 0.3455 KJ/kgK

So heat rejected = 297.25(6.8043 -0.35544) = 1917.2 KJ/kg

Now Total Heat = Sensible heat + latent heat + Superheat = 1307+1319.7+811.6 = 3438.3KJ/Kg
Useful Heat = Total Heat – Rejected heat

So, Thermal efficiency = Total heat – Rejected heat/Total Heat

1-Rejected heat / Total Heat

1-1917.2/3438.2 = 0.4423 0r 44.23%

This is the highest possible efficiency obtainable from a Rankine cycle

If the steam is not superheated and enters turbine at point C and expand to 30mm abs back
pressure. Then the efficiency can be calculated as 27.01%. it is therefore
quite evident how superheating the steam before admitting to turbine at
point D and expanding to a back pressure of 30mm abs. has increased from
27.01% to 44.23%. But this scope become limited to the degree of
superheating from metallurgical point of view.

Reheating: Refereeing back to the figure 5 if the steam is expanded from point D (Superheated to
Point F through E) where Line EF represent wet steam which can
damage the turbine blades, the cycle can be improved by reheating the
expanding steam at point E. It can be calculated like above that reheating
will not only save turbine blades from damage but thermal efficiency
further improves from 44.23 to 46.23%.
REGENERATIVE FEED HEATING:
Steam in a thermal power plant cycle will normally be rejected in two ways.
a) Firstly it may be rejected to condenser after doing work in turbine.
b) Secondly it may be used to carry out heating of the feed water after expanding in the
turbine or from a specific stages of turbine. This will not only reduce load on the condenser
but also require less sensible heat to heat feed water up to saturation temp.
c) In 500 MW units steam is bled from exhaust of HP turbine to drive BFP and thereafter its
exhaust is used for carrying out feed water heating.
Let us again see the previous 100 bar cycle, this time with regenerative feed water heating .
The steam expands isentropically in the turbine until the temp. is 2500C after which the
steam is bled to an infinite number of feed heaters. The result is quantity of heat
represented by the area under the curve KL is transferred to the water side shown by the
area under the curve AM. Note that M and K both are at 2500C. The heat represented by
the area LF pr has been given to feed water where as it would have rejected to condenser.
The heat represented by the area LKF has also been transferred to feed water, where as
formerly it would have done some work in the turbine. So there is some loss of work too.
Yes but on the balance it is better to loss the power from triangle LKF to save the heat
represented by large rectangle LFpr that would have been wasted.
Represented feed heating elevates the condensate temperature represented at A along the
boiling water line to M and the remaining sensible heat is supplied in the economizer and
boiler to Point B.

Let us find the efficiency with reheat:

Total Heat supplied = Sensible heat from M to B + latent heat + superheat.
Now sensible heat = Total heat at B – Total heat at M =322.2KJ/Kg

So the total heat supplied = 322.2 + 1319.7 + 811.6 = 2453.5 KJ/Kg

Heat rejected = Area under ALRM = 1192.2KJ/Kg
So, efficiency = 1-Rected heat/total heat = 1-1192.2/2453.5 = 0.5140 or 51.40%

Hence we see basic efficiency = 27.

Efficiency with superheat = 44.23%
Efficiency with re-heat = 46.09%
Efficiency with regeneration =51.4%

Improvement in Rankine cycle

 Wnet
The efficiency = ) of Rankine cycle can be increased by increasing network with same heat input
Q1

or by reducing heat input for same work output. Since net work is represented by area enclosed by the
cycle, increase in cycle area results in improvement in Wnet and hence in efficiency.

1. Increase in Main Steam Pressure :

T

1'
1
4'
4

2
3

4 1
B

Condensor

WP  WP'

Increase in network is represented by hatched (vertical lines) area and decrease in network is represented
by area hatched with horizontal lines. There is only marginal net increase in network and heat input is
W
about the same, resulting in little increase in efficiency, = net . The irreversibility associated with the
Q1

heat transfer is reduced as temperature difference betwee working fluid and combustion product is
reduced. But the condition of steam at last stages of turbine is deteriorated (point 2’) compared to earlier
case (point 2) causing more blade erosion as specific mass of water is higher than the steam and requires
more frequent blade replacement / maintenance.
Water particle
strike and enode
blade

Particle or its body

Stea
m will
glide

Hence by increasing pressure of main steam efficiency improves marginally but causing more
maintenance cost.

Increase Main Steam temperature or superheating

The temperature of steam is increased beyond the saturation temperature and then steam is allowed to
expand in the turbine. It is evident from the figure that the area enclosed by the cycle is increased. But
increase in temperature is limited on the metallurgy available which can sustain the higher temperature.
 T

1' Metallurgical
limit
superheating

2 2'

Since dryness fraction, x2 > x2, the quality of steam is also improved resulting in decreased maintenance
cost. If both temperature and pressure are increased, substantial improvement in the efficiency can be
achieved.

Decrease in Condenser Pressure:

If by some means, the condenser pressure is reduced, this also results in increase in net area of cycle
and hence performance. Heat rejection from the cycle deceases with reduction in condenser pressure,
which results in more network (Q1-Q2). Although heat input is also increased but Q2 is reduced
substantially as compared to Q1.

4
WT is increased
4' 1 atm 2
3 Dryness
3'
2'
frac should
not go below
88%

Q2
 = 1
Q1

The lowest pressure which can be achieved is the saturation pressure of steam at cooling water
temperature. Thus lowest pressure of the cycle is limited by ambient condition.

Reheating :

As discussed in superheating case above that the temperature can be increased keeping the metallurgical
constraints in mind. But after expansion of superheated steam up to certain pressure, the steam is again
heated in the boiler to maximum temperature and then again allowed to expand in another turbine to get
higher work output. Area enclosed by the cycle, which represent the net work, is improved and hence
efficiency. The quality of steam at exit of turbine is also improved resulting in less blade erosion.
 150 bar

Saper (0.3 P1)

heater 45 bar 50 bar 1 3

Fuel 8

Evaporater
Reheate
r
Air 7
4

Economiser

6 5

13

7
8
2

5 4

Now, as discussed above, reheating improves performance, but this also is limited with certain
constraint. It has been seen that efficiency goes on increasing up to certain pressure and then the gain in
efficiency start decreasing even it reduced to efficiency lower than the case without reheating, as shown
in figure. Reheating below a certain pressure reduces the mean temperature of heat addition below the
earlier value causing decrease in efficiency.

+ ve


Without
Reheatin
O g
 – ve

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

P2/P1

Reheating increases mean temperature of heat addition, T m, reheating is at higher

temperature than T1 and improves efficiency but as reheating goes below T1, Tm
decreases and efficiency start decreasing. Optimum Reheating pressure is between
0.2 - 0.3 of inlet main steam pressure.

WT =
(h1 –
h2) +
(h3 –
h4) WP
= h6 –
h5

Q1 = (h1 – h6) + (h3 – h2)

WT  WP
 =
Q1