M208 Handbook
M208 Handbook
M208 Handbook
Handbook
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Copyright
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Contents
Notation 5
Greek alphabet 5
Introduction Block 9
Analysis Block A 60
Analysis Block B 81
3
Appendix 95
Sketches of graphs of basic functions 95
Sketches of graphs of standard inverse functions 96
Properties of trigonometric and hyperbolic functions 97
Standard derivatives 98
Standard Taylor series 98
Standard primitives 99
Group tables of symmetry groups 100
Groups of small order 100
Three types of non-degenerate conic 101
Six types of non-degenerate quadric 101
Index 102
Wording of questions
In the wording of TMA and Examination questions:
find, determine, calculate, explain, derive, evaluate or solve means ‘show all
your working’;
to the next, then you must state clearly which fact it is that you are using.
Also, remember that when you use a theorem, you must demonstrate that
4
Notation
Greek alphabet
α A alpha ι I iota ρ P rho
β B beta κ K kappa σ Σ sigma
γ Γ gamma λ Λ lambda τ T tau
δ ∆ delta µ M mu υ Υ upsilon
ε E epsilon ν N nu φ Φ phi
ζ Z zeta ξ Ξ xi χ X chi
η H eta o O omicron ψ Ψ psi
θ Θ theta π Π pi ω Ω omega
∞ infinity
5
P ⇒Q if P , then Q (P implies Q)
a +n b remainder of a + b on division by n
a ×n b remainder of a × b on division by n
6
Notation introduced in Linear Algebra Block
v magnitude of vector v
0 zero vector (or zero matrix)
i, j, k unit vectors in the directions of x-, y-, z-axes, respectively
(a, b, c) a vector in R3 written in component form
u.v dot product of vectors u and v
v unit vector in the same direction as vector v
e eccentricity of a conic
(A | I) matrix A augmented by matrix I
(aij ) matrix with (i, j)-entry aij
In identity matrix of size n × n
AT transpose of matrix A
A−1 inverse of matrix A
det A determinant of matrix A
Aij cofactor associated with entry aij of matrix A
Rn set of all ordered n-tuples, called n-dimensional space
Pn set of all real polynomials of degree less than n
Mm,n set of all m × n matrices with real entries
R∞ set of all infinite sequences of real numbers
S span of finite set S of vectors
vE E-coordinate representation of vector v (coordinates with respect to basis E)
dim V dimension of vector space V
iV identity linear transformation of vector space V
Im(t) image of linear transformation t
Ker(t) kernel of linear transformation t
S(λ) eigenspace corresponding to eigenvalue λ
−1
sin inverse of function sin (similarly for cos, tan, sinh, etc.)
7
Notation introduced in Group Theory Block B
gHg −1 a conjugate subgroup of subgroup H
g∧x set element obtained when group element g acts on set element x
Orb(x) orbit of x
Stab(x) stabiliser of x
←→ corresponds to
x→c
lim limit as x tends to c from the right
x→c+
lim limit as x tends to c from the left
x→c−
dy
Leibniz notation for derivative of y = f (x) with respect to x
dx
f (n)
nth derivative of function f
fL
(c) left derivative of f at c
fR
(c) right derivative of f at c
P partition of an interval
b
f lower integral of function f over interval [a, b]
−a
−b
f upper integral of function f over interval [a, b]
a
b
R
radius of convergence of a powerseries
α α α α(α − 1)(α − 2) · · · (α − n + 1)
generalised binomial coefficient, = 1, = ,n∈N
n 0 n n!
8
I1
Introduction Block
I1 Real functions and graphs 3 A linear function has rule of the form
f (x) = ax + b, where a = 0.
A quadratic function has rule of the form
1 Real functions f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a = 0.
In completed-square form this is written as
1 A real function f is defined by specifying f (x) = a(x − α)2 + β,
• a set of real numbers A, called the domain of f ; where
• a set of real numbers B, called the codomain b 4ac − b2
α=− , β= .
of f ; 2a 4a
• a rule that associates with each real number x in The graph of this function is a parabola with vertex
the set A a unique real number f (x) in the set B. at (α, β) and axis x = α.
A cubic function has rule of the form
The number f (x) is the image of x under f or the
value of f at x. f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a = 0.
Convention When a real function is specified only The graph of a cubic function crosses the x-axis
the function is the set of all real numbers for which A linear rational function has rule of the form
x<b R
the origin.
s c c s
aa≤x<b b aa<x≤b b The scaling (x, y)
−→ (λx, µy) applied to the graph
with equation y = f (x) gives the graph with equation
y/µ = f (x/λ); that is, y = µf (x/λ).
The graph is scaled by λ in the x-direction, and by µ
in the y-direction. (1, 1) is shifted to (λ, µ), and (0, 0)
remains fixed.
9
I1
2 Graph sketching
Increasing/decreasing criterion
1 Determining features of a graph
1. If f (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I, then f
Domain is (strictly) increasing on I.
The domain of a real function specified just by a rule 2. If f (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I, then f
is the set of all real numbers, excluding any numbers is (strictly) decreasing on I.
which give an expression which is not defined—for
example, a zero in the denominator of a rational
function, or the square root of a negative number. A stationary point of f is a value a such that the
tangent to the graph of f is horizontal at the point
Symmetry features
(a, f (a)).
A graph may possess certain types of symmetry.
• For a periodic function, such as a
trigonometric function, the graph is unchanged First Derivative Test Suppose that a is a
by a translation along the x-axis through the stationary point of a differentiable function f ;
period, p say: that is, f (a) = 0.
f (x + p) = f (x). • If f (x) changes from positive to negative
• For an even function, the graph is unchanged as x increases through a, then f has a
by reflection in the y-axis:
local maximum at a.
f (−x) = f (x).
• If f (x) changes from negative to positive
as x increases through a, then f has a
• For an odd function, the graph is unchanged by
local minimum at a.
rotation through an angle π about the origin:
• If f (x) remains positive or remains
f (−x) = −f (x).
negative as x increases through a (except
Intercepts at a itself, where f (a) = 0), then f has a
An intercept is a value of x or y at which the graph horizontal point of inflection at a.
y = f (x) of a function f meets the x- or y-axis,
respectively. The x-intercepts are the solutions (if
2 Asymptotic behaviour
any) of the equation f (x) = 0 and are also known as
the zeros of f . The y-intercept is the value f (0), if An asymptote for the graph of a function is a
this exists. straight line which is approached more and more
closely by the graph when the domain variable x or
Intervals on which a function has constant sign the codomain variable y (or both) takes very large
Let f be a real function with domain A. Then:
(positive or negative) values.
f is positive on an interval I in A if f (x) > 0
for all x in I;
for all x in I;
if x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). An asymptote with an equation of the form y = b is a
horizontal asymptote.
if for all x1 , x2 ∈ I,
if x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
10
I1
f (x) → −∞ as x → a− , negative.
at a.
values of x, we divide both the numerator and the Extended graph-sketching strategy
denominator by the dominant term of the To sketch the graph of a given function f ,
denominator and consider the value of f (x) as determine the features of f listed in steps 1–6 of
x → ±∞. Strategy 2.1, and the following features.
7. Any appropriate construction lines, and the
points where f meets these lines.
11
I1
cosh x = .
2
• sinh is the hyperbolic sine function,
with rule
ex − e−x
sinh x = .
Circle with centre (0, 0), radius a:
2
• tanh is the hyperbolic tangent function, x2 + y 2 = a2 ,
with rule
α(t) = (a cos t, a sin t),
for t in [0, 2π].
sinh x
tanh x = .
cosh x
• sech is the hyperbolic secant function,
with rule
sech x = .
cosh x
• cosech is the hyperbolic cosecant function,
with rule
1
Ellipse in standard form:
cosech x = .
sinh x x2 y2
• coth is the hyperbolic cotangent function, 2
+ 2 = 1,
a b
with rule
α(t) = (a cos t, b sin t), for t in [0, 2π].
coth x = .
tanh x
Some properties of the trigonometric and hyperbolic
functions are given in a table on page 97.
12
I2
write b ∈
/ A.
4 A set with only one element, such as the set {2},
is called a singleton.
by ∅.
6 Plane sets
α(t) = (cos t + cos 2t, sin t + sin 2t), lines and circles.
written as
l = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y = ax + b}.
We sometimes refer to ‘the line y = ax + b’ as a
13
I2
14
I2
function f : A −→ B.
A function f : A −→ B that is both one-one and onto Ways of writing the implication ‘if P , then Q’:
g(x) = f (x), for x ∈ C, The converse of the implication ‘if P , then Q’ is the
is the restriction of f to C. implication ‘if Q, then P ’.
8 Composite functions 3 Equivalences
Let f : A −→ B and g : C −→ D be any two The statement ‘if P , then Q, and if Q, then P ’ is
functions; then the composite function g ◦ f has usually expressed more concisely as
domain {x ∈ A : f (x) ∈ C}, P if and only if Q.
codomain D, Such a statement is called an equivalence.
rule (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)). Ways of writing ‘P if and only if Q’:
This definition allows us to consider the composite of P ⇔Q
any two functions, although in some cases the P is equivalent to Q
domain may turn out to be the empty set ∅. P is necessary and sufficient for Q
15
I2
16
I2
Corollary
17
I3
numbers are denoted by R and Q, respectively. Thus The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C.
Q ⊆ R.
A complex number z = x + iy has real part x and
Multiplication x + iy
−→ (x, y).
M1 If a, b ∈ R, then a × b ∈ R. closure When we represent complex numbers by points in
M2 If a ∈ R, then the plane, we refer to the plane as the complex
a × 1 = 1 × a = a. identity plane, and we often refer to the complex numbers as
M3 If a ∈ R − {0}, then there is a points in the complex plane. Such a representation is
a × a−1 = a−1 × a = 1. inverses Real numbers are represented in the complex plane
M5 If a, b ∈ R, then
the imaginary axis.
a × b = b × a. commutativity
Addition and multiplication
D If a, b, c ∈ R, then
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c. distributivity
18
I3
Arithmetical operations on complex numbers are The set of complex numbers C satisfies all the
carried out as for real numbers, except that we properties previously given for arithmetic in R.
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be any complex In particular, 0 = 0 + 0i plays the same role in C as
numbers. Then the following operations can be the real number 0 does in R, and 1 = 1 + 0i plays the
respectively.
19
I3
Theorem 2.2
10 If
Let p(z) be a polynomial of degree n with
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ), z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ), coefficients in C and let α ∈ C. Then p(α) = 0 if
then and only if
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) p(z) = (z − α)q(z),
and where q(z) is a polynomial of degree n − 1 with
z1 r1
= (cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )),
coefficients in C.
z2 r2
provided that z2 = 0.
In particular, if z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) with r = 0, then
the reciprocal of z is
Corollary Every polynomial
p(z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 , where
1 1
= (cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ)). n ≥ 1, ai ∈ C for each i and an = 0, has a
z r factorisation
p(z) = an (z − α1 )(z − α2 ) · · · (z − αn ),
Strategy 2.1/2.2 where the complex numbers α1 , α2 , . . . , αn are
To multiply two or more complex numbers the roots (not necessarily distinct) of p(z).
given in polar form, multiply their moduli and
add their arguments.
To divide a complex number z1 by a non-zero 13 The complex exponential function
complex number z2 when both are given in If z = x + iy, then
polar form, divide the modulus of z1 by the ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y).
modulus of z2 , and subtract the argument of z2
from the argument of z1 . Euler’s formula If y ∈ R, then
eiy = cos y + i sin y.
A complex number expressed in the form z = re
iθ is
Theorem 2.1 de Moivre’s Theorem said to be in exponential form.
If z = cos θ + i sin θ, then, for any n ∈ Z, Using this notation, de Moivre’s Theorem
z n = (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ. becomes the simple result
20
I3
21
I3
4 Equivalence relations
Corollary to Theorem 3.3 Let p be a
prime number. Then every non-zero element in 1 Relations
Zp has a multiplicative inverse in Zp . We say that ∼ is a relation on a set X if whenever
in Zn . write x y.
M3 If a ∈ Zp , and a =
0, then a has a An equivalence relation on a set X is a relation ∼
multiplicative inverse a−1 ∈ Zp such that on X which satisfies the following three properties.
22
GTA1
2
4 Properties of symmetries
surrounded by a circle (of finite radius).
Let F be a plane figure.
f ◦ e = f = e ◦ f.
that f (F ) = F .
f ◦ f −1 = e = f −1 ◦ f.
The set of all symmetries of a plane figure F is
denoted by S(F ).
Composition of symmetries is associative; that is,
for all f, g, h ∈ S(F ),
2 Each symmetry of a bounded plane figure is of
h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f.
one of the following types.
23
GTA1
We restrict the angles for rotations to the interval The two-line symbol representing f is
[0, 2π), and the angles for axes of symmetry to the 1 2 3 ··· n
.
interval [0, π). So our symmetries are: f (1) f (2) f (3) · · · f (n)
rθ : rotation through an angle θ about the The order of the columns in the symbol is not
centre, for θ ∈ [0, 2π); important, although we usually use the natural order
qφ : reflection in the line through the centre to aid recognition.
at an angle φ to the horizontal To determine g ◦ f , the composite of two
(measured anticlockwise), for φ ∈ [0, π). symmetries g and f written as two-line symbols, we
We denote the set of all symmetries of the disc by reorder the columns of the symbol for g to make its
S(), read as ‘S-disc’: top line match the order of the bottom line of the
S() = {rθ : θ ∈ [0, 2π)} ∪ {qφ : φ ∈ [0, π)}. symbol for f . We then read off the two-line symbol
for the composite g ◦ f as the top line of the symbol
General formulas for the composition of elements in
for f and the bottom line of the symbol for g.
S() are given in the following table.
To find the inverse of f , we interchange the rows of
◦ rθ qθ its two-line symbol. Reordering the columns in the
rφ r(φ+θ) (mod 2π) q( 12 φ+θ) (mod π) symbol into the natural order is optional but may
qφ q(φ− 12 θ) (mod π) r2(φ−θ) (mod 2π) make the inverse easier to recognise.
8 Direct and indirect symmetries The 2 To form the Cayley table for the elements of a
set S(F ) of symmetries, we list the elements of S(F )
symmetries of a plane figure F that we can physically
across the top and down the left-hand side of a
demonstrate without lifting a model out of the plane
square array, using the same ordering across the top
to turn it over are called direct symmetries. We
and down the side. Normally we put the identity
denote the set of direct symmetries of a figure F by
symmetry e first, as shown below.
S + (F ).
For any two elements x and y of S(F ), the composite
The remaining symmetries are called indirect
x ◦ y is recorded in the cell in the row labelled x and
symmetries: they are the symmetries that cannot be
the column labelled y.
demonstrated physically without lifting a model out
of the plane, turning it over and then replacing it in e ··· x ··· y ···
the plane.
e
Rotations and translations are direct symmetries, .. ..
whereas reflections are indirect symmetries. . .
x ··· x ◦ y ···
Composition of direct and indirect symmetries .. ..
follows a standard pattern, as follows. . .
◦ direct indirect y
..
direct direct indirect .
indirect indirect direct Note that x is on the left both in the composite and
Further properties of direct and indirect symmetries in the border of the table.
are given in item 5 on page 26. The leading diagonal of a Cayley table is the
A glide-reflection is a type of indirect symmetry of diagonal from top left to bottom right.
24
GTA1
G3 inverses For each g ∈ G, there exists an (G2) A row and a column with the same label
inverse element g −1 ∈ G such repeat the borders of the table. The
that corresponding element is an identity element,
g ◦ g −1 = e = g −1 ◦ g. e say.
G4 associativity For all g1 , g2 , g3 ∈ G, (G3) The identity element e occurs exactly once in
g1 ◦ (g2 ◦ g3 ) = (g1 ◦ g2 ) ◦ g3 . each row and column, and e also occurs
symmetrically about the leading diagonal.
A group (G, ◦) that has the additional property that (This ensures that each element of G has an
for all g1 , g2 ∈ G, inverse in G.)
g1 ◦ g2 = g2 ◦ g1 , (To find the inverse of the element x, look
is an Abelian group (or commutative group). along the row labelled x until you meet the
A group that is not Abelian is called non-Abelian. identity e; then x−1 is the label of this
column.)
(G4) The operation ◦ is associative.
Strategy 3.1 To determine whether (G, ◦) is (This property is not easy to check from a
a group. Cayley table.)
guess behaviour, . . . check definition. If a group table has the following property, then the
To show that (G, ◦) is a group, show that each group is Abelian:
of the axioms G1, G2, G3 and G4 holds. the table is symmetrical about the leading
To show that (G, ◦) is not a group, show that diagonal.
any one of the axioms G1, G2, G3 or G4 fails; 5 Standard identities
that is, For composition of functions, the identity is x −→ x.
show that ◦ is not closed on G,
For addition of real and complex numbers, the
or find one element in G with no inverse in G, For multiplication of real and complex numbers, the
6 Standard inverses
2 A group (G, ◦) is a finite group if G is a finite For composition of functions, the inverse of the
set; otherwise, G is an infinite group.
function f is the inverse function f −1 .
If G is a finite set with exactly n (distinct) elements,
For addition of real and complex numbers, the
then the group (G, ◦) has order n and we denote
inverse of x is −x.
this by writing
For multiplication of real and complex numbers, the
|G| = n; inverse of x is x−1 = 1/x, provided that x = 0.
otherwise, (G, ◦) has infinite order. 7 Standard associative operations
Examples of finite groups The following operations are associative and may be
quoted as such:
(Z4 , +4 ), (Z5 , +5 ), (Z∗5 , ×5 ) where Z∗5 = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
composition of functions;
25
GTA1
dimples or spikes.
5. If the group S(F ) contains n direct and n
A regular polyhedron (Platonic solid) is a convex
indirect symmetries, then the n indirect
polyhedron in which all the faces are congruent
symmetries may be obtained by composing each
regular polygons and each vertex is the junction of
of the n direct symmetries with any one fixed
the same numbers of edges and faces, arranged in the
indirect symmetry.
same way.
faces;
26
GTA2
2. Count the number of symmetries of a face. A subgroup has the same binary operation as the
⎛ ⎞
number of
⎝ symmetries of
⎠
regular polyhedron
Theorem 1.1 Let (G, ◦) be a group with
=
number of
×
number of
.
(H, ◦) is a subgroup of (G, ◦) if and only if the
faces symmetries of face following three properties hold.
SG1 closure For all h1 , h2 ∈ H, the
composite h1 ◦ h2 ∈ H.
Strategy 5.2 To determine the number of
SG2 identity The identity element e ∈ H.
symmetries of a non-regular polyhedron. SG3 inverses For each h ∈ H, the inverse
⎜ ⎟
= ⎝ faces of ⎠ × ⎜ that are also ⎟ . each of the properties SG1, SG2 and SG3
selected type ⎝
symmetries of ⎠
holds.
polyhedron
To show that (H, ◦) is not a subgroup, show
that any one of the properties SG1, SG2 or
SG3 fails; that is,
show that ◦ is not closed on H,
or show that e ∈ / H,
or find one element h ∈ H for which h−1 ∈ / H.
27
GTA2
1 Let x be an element of a group (G, ◦). Powers of Usually, we omit the symbol ‘◦’ and write just
x are defined inductively, as follows:
x is a subgroup of G.
x0 = e, the identity element;
5 Let x be an element of a group (G, ◦); then
xn = xn−1
◦x
n where n ∈ Z+ .
x−n = x−1 x is a cyclic subgroup of G;
The set of all powers of x is written as x is generated by x;
x = {xk : k ∈ Z}; x is a generator of x.
this is the subset of G generated by x. If x has order n, then x has finite order, and x is
a finite cyclic subgroup of order n.
2 The previous statements may be ‘translated’ into
additive notation. 6 A group (G, ◦) is a cyclic group if there exists
an element x ∈ G such that x = G; if there is no
Multiplicative notation Additive notation such x, then G is non-cyclic.
identity e or 1 identity 0
x × x = x2 x + x = 2x
Theorem 2.3 Let G be a finite group of
x
−n −nx
x × xt = xs+t
s
sx + tx = (s + t)x
x = {xk : k ∈ Z}
x = {kx : k ∈ Z} All cyclic groups are Abelian (but not all Abelian
(powers)
(multiples) groups are cyclic).
3 Generated sets have the following properties: no positive integer n such that xn = e, then x has
e = {e}; infinite order, and all the powers of x are distinct.
least positive integer such that xn = e, then x has x = {. . . , x−k , . . . , x−2 , x−1 , x0 , x, x2 , . . . , xk , . . .}
order n. (where x0 = e).
Thus the term ‘order’ has two (related) meanings in In additive notation,
group theory: the order of an element is defined here,
x = {. . . , −kx, . . . , −2x, −x, 0, x, 2x, . . . , kx, . . .}
and the order of a group, defined earlier, is the
number of its elements. 8 The infinite group (S(), ◦) has both finite and
infinite cyclic subgroups. For example,
qφ = {e, qφ } has order 2, for any φ ∈ [0, π);
r2π/n = {e, r2π/n , r4π/n , . . . , r2(n−1)π/n } has order n,
for any n ∈ N;
r1 has infinite order.
28
GTA2
2. for all g1 , g2 ∈ G,
There may be more than one isomorphism mapping
29
GTA2
30
GTA3
GTA3 Permutations
Theorem 1.1 Any permutation can be
broken down into disjoint cycles. This cycle
form is unique, apart from the choice of starting
1 Permutations
symbol in each cycle and the order in which the
cycles are written.
1 A permutation of a finite set S is a one-one
function from S onto S.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f= . written as a product of disjoint cycles.
4 6 8 3 1 2 7 5
Here 1 maps to 4, 2 maps to 6, and so on. When there is no ambiguity concerning which set of
The same permutation f can also be written in fixed symbols from the cycle form. For example, we
We say that f is the product of the disjoint cycles Strategy 1.2 To find the composite g ◦ f
(1 4 3 8 5), (2 6) and (7). Here disjoint means that of two permutations given in cycle form.
each symbol belongs to only one cycle. 1. Consider the smallest symbol, 1 say. Find
As a cycle has no particular starting point, we can f (1) and g(f (1)), and write the result,
write any of its symbols down first. Also, disjoint x say, next to 1 in a cycle:
cycles can be written in any order. Thus, for (1 x . . .), where x = g(f (1)).
example, 2. Starting with the symbol x, repeat the
f = (6 2)(7)(3 8 5 1 4) or f = (7)(5 1 4 3 8)(2 6). process to obtain the next symbol g(f (x))
However, we usually write the smallest symbol in in the cycle.
each cycle first, and arrange the cycles with their 3. Continue repeating the process until the
smallest symbols in increasing order. next symbol found is the original symbol 1.
This completes the cycle.
4. Starting with the smallest symbol not yet
Strategy 1.1 To find the cycle form of a
placed in a cycle, repeat steps 1 to 3 until
permutation f .
no more unplaced symbols remain.
1. Choose any symbol (such as 1) and find its
successive images under f until you
encounter the starting symbol again. Any permutation is equal to the composite of its
2. Write these symbols as a cycle. disjoint cycles; for example, if f = (1 3)(2 5 6)(7 8),
3. Repeat the process starting with any then f = (1 3) ◦ (2 5 6) ◦ (7 8).
symbol which has not yet been used, until
there are no symbols left.
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GTA3
5 The inverse f −1 of a permutation f undoes 9 Two permutations in Sn have the same cycle
what f does; that is, if f maps x to y, then f −1 structure if, for each r ≥ 1, they have the same
maps y to x. number of disjoint r-cycles.
There are three different cycle structures in S3 .
Strategy 1.3 To find the inverse of a Cycle structure Elements of S3 Description
permutation which is given in cycle form,
reverse the order of the symbols in each cycle. (–)(–)(–) (1)(2)(3) = e identity
(– –)(–) (1 2), (1 3), (2 3) transpositions
For example, if f = (1 3 5 6)(2 4), then (– – –) (1 2 3), (1 3 2) 3-cycles
f −1 = (6 5 3 1)(4 2) = (1 6 5 3)(2 4). There are five different cycle structures in S4 .
6 The symmetric group Sn Cycle Elements of S4 Description
structure
Theorem 1.2 The set Sn of all (–)(–)(–)(–) (1)(2)(3)(4) = e identity
permutations of the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} is a
(– –)(–)(–) (1 2), (1 3), (1 4), transpositions
group under composition.
(2 3), (2 4), (3 4)
(– – –)(–) (1 2 3), (1 2 4), 3-cycles
The group Sn is called the symmetric group of (1 3 4), (1 3 2),
degree n. (1 4 2), (1 4 3),
(2 3 4), (2 4 3)
(– – – –) (1 2 3 4), (1 2 4 3), 4-cycles
Theorem 1.3 The symmetric group Sn has
(1 3 2 4), (1 3 4 2),
order n!.
(1 4 2 3), (1 4 3 2)
(– –)(– –) (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), products of
7 A permutation group is a subgroup of Sn , for (1 4)(2 3) 2-cycles
some positive integer n. The number of symbols
involved, n, is called the degree of the permutation
group.
8 A permutation whose cycle form consists of a 2 Even and odd permutations
single cycle permuting r symbols (with all other
symbols fixed) is called an r-cycle, or a cycle of 1 When we write a permutation in cycle form, the
length r. order in which the cycles are written does not
A 2-cycle is also called a transposition. matter, because they are disjoint. However, we
For example, in S6 , cannot reorder cycles in composites in general,
because composition of permutations is not a
(1 3 5 6) is a 4-cycle,
commutative operation.
(4 6) is a transposition.
2 Any permutation may be expressed as a
composite of transpositions; such an expression is not
Theorem 1.4 An r-cycle has order r. unique.
The least common multiple of a set of positive Strategy 2.1 To express a cycle
each number in the set. For example, 12 is the least transpositions, write the transpositions
cycles.
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GTA3
4 Alternating group An g↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y = (∗∗ . . . ∗) (∗∗ . . . ∗) . . . (∗) (∗)
Theorem 2.3 The set An of all even 2. Read off the ‘renaming permutation’ g from
permutations of the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} is a the above ‘two-line symbol’.
subgroup of the symmetric group Sn .
For example, with x = (1 2 4)(3 5) and
The group An of all even permutations of y = (1 4)(2 5 3) in S5 , we obtain
{1, 2, . . . , n} is called the alternating group of (1 2 4) (3 5)
degree n. g ↓↓↓ ↓↓
(2 5 3) (1 4)
Theorem 2.4 For n ≥ 2, the alternating which gives g = (1 2 5 4 3).
group An has order 12 (n!). In general, there are many possible matchings and
therefore many possibilities for g.
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GTA3
1 1 {e} g1
.. ..
2 9 all cyclic . .
3 4 all cyclic x xg1 xg2 xg3 . . . xgn
4 7 3 cyclic; 4 Klein .. ..
. .
6 4 all isomorphic to S() gn
8 3 all isomorphic to S(�)
12 1 A4 3. This gives a permutation with the two-line
24 1 S4 symbol
g1 g2 g3 . . . gn column headings
If the vertices of the tetrahedron are labelled 1, 2, 3 Px =
xg1 xg2 xg3 . . . xgn row of x.
and 4, then each element of S4 represents a
4. The composite of two such permutations is given
symmetry of the tetrahedron. Thus S4 and S(tet)
by
are isomorphic groups.
Px ◦ Py = Pxy ,
2 An efficient way to find all the cyclic subgroups which shows that the constructed permutations
of any reasonably small group is to first list the
combine in the same way as the corresponding
elements of the group according to their orders, and
original elements: the group table for the constructed
then find the distinct cyclic subgroups that they
group has the same pattern as the original group
generate.
table, with each element g replaced by Pg .
Thus the mapping g −→ Pg is an isomorphism
between the two groups, and the set of permutations
{Pg : g ∈ G} forms a group isomorphic to G.
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GTA4
35
GTA4
Corollary 3 If G is a group of prime order p, 4 There are five isomorphism classes for groups of
then G is isomorphic to the cyclic group Zp . order 8.
Abelian groups
Class 1 contains the cyclic groups; these have only
3 Groups of small order Class 2 contains groups in which all the non-identity
have order 2.
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GTA4
If H is finite, say
and ‘H is normal in G’ interchangeably.
H = {h1 , h2 , . . . , hm },
then Theorem 4.1 Let G be a group; then
Hg = {h1 ◦ g, h2 ◦ g, . . . , hm ◦ g}. (a) the identity subgroup {e} is a normal
subgroup of G;
5 Quotient groups
Strategy 4.1 To partition a finite group G
into right cosets of a given subgroup H.
1 Let A and B be subsets of a group (G, ◦). Then
1. Take H as the first coset.
the binary operation ., called set composition, is
2. Choose any element g not yet assigned to a defined by
right coset and determine the right coset
Hg to which g belongs. A . B = {a ◦ b : a ∈ A, b ∈ B};
3. Repeat step 2 until every element of G has that is, A . B is the subset of G obtained by
been assigned to a right coset. composing each element of A with each element of B
on the right.
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GTA4
38
LA1
LA1 Vectors and conics The zero vector is the vector whose magnitude is
zero, and whose direction is arbitrary. It is denoted
by 0.
Two vectors a and b are equal if
1 Coordinate geometry: points, planes they have the same magnitude (a = b)
and lines and
1 The plane, together with an origin and a pair of they are in the same direction.
x-, y-axes, is often called two-dimensional Euclidean We write a = b.
space, denoted by R2 . The negative of a vector v is the vector with the
2 Equation of a line The general equation of a same magnitude as v, but the opposite direction.
zero.
magnitude is |k| times the magnitude of v, that is,
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . 1. Starting at any point, draw the vector p.
4 Three-dimensional space, together with an origin 2. Starting from the finishing point of the
and a set of x-, y- and z-axes, is often called vector p, draw the vector q.
three-dimensional Euclidean space, denoted by R3 . Then the sum p + q is the vector from the
starting point of p to the finishing point of q.
5 Equation of a plane The general equation of
a plane in R3 is
ax + by + cz = d,
where a, b, c and d are real, and a, b and c are not all
zero.
Two arbitrary planes in R3 may intersect, be
parallel, or coincide.
6 Distance formula in R3 The distance between
two points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in R3 is
Parallelogram Law for addition of
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 . vectors
The sum p + q of two vectors p and q is
obtained as follows.
2 Vectors 1. Starting at the same point, draw the vectors
p and q.
1 Vectors and scalars
2. Complete the parallelogram of which these
A vector is a quantity that is determined by its
are adjacent sides.
magnitude and direction. A scalar is a quantity that
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LA1
The difference p − q of two vectors p and q is 7 The vector space R2 is the set of ordered pairs
p − q = p + (−q). of real numbers with the operations of addition and
multiplication by a scalar defined as follows:
4 A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1 unit.
(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 );
In R2 , the vectors i and j are unit vectors in the
k(a1 , a2 ) = (ka1 , ka2 ), where k ∈ R.
positive directions of the x- and y-axes, respectively.
Any vector p in R2 can be expressed as a sum of the Similarly, the vector space R3 is the set of ordered
form triples of real numbers with analogous operations of
addition and multiplication by a scalar.
p = a1 i + a2 j,
for some real numbers a1 and a2 ; 8 The position vector p = a1 i + a2 j (often
often we write p = (a1 , a2 ). written as p = (a1 , a2 ), for brevity) is the vector in
R2 whose starting point is the origin and whose
The numbers a1 and a2 are the components of p in
finishing point is the point with Cartesian
the x- and y-directions, respectively.
coordinates (a1 , a2 ).
In R3 , the vectors i, j and k are unit vectors in the
A position vector in R3 is defined similarly.
positive directions of the x-, y- and z-axes,
respectively. Any vector p in R3 can be expressed as 9 Vector form of the equation of a line
a sum of the form The equation of the line through the points with
p = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, position vectors p and q is
for some real numbers a1 , a2 and a3 ; r = λp + (1 − λ)q, where λ ∈ R.
often we write p = (a1 , a2 , a3 ).
The numbers a1 , a2 and a3 are the components
of p in the x-, y- and z-directions, respectively.
Zero vector
40
LA1
Let u, v and w be vectors, and let α be any real The hyperbola has two lines, called asymptotes,
Distributivity: u . (v + w) = u . v + u . w, 2 Circles in R2
(u + v) . w = u . w + v . w.
5 The angle θ between two vectors u and v is given
by Theorem 4.1 The equation of a circle in R2
u.v with centre (a, b) and radius r is
cos θ = .
u × v (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 .
6 The projection of a vector v onto a vector u is
u.v
v × cos θ = .
u Theorem 4.2 An equation of the form
2 2
7 Dot product of vectors in component form x + y + f x + gy + h = 0
chord.
x . n = p . n,
See the following diagram.
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LA1
√
Rectangular hyperbola (e = 2)
A hyperbola whose asymptotes are at right angles is
An ellipse in standard form has equation If we use the asymptotes as new x- and y-axes
a2 b
where a ≥ b > 0, b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ), 0 ≤ e < 1. xy = c2 , for some positive number c. A rectangular
It can be described by the parametric equations hyperbola has the origin as its centre, and the x- and
‘at infinity’.
42
LA2
LA2 Linear equations and A solution with at least one non-zero unknown is a
non-trivial solution.
matrices 4 Elementary operations
The following operations do not change the solution
1 Simultaneous linear equations set of a system of linear equations.
1. Interchange two equations.
1 Linear equations 2. Multiply an equation by a non-zero number.
An equation of the form 3. Change one equation by adding to it a multiple
of another.
ax + by = c,
where a, b and c are real numbers, and a and b are To solve a system of three linear equations in three
not both zero, represents a line in R2 . There are unknowns, use elementary operations to try to
reduce the system to the form
infinitely many solutions to this equation—one ⎧
corresponding to each point on the line.
⎨x = ∗,
y = ∗,
An equation of the form ⎩
z = ∗.
ax + by + cz = d,
where a, b, c and d are real numbers, and a, b and c
are not all zero, represents a plane in R3 . There are 2 Row-reduction
infinitely many solutions to this equation—one
corresponding to each point in the plane.
1 A matrix is simply a rectangular array of
An equation of the form objects, usually numbers, enclosed in brackets.
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b, The objects in a matrix are called its entries. The
where a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b are real numbers, and entries along a horizontal line form a row, and those
a1 , . . . , an are not all zero, is a linear equation in down a vertical line form a column.
the n unknowns x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . The numbers ai are
2 The system
the coefficients, and b is the constant term. ⎧
⎪
⎪ a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
2 A system of m simultaneous linear equations in ⎪
⎨ a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
n unknowns, x1 , . . . , xn , is as follows: .. .. .. ..
⎧ ⎪
⎪ . . . .
⎪ a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
⎪ ⎪
⎩
⎪
⎨ a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 , am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm ,
.. .. ... . of m linear equations in n unknowns x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is
⎪
⎪ . . .
.
⎪
⎩
abbreviated as the augmented matrix
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm . ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
Such a system has a solution x1 = c1 , x2 = c2 , . . . , ⎜ a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
xn = cn , if these values simultaneously satisfy all ⎜ .. .. .. .. ⎟ .
A system containing at least one non-zero constant each leading 1 is to the right of the leading 1
The trivial solution (if this exists) to a system of each leading 1 is the only non-zero entry in
43
LA2
3 Matrix addition
Strategy 2.1 Row-reducing a matrix. The sum of two m × n matrices A = (aij ) and
B = (bij ) is the m × n matrix A + B = (aij + bij ).
Carry out the following four steps, first with
row 1 as the current row, then with row 2, and
so on, until Theorem 3.1 For all matrices A, B and C
either every row has been the current row, of the same size,
or step 1 is not possible. A + B = B + A (commutative law),
1. Select the first column from the left that A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (associative law).
has at least one non-zero entry in or below
the current row.
2. If the current row has a 0 in the selected The m × n zero matrix 0m,n is the m × n matrix in
column, interchange it with a row below it which all entries are 0.
which has a non-zero entry in that column. The zero matrix is the identity element for the
3. If the entry now in the current row and the operation of matrix addition.
selected column is c, multiply the current The negative of an m × n matrix A = (aij ) is the
A + (−A) = (−A) + A = 0.
2. Obtain the row-reduced matrix. The set of m × n matrices under the operation of
equations.
Using the negative of a matrix, we can subtract
matrices:
A − B = A + (−B).
44
LA2
.
. ⎠
⎝
.
. ⎠
45
LA2
solution.
5 Determinants
det A =
= ad − bc.
c d
46
LA2
4 Properties of determinants
Strategy 5.1 To find the inverse of a 2 × 2
matrix
Theorem 5.1 Let A and B be two square
a1 b1 c1
by k, then det E = k.
A =
⎝
a2 b2 c2 ⎠
b3 c3
1
a3 c3
1
a3 b3
Two rows (or columns) of a matrix are proportional
3 A submatrix is a matrix formed from another when one is a multiple of the other.
matrix with some of the rows and/or columns
removed. Theorem 5.3 Let A be a square matrix.
Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. The cofactor Aij Then det A = 0 if any of the following hold:
associated with the entry aij is (a) A has an entire row (or column) of zeros;
Aij = (−1)i+j det Aij , (b) A has two equal rows (or columns);
where Aij is the (n − 1) × (n − 1) submatrix of A (c) A has two proportional rows (or columns).
resulting when the ith row and jth column (the row
and column containing the entry aij ) are covered up.
The determinant of an n × n matrix A = (aij ) is Theorem 5.4 A square matrix A is
a11 a12 · · · a1n 0.
invertible if and only if det A =
a21 a22 · · · a2n
det A = . .. ..
.. . .
an1 an2 · · · ann
Theorem 5.5 Let A and B be square
= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + · · · + a1n A1n . matrices of the same size. Then AB = I if and
only if BA = I.
Strategy 5.2 To evaluate the determinant of
an n × n matrix.
1. Expand along the top row to express the
n × n determinant in terms of n
determinants of size (n − 1) × (n − 1).
2. Expand along the top row of each of the
resulting determinants.
3. Repeatedly apply step 2 until the only
determinants in the expression are of size
2 × 2.
4. Evaluate the final expression.
47
LA3
48
LA3
Theorem 3.1 Suppose that the vector vk Strategy 3.2 To determine whether a set of
can be written as a linear combination of the vectors S in a vector space V is a basis for V ,
vectors v1 , . . . , vk−1 . Then the span of the set check the following conditions.
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } is the same as the span of the (1) S is linearly independent.
2 A finite set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } in a vector If either (1) or (2) does not hold, then S is not
coplanar.
{1, i}.
5 Let E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be a basis for a vector
space V , and suppose that
Strategy 3.1 To test whether a given set of
vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } is linearly independent. v = v1 e1 + v2 e2 + · · · + vn en ,
1. Write down the equation
where v1 , . . . , vn ∈ R.
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk = 0.
Then the E-coordinate representation of v is
2. Express this equation as a system of
vE = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn )E .
simultaneous linear equations in the
We call v1 , . . . , vn the coordinates of v with respect
unknowns α1 , α2 , . . . , αk .
49
LA3
Corollary Let V be a vector space with a Theorem 4.1 A subset S of a vector space V
basis containing n vectors. If a linearly is a subspace of V if it satisfies the following
independent subset of V contains m vectors, conditions.
then m ≤ n. (a) 0 ∈ S.
(b) S is closed under vector addition.
(c) S is closed under scalar multiplication.
Theorem 3.4 Basis Theorem
Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space.
Then every basis for V contains the same
number of vectors. Strategy 4.1 To test whether a given subset
S of a vector space V is a subspace of V , check
the following conditions.
The dimension of a finite-dimensional vector
(1) 0 ∈ S (zero vector).
space V , denoted by dim V , is the number of vectors
in any basis for the space. (2) If v1 , v2 ∈ S, then v1 + v2 ∈ S (vector
addition).
independent vectors in V is a basis for V . If (1), (2) and (3) hold, then S is a subspace
of V .
not a subspace of V .
50
LA3
vn . vn
u = (v1 . u)v1 + (v2 . u)v2 + · · · + (vn . u)vn .
2. Write u = α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn .
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LA4
52
LA4
..
3 Composition and invertibility
t(en ) = (a1n , a2n , . . . , amn )F .
A =
⎜ . .. .
⎟ .
⎝
.. . . ⎠
. transformations. Then:
am1 am2 · · · amn (a) s ◦ t : V −→ X is a linear transformation;
(b) if A is the matrix of t with respect to the
bases E and F , and B is the matrix of s
with respect to the bases F and G, then
Strategy 2.1 To find the matrix A of t with BA is the matrix of s ◦ t with respect to
respect to the bases E and F . the bases E and G.
1. Find t(e1 ), t(e2 ), . . . , t(en ).
2. Find the F -coordinates of each of these
image vectors:
t(e1 ) = (a11 , a21 , . . . , am1 )F ,
t(e2 ) = (a12 , a22 , . . . , am2 )F ,
..
.
t(en ) = (a1n , a2n , . . . , amn )F .
3. Construct the matrix A column by column:
⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 · · · a1n
⎜ a21 a22 · · · a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A=⎜ . .. .. ⎟ .
⎝
.. . . ⎠
53
LA4
54
LA4
Then
55
LA5
polynomial equation in λ.
0 0 · · · λn
The sum of the eigenvalues equals the sum of the
diagonal entries of the matrix A (the trace of A).
2 Let E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be a basis for Rn . The
transition matrix P from the basis E to the
Theorem 1.1 The eigenvalues of a
standard basis for Rn is the matrix whose jth column
triangular matrix and of a diagonal matrix are
56
LA5
λ1 0 · · · 0
When E is the standard basis for Rn , the transition ⎜ 0 λ2 · · · 0 ⎟
matrix P is the identity matrix In . P−1 AP = D = ⎜ ⎝
... .. .
⎟
.. ⎠
,
.
The rows or columns of an n × n matrix A form a set 0 0 · · · λn
of n linearly independent vectors if and only if where λj is the eigenvalue corresponding to
det A = 0. the eigenvector ej .
3 Symmetric matrices
3 The matrix A is diagonalisable if there exists
an invertible matrix P such that the matrix 1 An orthonormal basis consists of mutually
D = P−1 AP perpendicular (orthogonal) vectors of unit length.
is diagonal. An n × n matrix P whose columns form an
If D = P−1 AP, then orthonormal basis for Rn is an orthogonal matrix;
in this case we have P−1 = PT .
PDn P−1 = An , for n = 1, 2, . . . .
2 The matrix A is orthogonally diagonalisable
4 Let A be an n × n matrix, and let if there exists an orthogonal matrix P such that the
E = {e1 , . . . , en } be a basis for Rn consisting of matrix
eigenvectors of A. The basis E is an eigenvector
D = PT AP = P−1 AP
basis of A.
is diagonal.
If A is orthogonally diagonalisable, then it is
symmetric.
57
LA5
58
LA5
PT AP = ⎝ 0 λ2 0 ⎠ .
0 0 λ3
(b) Find f g h = JT P, and write the
quadric in the form
λ1 (x )2 + λ2 (y )2 + λ3 (z )2
+ f x + gy + hz + M = 0. (∗)
3. Translate the origin.
Complete the squares in equation (∗), and
change to the coordinate system (x , y , z ).
If λ1 , λ2 , λ3 = 0, then
(x , y , z ) =
f g h
x + ,y + ,z + .
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AA1
Analysis Block A
A1 If a, b ∈ R, then a + b ∈ R. closure
2 A decimal is an expression of the form
A2 If a ∈ R, then
± a0 .a1 a2 a3 . . . , a + 0 = 0 + a = a. identity
where a0 is a non-negative integer, and a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . A3 If a ∈ R, then there is a number
are digits (i.e. numbers from the set {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}). −a ∈ R such that
If only a finite number of the digits a1 , a2 , . . . are a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0. inverses
non-zero, then the decimal is called terminating or A4 If a, b, c ∈ R, then
finite; otherwise, we have a non-terminating or (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). associativity
infinite decimal.
A5 If a, b ∈ R, then
A recurring decimal is a decimal with a recurring
a + b = b + a. commutativity
block of digits; for example, 0.863 63 . . . is written as
0.863. By definition, 0.9 = 1. Multiplication
M1 If a, b ∈ R, then a × b ∈ R. closure
We order two rational numbers by examining their
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AA1
is also denoted by n Ck .
+ + −
− − +
In particular, the square of any real number is Theorem 3.1 Binomial Theorem
non-negative.
1. If x ∈ R and n ∈ N, then
2 The solution set of an inequality involving an n
n n
unknown real number x is the set of values of x for (1 + x) = xk
k
which the given inequality holds. k=0
n(n − 1) 2
To solve the inequality, we find the solution set by = 1 + nx + x + · · · + xn .
rewriting the inequality in an equivalent, but simpler, 2!
form, using the rules listed in item 1. 2. If a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N, then
n
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AA1
finite decimals.
m ≤ x, for all x ∈ E.
If the lower bound m belongs to E, then m is called 2 Existence of roots
the minimum element of E, denoted by min E.
3 A set E ⊆ R is bounded if E is bounded above Theorem 5.1 For each positive real
and bounded below; the set E is unbounded if it is number a and each integer n > 1, there is a
not bounded. unique positive real number b such that
4 A real number M is the least upper bound, or bn = a.
supremum, of a set E ⊆ R if
1. M is an upper bound of E; We call this positive
√ number b the nth root of a,
2. each M < M is not an upper bound of E. and write b = n a.
am/n = ( n a)m .
Strategy 4.1 Given a subset E of R, to show 4 Exponent Laws If a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ Q, then
of E, check that:
ax
ay = ax+y ,
1. x ≤ M , for all x ∈ E;
(ax )y
= axy .
2. if M < M , then there is some x ∈ E such
that x > M .
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AA2
1 Introducing sequences
2 Null sequences
1 A sequence is an unending list of real numbers
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . . 1 The sequence {an } is null if
The real number an is called the nth term of the for each positive number ε, there is an
sequence, and the sequence is denoted by integer N such that
{an }. |an | < ε, for all n > N. (∗)
Sequences sometimes begin with a term other
than a1 ; for example, a0 or a3 .
The sequence diagram of a sequence {an } is the
graph of the sequence in R2 , that is, the set of points
{(n, an ) : n = 1, 2, . . .}.
2 A sequence {an } is:
constant if
an+1 = an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ;
increasing if Strategy 2.1
an+1 ≥ an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ;
1. To show that {an } is null, solve |an | < ε to
strictly increasing if find N (depending on ε) for which (∗) holds.
an+1 > an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ; 2. To show that {an } is not null, find one
decreasing if value of ε for which there is no integer N
an+1 ≤ an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ; such that (∗) holds.
strictly decreasing if
an+1 < an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ; 2 The sequence {an } is null if and only if the
monotonic if {an } is either increasing or decreasing; sequence {|an |} is null, and also if and only if the
sequence {(−1)n an } is null.
strictly monotonic if {an } is either strictly
increasing or strictly decreasing. The null sequence {an } remains null if we add, delete
or alter a finite number of terms.
an
an+1
If ≥ 1, for n = 1, 2, . . . , then {an } is
an
increasing.
an+1
If ≤ 1, for n = 1, 2, . . . , then {an } is
an
decreasing.
63
AA2
|an | ≤ bn , for n = 1, 2, . . .
lim bn = m, then:
n→∞
(that is, {an } is dominated by {bn }), then
an ≤ bn , for n = 1, 2, . . . ,
then l ≤ m.
64
AA2
then ank → l as k → ∞;
then ank → ∞ as k → ∞.
or
1. {an } is eventually positive,
2. show that {an } has a subsequence which
2. {1/an } is a null sequence, tends to infinity or a subsequence which
then an → ∞. tends to minus infinity.
65
AA3
AA3 Series
Theorem 4.3 Let {an } consist of two
subsequences {amk } and {ank }, which both
tend to the same limit l. Then
1 Introducing series
lim an = l.
n→∞
1 Let {an } be a sequence. Then the expression
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
is an infinite series, or simply a series. We call an
1 Monotonic sequences sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an .
2 The series
Theorem 5.1
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
Monotone Convergence Theorem
{sn } diverges.
∞
an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · .
n=1
When using sigma notation to represent the nth
partial sum of such a series, we write
n
sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = ak .
k=1
If we need to begin a series with a term other
than a1 , we write, for example,
∞
an = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · ;
n=0
for such a series,
n
Theorem 5.2
Monotonic Sequence Theorem sn = a0 + a1 + · · · + an = ak .
k=0
If the sequence {an } is monotonic, then
either {an } is convergent 4 Geometric series
or an → ±∞. The (infinite) geometric series with first term a
and common ratio r is
∞
arn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · .
2 We define the number π as follows:
n=0
π = lim an = 3.141 592 653 . . . ,
n→∞
where an is the area of the regular polygon with Geometric series
3 × 2n sides inscribed in a disc of radius 1. ∞
We define the numbern e as follows: (a) If |r| < 1, then arn is convergent, with
1 a n=0
∞
If x is irrational and x ≥ 0, then lim (1 + x/n)n
n→∞ (b) If |r| ≥ 1 and a = 0, then arn is
exists and is used to define ex :
x n divergent. n=0
ex = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n
66
AA3
5 A telescoping series is one for which it is easy 2 Series with non-negative terms
to find an expression for sn because most terms in
the partial sums cancel out. 1 Tests for convergence
0 ≤ bn ≤ an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ,
∞
∞
and bn is divergent, then an is
∞
n=1 n=1
Theorem 1.1 If an is a convergent divergent.
n=1
series, then its sequence of terms {an } is a null
sequence. The Comparison Test tells us that any series of the
form
∞
an
a0 + n
,
Corollary Non-null Test n=1
10
∞
where a0 is a non-negative integer and an ,
If {an } is not a null sequence, then an is
n = 1, 2, . . . , are digits, must be convergent.
n=1
divergent. Moreover, the partial sums of this series are
sn = a0 .a1 a2 . . . an , so its sum is a0 .a1 a2 . . . . Thus
this series provides an alternative interpretation of
the infinite decimal a0 .a1 a2 . . . .
Strategy 1.1
∞
To show that an is divergent using the Limit Comparison Test Suppose that
n=1 ∞
∞
Non-null Test. an and bn have positive terms and that
either n=1 n=1
an
1. show that {|an |} has a convergent → L as n → ∞,
subsequence with non-zero limit, bn
or where L = 0.
∞
∞
2. show that {|an |} has a subsequence which
(a) If bn is convergent, then an is
tends to infinity.
n=1 n=1
convergent.
∞
∞
Warning You can never use the Non-null Test to (b) If bn is divergent, then an is
prove that a series is convergent. n=1 n=1
divergent.
67
AA3
∞
Alternating Test Let
Ratio Test Suppose that an has positive n+1
an = (−1) bn , n = 1, 2, . . . ,
n=1
an+1 where {bn } is a decreasing null sequence with
terms and that → l as n → ∞.
an positive terms. Then
∞
∞
(a) If 0 ≤ l < 1, then an is convergent. an = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + · · ·
n=1 n=1
∞
is convergent.
(b) If l > 1, then an is divergent.
n=1
∞
If l = 1, then the Ratio Test is inconclusive. Strategy 3.1 To prove that an is
2 Basic series The following series are n=1
n=1
n! Strategy 3.2 To test the series an for
The following series is divergent: convergence or divergence.
∞ 1. If you think that the sequence of terms {an }
1
(e) p
, for 0 < p ≤ 1. is non-null, then try the Non-null Test.
n
n=1
3 Series with positive and negative (a) Basic series Is an a basic series, or
terms a combination of these?
∞
(b) Comparison Test Is an ≤ bn , where
The series an is absolutely convergent if bn isconvergent, or an ≥ bn ≥ 0,
n=1
where bn is divergent?
∞
|an | is convergent. (c) Limit Comparison Test Does an
n=1 behave like bn (that is, an /bn → L = 0),
where bn is a basic series?
(d) Ratio Test Does an+1 /an → l = 1?
Absolute Convergence Test
∞
∞
3. If an has positive and negative terms,
If an is absolutely convergent, then an is then try one of these tests.
n=1 n=1 (a)
Absolute Convergence Test Is
68
AA4
1 Operations on functions
If an includes a sine or cosine term, then use the fact
1 Convention When a function f is specified
that this term is bounded and consider the
just by its rule, it is to be understood that the
Comparison Test and the Absolute Convergence Test.
domain of f is the set of all real numbers for which
the rule is applicable and the codomain of f is R.
4 Exponential function A function f is defined on a set I (usually an
interval) if the domain of f contains the set I.
If a, b ∈ R, then
Theorem 4.1 If x > 0, then (a, b), (a, ∞) and (−∞, b) are open intervals;
∞
xn x n [a, b], [a, ∞) and (−∞, b] are closed intervals;
= lim 1 + = ex .
n! n→∞ n [a, b) and (a, b] are half-open intervals;
n=0
R = (−∞, ∞) is both open and closed.
For x ≥ 0, we define
2 If f : A −→ R and g : B −→ R, then
the sum f + g is the function with domain A ∩ B
x n xn
∞
ex = lim 1 + = . and rule
n→∞ n n!
n=0 (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);
For x < 0, we define
the multiple λf is the function with domain A and
ex = (e−x )−1 . rule
The exponential function x −→
ex is often called (λf )(x) = λf (x), for λ ∈ R;
exp. Thus the product f g is the function with domain A ∩ B
exp : R −→ R and rule
x −→
ex . (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x);
the quotient f /g is the function with domain
Theorem 4.2 The number e is irrational. A ∩ B − {x : g(x) = 0} and rule
(f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x);
the composite g ◦ f is the function with domain
{x ∈ A : f (x) ∈ B} and rule
Theorem 4.3 For any real numbers x and y,
we have ex+y = ex ey . (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).
3 Let f : A −→ R be a one-one function. Then the
inverse function f −1 has domain f (A) and rule
f −1 (y) = x, where y = f (x).
4 A function f defined on an interval I is
increasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
strictly increasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
decreasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
strictly decreasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
monotonic on I if f is either increasing on I or
decreasing on I;
69
AA4
2 Continuous functions
Squeeze Rule Let f , g and h be defined on
1 A function f : A −→ R is continuous at a an open interval I and let a ∈ I. If
(a ∈ A) if 1. g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x), for x ∈ I,
for each sequence {xn } in A such that xn → a, 2. g(a) = f (a) = h(a),
f (xn ) → f (a). 3. g, h are continuous at a,
We can write the above condition more concisely, as
then f is also continuous at a.
follows:
xn → a ⇒ f (xn ) → f (a), where {xn } lies in A.
We say that f is continuous (on A) if f is
continuous at each a ∈ A.
Sine Inequality
Composition Rule If f is continuous at a sin x ≤ x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 π.
and g is continuous at f (a), then g ◦ f is
continuous at a.
70
AA4
Let f be a function continuous on [a, b] and let k Theorem 3.4 Extreme Value Theorem
be any number lying between f (a) and f (b). Let f be a function continuous on [a, b]. Then
Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that there exist numbers c and d in [a, b] such that
f (c) = k. f (c) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (d), for x ∈ [a, b].
71
AA4
ax ay
= ax+y ,
y
(ax ) = axy
.
72
GTB1
GTB1 Conjugacy
Theorem 2.4 In an Abelian group, each
conjugacy class contains a single element.
2 Conjugate elements
3 If g conjugates x to y, then g conjugates xn
1 Let x and y be elements of a group G; then y is a to y n , for each positive integer n.
conjugate of x in G if there exists an element g ∈ G
such that
Theorem 2.5 Let x and y be conjugate
y = gxg −1 .
elements in a group G; then x and y have the
We then also say that g conjugates x to y, that g is same order.
a conjugating element and that y is the conjugate
of x by g.
73
GTB1
74
GTB2
composites.
Theorem 4.2 A direct symmetry cannot be extends to products of three or more elements: for
a b
V = : ad − bc = 1 . 1, if f is a direct symmetry,
c d f −→
−1, if f is an indirect symmetry,
3 Further standard associative operations is a homomorphism.
The following operations are associative and may be 4 If (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are groups and eH is the
quoted as such: identity element of H, then the function
addition of matrices; φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗)
multiplication of matrices. g −→
eH
is a homomorphism, called the trivial
homomorphism.
5 An automorphism is an isomorphism from a
group to itself. The set of all automorphisms of a
group forms a group itself, under composition of
functions. The identity of this group is the identity
function, which maps each element to itself.
75
GTB2
4 Properties of kernels
Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
1. There may be more than one g ∈ G such that
φ(g) = eH , since φ may be many-one.
2. eG ∈ Ker(φ).
76
GTB2
function
φ : (G, ◦) −→ (G/N, . )
77
GTB3
GTB3 Group actions Axiom GA2 states that the identity element of the
group fixes each element of the set X.
78
GTB3
2 Properties of orbits
Theorem 1.1 Let G be a group whose Let a group G act on a set X.
elements are functions from a set X to itself, 1. For each x ∈ X, we have x ∈ Orb(x).
with the binary operation of composition of 2. If y ∈ Orb(x), then x ∈ Orb(y).
functions. Let ∧ be defined by 3. If y ∈ Orb(x) and z ∈ Orb(y), then z ∈ Orb(x).
g ∧ x = g(x), for g ∈ G and x ∈ X.
x ∼ y if y ∈ Orb(x)
is an equivalence relation. The equivalence classes
In particular, whenever we let a permutation group are the orbits.
or a symmetry group act in the natural way as a
group of functions on an underlying set, we have a
group action. Theorem 2.1 Let a group G act on a set X.
Then the orbits form a partition of X.
5 Infinite actions Our definition of group action
still applies when one, or both, of the group G and
the set X is infinite. In such a case we cannot write In particular, if x, y ∈ X then either Orb(x) and
out all the action table, but we may usefully be able Orb(y) are the same set or Orb(x) and Orb(y) are
to present part of it. disjoint.
Theorem 1.2 Let M be the group of all Strategy 2.1 To find all the orbits in X.
invertible 2 × 2 matrices, under matrix 1. Choose any x ∈ X, and find Orb(x).
multiplication. Then 2. Choose any element of X not yet assigned
a b to an orbit, and find its orbit.
∧ (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy)
c d 3. Repeat step 2 until X is partitioned.
defines a group action of M on R2 .
It is often useful to look first at the orbits of
The group action in Theorem 1.2 is the natural particular elements, and then try to spot a general
action of M on R2 given by matrix multiplication. pattern for the orbits.
3 Let a group G act on a set X. Then, for each
x ∈ X, the stabiliser of x is the set
2 Orbits and stabilisers Stab(x) = {g ∈ G : g ∧ x = x}.
Stab(x) is a subset of the group G; it is the set of all
1 Let a group G act on a set X. Then for each elements of G that fix or stabilise x.
x ∈ X, the orbit of x is the set
Orb(x) = {g ∧ x : g ∈ G}.
Orb(x) is a subset of the set X; it is the set of all
elements of X which ‘can be reached from x using
the action ∧’.
79
GTB3
80
AB1
Analysis Block B
AB1 Limits
Combination Rules If lim f (x) = l and
x→c
lim g(x) = m, then:
x→c
1 Limits of functions Sum Rule lim (f (x) + g(x)) = l + m;
x→c
Multiple Rule lim λf (x) = λl, for λ ∈ R;
1 A punctured neighbourhood of a point c is a x→c
bounded open interval with midpoint c, from which Product Rule lim f (x)g(x) = lm;
x→c
the point c itself has been removed: Quotient Rule lim f (x)/g(x) = l/m,
x→c
Nr (c) = (c − r, c) ∪ (c, c + r), where r > 0. provided that m = 0.
Strategy 1.1 To show that lim f (x) does Strategy 1.2 To use the Composition Rule.
x→c
not exist. To evaluate a limit of a function of the form
g(f (x)), as x → c:
either
1. substitute u = f (x) and show that, for
1. find two sequences {xn } and {yn } which
some l,
81
AB1
x
e − 1
are defined similarly, with ∞ replaced by −∞ and
(c) lim = 1. Nr (c) replaced by the open interval (c, c + r) or
x→0 x
(c − r, c), where r > 0, as appropriate.
Theorem 2.1
If n ∈ N, then
1 Let the function f be defined on Nr (c), for some (a) xn → ∞ as x → ∞,
(b) n → 0 as x → ∞.
for each sequence {xn } in Nr (c) such that x
xn → c,
f (xn ) → ∞.
82
AB1
Squeeze Rule Let f , g and h be functions Strategy 3.1 To use the ε–δ definition to
defined on some interval (R, ∞). prove continuity at a point.
1. g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x), for x ∈ (R, ∞), To prove that f is continuous at c, let ε > 0 be
Theorem 2.2
(a) If a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 ∈ R, where n ∈ N, and Theorem 3.1 The ε–δ definition and the
p(x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , sequential definition of continuity are
equivalent.
then
p(x) → ∞ as x → ∞
and
2 The Dirichlet
function has domain R and rule
1
1, if x is rational,
→ 0 as x → ∞. f (x) =
p(x) 0, if x is irrational.
n=0
2n
83
AB1
Theorem 3.4 The blancmange function is Strategy 4.1 To check uniform continuity.
continuous. Let the function f be defined on an interval I.
1. To prove that f is uniformly continuous
5 Let f be a function defined on a punctured on I, find an expression for δ > 0 in terms
neighbourhood Nr (c) of c. Then f (x) tends to the of a given ε > 0 such that
limit l as x tends to c if |f (x) − f (y)| < ε,
for each ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all x, y ∈ I with |x − y| < δ.
84
AB2
AB2 Differentiation
Theorem 1.1 Basic derivatives
1 Differentiable functions (a) If f (x) = k, where k ∈ R, then f (x) = 0.
(b) If f (x) = xn , where n ∈ N, then
1 Let f be defined on an open interval I, and c ∈ I. f (x) = nxn−1 .
Then the difference quotient for f at c is (c) If f (x) = sin x, then f (x) = cos x.
f (x) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c) (d) If f (x) = cos x, then f (x) = − sin x.
, or Q(h) = ,
x−c h
(e) If f (x) = ex , then f (x) = ex .
where x = c, h =
0.
function f : x
−→ f (x) is called the derivative
(or derived function) of f . Theorem 1.2 Let f be defined on an open
interval I, and c ∈ I.
dy
In Leibniz notation, f (x) is written as , where (a) If f is differentiable at c, then f is both left
y = f (x). dx
differentiable and right differentiable at c,
The operation of obtaining f (x) from f (x) is called and
differentiation. fL (c) = fR (c) = f (c). (∗)
(b) If f is both left differentiable and right
Strategy 1.1 To prove that a function is not differentiable at c, and fL (c) = fR (c), then
differentiable at a point, using the definition. f is differentiable at c and equation (∗)
holds.
Show that lim Q(h) does not exist, by:
h→0
either
1. finding two null sequences {hn } and {hn }
with non-zero terms such that the sequences
{Q(hn )} and {Q(hn )} have different limits;
or
2. finding a null sequence {hn } with non-zero
terms such that Q(hn ) → ∞ or
Q(hn ) → −∞.
85
AB2
86
AB2
87
AB3
AB3 Integration
Strategy 4.1 To prove an inequality.
min f = m if
where
point c ∈ (a, b) such that
88
AB3
b n→∞
f = sup{L(f, P )},
If L = U , then f is not integrable.
89
AB3
2 Techniques of integration
Theorem 1.4 A function f which is
bounded and monotonic on [a, b] is integrable
on [a, b]. Strategy 2.1 To find a primitive
f (g(x))g (x) dx, using integration by
substitution.
Theorem 1.5 A function f which is du
1. Choose u = g(x); find = g (x) and
continuous on [a, b] is integrable on [a, b]. dx
express du in terms of x and dx.
2. Substitute u = g(x) and replace g (x) dx by
du (adjusting constants if necessary) to give
f (u) du.
2 Evaluation of integrals
3. Find f (u) du.
4. Substitute u = g(x) to give the required
1 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. primitive.
Then a function F is a primitive of f on I if F is
differentiable on I and
F (x) = f (x), for x ∈ I. If we are evaluating an integral, rather than finding a
primitive, then there is no need to perform step 4.
We can denote a primitive of f by f (x) dx. Instead, we can change the x-limits of integration
into the corresponding u-limits.
If g(x) > 0 for x ∈ I, then
Theorem 2.1
g (x)
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
dx = loge (g(x)).
g(x)
Let f be integrable on [a, b], and let F be a
primitive of f on [a, b]. Then
b
f = F (b) − F (a).
a
90
AB3
Strategy 2.3 To find a primitive k(x) dx, Triangle Inequality Let f be integrable
on
[a, b]. Then
using integration by parts.
b b
1. Write the original function k in the form
f ≤ |f |.
f g , where f is a function that you can a a
differentiate and g is a function that you Furthermore, if |f (x)| ≤ M for x ∈ [a, b], then
can integrate.
b
2. Use the formula
f
≤ M (b − a).
a
f g = f g − f g.
2 Formulas for π
3 To evaluate an integral In that involves a
non-negative integer n, relate In to In−1 or In−2 by a
reduction formula, using integration by parts. Wallis’ Formula
2 2 4 4 2n 2n π
For example, let (a) lim · · · · ··· · · = .
π/2
n→∞ 1 3 3 5 2n − 1 2n + 1 2
In = sinn x dx, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(n!)2 22n √
0 (b) lim √ = π.
n→∞ (2n)! n
Then, using integration by parts twice, we obtain
n−1
In = In−2 , for n ≥ 2.
n 3 Integrals and series
Also, I0 = π/2 and I1 = 1.
Hence Integral Test Let the function f be positive
1 3 5 2n − 1 π and decreasing on [1, ∞), and suppose that
I2n = · · · · · · · · ,
2 4 6 2n 2 f (x) → 0 as x → ∞. Then
2 4 6 2n ∞
n
I2n+1 = · · · · · · · .
3 5 7 2n + 1 (a) f (n) converges if the sequence 1 f is
n=1
bounded above;
∞
n
(b) f (n) diverges if 1 f → ∞ as n → ∞.
n=1
91
AB4
n! ∼ 2πn (n/e)n as n → ∞.
where
f (n+1) (c)
Rn (x) = (x − a)n+1 ,
(n + 1)!
for some c between a and x.
following steps.
estimate
M
|Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|n+1 .
(n + 1)!
92
AB4
Let f have derivatives of all orders at the point a. called the radius of convergence of the power
93
AB4
n=1
94
Appendix
95
Sketches of graphs of standard inverse functions
96
Properties of trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
97
Standard derivatives
∞
1
1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · = xn |x| < 1
1−x n=0
∞
x2 x3 x4 (−1)n+1 xn
loge (1 + x) x− + − + ··· = −1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4 n=1
n
2 3 ∞
x n
x x
ex 1+x+ + + ··· = x∈R
2! 3! n=0
n!
∞
(−1)n x2n+1
x3 x5 x7
sin x x− + − + ··· = x∈R
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
n=0
∞
x2 x4 x6 (−1)n x2n
cos x 1− + − + ··· = x∈R
2! 4! 6! n=0
(2n)!
∞
α(α − 1) 2 α(α − 1)(α − 2) 3 α
(1 + x)α 1 + αx + x + x + ··· = xn |x| < 1, α ∈ R
2! 3! n
n=0
∞
x3 x5 x7 x2n+1
sinh x x+ + + + ··· = x∈R
3! 5! 7! n=0
(2n + 1)!
x2n ∞
x2 x4 x6
cosh x 1+ + + + ··· = x∈R
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
n=0
∞
x3 x5 x7 (−1)n x2n+1
tan−1 x x− + − + ··· = |x| ≤ 1
3 5 7 n=0
2n + 1
98
Standard primitives
ex ex R
1/x loge x (0, ∞)
1/x loge |x| (−∞, 0)
loge x x loge x − x (0, ∞)
sinh x cosh x R
cosh x sinh x R
tanh x loge (cosh x) R
1 a+x
(a2 − x2 )−1 , a = 0 loge (−a, a)
2a a−x
1
(a2 + x2 )−1 , a = 0 tan−1 (x/a) R
a
sin−1 (x/a) (−a, a)
(a2 − x2 )−1/2 , a = 0
− cos−1 (x/a) (−a, a)
loge (x + (x2 − a2 )1/2 ) (a, ∞)
(x2 − a2 )−1/2 , a =
0
cosh−1 (x/a) (a, ∞)
loge (x + (a2 + x2 )1/2 ) R
(a2 + x2 )−1/2 , a = 0
sinh−1 (x/a) R
1
(a2 − x2 )1/2 , a = 0 2 x(a
2 − x2 )1/2 + 21 a2 sin−1 (x/a) (−a, a)
1
(x2 − a2 )1/2 , a = 0 2 x(x
2 − a2 )1/2 − 21 a2 loge (x + (x2 − a2 )1/2 ) (a, ∞)
1
(a2 + x2 )1/2 , a = 0 2 x(a
2 + x2 )1/2 + 21 a2 loge (x + (a2 + x2 )1/2 ) R
eax
eax cos bx, a, b =
0 (a cos bx + b sin bx) R
a2 + b 2
eax
eax sin bx, a, b = 0 (a sin bx − b cos bx) R
a2 + b 2
99
Group tables of symmetry groups
◦ e a b c r s t u
e e a b c r s t u
a a b c e s t u r ◦ e a r s
b b c e a t u r s e e a r s
c c e a b u r s t a a e s r
r r u t s e c b a r r s e a
s s r u t a e c b s s r a e
t t s r u b a e c
u u t s r c b a e
◦ e a b r s t ◦ e a b c
e e a b r s t e e a b c
a a b e t r s a a b c e
b b e a s t r b b c e a
r r s t e a b c c e a b
s s t r b e a
t t r s a b e
1 1 {e} –
2 1 C2 –
3 1 C3 –
4 2 C4 , with 1 element of order 2 –
K4 , with 3 elements of order 2
5 1 C5 –
6 2 C6 , with 1 element of order 2 S(), with 3 elements of order 2
7 1 C7 –
8 5 C8 , with 1 element of order 2 S(�), with 5 elements of order 2
A group with 7 elements of order 2 A group with 1 element of order 2
A group with 3 elements of order 2
100
Three types of non-degenerate conic
101
Index
of order 8, 36
bounded figure, 23, 26
absolute value, 61
bounded sequence, 65
action table, 78
Boundedness Theorem, 71
acts on, 78
addition
cancellation laws, 26
in modular arithmetic, 21
cardioid, 13
of complex numbers, 19
Cartesian form, 19
of vectors, 40
Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem, 88
additive inverse, 18
Cayley’s Theorem, 34
in modular arithmetic, 21
centre
of a complex number, 19
of a conic section, 41
of a matrix, 44
of a power series, 93
additive notation, 28
Chain Rule, 86
additivity of integrals, 89
characteristic equation, 56
Alternating Test, 68
equation of, 41
angle
parametrisation of, 12
between vectors, 41
closed interval, 9
of rotation, 26
closed set, 23
Archimedean Property, 60
in a vector space, 48
Argand diagram, 18
of a group, 24
associativity, 18, 60
coefficient matrix, 45
in a group, 25
coefficients, 43
in a vector space, 48
of a power series, 93
asymptote, 9, 10
Combination Rules
of a conic section, 41
for ∼, 92
augmented matrix, 43
for differentiation, 86
automorphism, 75
for inequalities, 61
axioms of a group, 24
for integrals, 90
axis
for limits, 64, 65, 81, 82
of rotation, 26
for null sequences, 63
of symmetry, 23, 26
for power series, 94
for primitives, 90
basis, 49
common factor, 21
Basis Theorem, 50
commutative group, 25
Bernoulli’s Inequality, 61
commutativity, 18, 23, 60
bijection, 15
in a vector space, 48
binary operation, 24
of matrix addition, 44
binomial coefficient, 14
Comparison Test, 67
generalised, 94
completed-square form, 9
bisection method, 71
complex exponential function, 20
blancmange function, 83
complex number, 18
Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem, 84
components of a vector, 40
bounded above, 62
composite function, 12, 15
102
composite of transpositions, 32 counter-example, 16
composition Counting Theorem, 80
of functions, 23 cube, 26
of permutations, 31 cubic equation, 18
of symmetries, 24, 26 cubic function, 9
Composition Rule graph, 95
for continuity, 70 cycle, 31, 32
for differentiation, 86 cycle form, 31
for limits, 81 cycle structure, 32
for linear transformations, 53 cyclic group, 28–30, 36, 76
conclusion, 15 cyclic subgroup, 28, 30
congruence, 21 cycloid, 12
conics, 12, 41
non-degenerate, 101 de Moivre’s Theorem, 20
standard form, 58 decimal, 18, 60
conjugacy, 73 decreasing function, 10, 69
in symmetry groups, 74 decreasing sequence, 63
of permutations in Sn , 33–34 degenerate conic section, 41
conjugacy class, 73, 80 degree
conjugate, complex, 19 of a permutation group, 32
conjugate group elements, 33, 73 of a polynomial, 11
conjugate subgroups, 34, 73 Density Property, 60
Conjugate Subgroups Theorem, 34 derivative, 85, 98
conjugating element, 33, 73 derived function, 85
consistent system, 43 determinant, 46
constant sequence, 63 diagonal matrix, 45
constant term, 43 diagonal of a matrix, 45
continuity diagonalisable matrix, 57
and differentiability, 86 difference
and limits, 81 between sets, 14
classical definition, 83 between vectors, 40
sequential definition, 70 difference quotient, 85
uniform, 84 differentiable, 85
continuous at a point, 70 differentiation, 85
continuous function, 70, 83 Differentiation Rule for power series, 94
basic, 71 digit, 60
continuous on an interval, 71 dilation, 52
contradiction, 16 dimension, 50
contraposition, 16 Dimension Theorem, 55
contrapositive, 16 direct symmetry, 24, 26, 27, 75
convergent sequence, 64 directrix, 41
convergent series, 66, 91 Dirichlet function, 83
converse, 15 disc, 14
convex polyhedron, 26 symmetries of, 24
coordinates of a vector, 49 disjoint cycles, 31
coprime numbers, 21, 22, 30 disjoint sets, 14, 22
corollary, 15 Distance Formula, 19, 39
Correspondence Theorem, 77, 80 distributive law for matrices, 44
cosech function, 12 distributivity, 18, 60
coset, 35, 80 in a vector space, 48
in an additive group, 35, 37 divergent sequence, 65
left, 37 divergent series, 66, 91
of a stabiliser, 80 Division Algorithm, 21
of the kernel of a homomorphism, 77 division of complex numbers, 19
right, 37 divisor, 21
cosh function, 12 dodecahedron, 26
graph, 95, 96 domain, 9, 10, 14
cosine function, 97 dominant term, 11, 64
graph, 95, 96 dominated sequence, 64
Taylor series for, 98 dot product, 40
coth function, 12 in Rn , 50
103
eccentricity, 41
fractional part, 38
E-coordinate representation, 49
function, 9, 14
eigenspace, 56
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 20
eigenvalue, 56
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, 16
eigenvector, 56
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, 90
Gauss–Jordan elimination, 44
eigenvector equations, 56
element of a set, 13
elementary matrix, 46
generated set, 28
elementary operations, 43
inverse, 46
ellipsoid, 101
glide-reflection, 24
Glue Rule
for continuity, 70
empty set, 13
for differentiation, 86
gradient, 85
equality
Gram–Schmidt orthogonalisation, 51
of matrices, 44
of vectors, 40
equivalence, 15
greater than, 60
equivalence class, 22
equivalence relation, 22
error term, 92
Euclidean space, 39
Greek alphabet, 5
Euclid’s Algorithm, 22
group, 24
Euler’s formula, 20
axioms, 24
even function, 10
finite, 25
even permutation, 33
infinite, 25
even subsequence, 65
of even order, 36
exhaustion, 16
of order 1, 36
existential quantifier, 16
of order 4, 36
existential statement, 16
of order 6, 36
exponent laws, 62
of order 8, 36
exponential (e), 66
of prime order, 36
group action, 78
complex, 20
table, 78
graph, 95, 96
blocking of, 38
Exponential Inequalities, 71
extreme value, 71
half-closed interval, 9
extremum of a function, 86
half-plane, 13
higher-order derivative, 85
factorial, 14, 32
homogeneous system, 43
field, 18, 60
homomorphism, 75
figure, 26
homomorphism property, 75
finite decimal, 60
horizontal asymptote, 10
finite dimension, 49
horizontal point of inflection, 10
finite set, 14
hyperbola, 9, 41, 42, 101
fixed set, 80
hyperbolic paraboloid, 101
focal chord, 41
hyperplane, 51
focus, 41
hypothesis, 15
104
icosahedron, 26
interval, 9
identifying up to isomorphism, 77
of convergence, 93
in a group, 24, 25
in a group, 25, 26
in a quotient group, 38
in a quotient group, 38
in a vector space, 48
in a vector space, 48
in C, 19
of a matrix, 45, 47
identity function, 14
of a permutation, 32
identity matrix, 45
inverse function, 15, 69
identity permutation, 31
graphs, 96
identity symmetry, 23
Inverse Function Rule, 72
Identity Theorem, 94
for derivatives, 86
identity transformation, 52
inverse hyperbolic functions, 72
image, 9, 14
graphs, 96
of a homomorphism, 76
Inverse Rule, 54
of a linear transformation, 54
inverse symmetry, 23
image set, 14
inverse trigonometric functions, 72
imaginary axis, 18
graphs, 96
imaginary number, 18
Invertibility Theorem, 45
imaginary part, 18
invertible linear transformation, 54
implication, 15, 16
invertible matrix, 45, 47
inconsistent system, 43
irrational number, 18, 60
increasing sequence, 63
isomorphic groups, 29
increasing/decreasing criterion, 10
isomorphic linear transformations, 54
Increasing–Decreasing Theorem, 87
isomorphism, 29, 75
index of a subgroup, 35
of cyclic groups, 30
induction, mathematical, 16
isomorphism class, 29
inequalities, 60
for groups of order 8 or less, 36
exponential, 71
Isomorphism Theorem, 77
k-dilation, 52
kernel
proving, 62
of a homomorphism, 76, 77
rules, 61
of a linear transformation, 55
infimum
(k, l)-stretching, 52
of a function, 88
of a set, 62
Lagrange’s Theorem, 35, 80
infinite decimal, 60
leading diagonal
infinite dimension, 49
of a Cayley table, 24
cosets of, 35
least common multiple, 32
infinite series, 66
least upper bound, 62
integer, 13, 60
Least Upper Bound Property, 62
graph, 95
left limit, 82
integrable, 89
Leibniz notation, 85
integral, 89
lemma, 15
Integral Test, 91
length
integrand, 90
of a cycle, 32
integration
of a vector, 39, 40, 51
by backwards substitution, 91
less than, 60
by parts, 91
l’Hˆ
opital’s Rule, 88
by substitution, 90
Limit Comparison Test, 67
intercept, 10
limit of a function, 81, 84
interior, 87
and continuity, 81
interior point, 84
does not exist, 81
intersection of sets, 14
limit of a sequence, 64
105
limits of integration, 89
graph, 95
line, 13
Modulus Rule
equation of, 39
for integrals, 90
graph, 95
Monotone Convergence Theorem, 66
parametrisation of, 12
monotonic function, 69
in n unknowns, 43
Multiple Rule
linear function, 9
for ∼, 92
linear independence, 49
for continuity, 70
linear transformation, 52
for integrals, 90
local maximum, 10
for series, 67
of a function, 86
multiplication
local minimum, 10
in modular arithmetic, 21
of a function, 86
of complex numbers, 19
local property
Multiplication Rule, 80
of continuity, 70
multiplicative group, 30
of differentiability, 86
multiplicative inverse, 18, 21, 22
logarithm function, 72
in modular arithmetic, 21
graph, 95, 96
of a complex number, 19
lower bound, 62
multiplicity of an eigenvalue, 56
greatest, 62
lower integral, 89
n-dimensional space, 48
negation, 15, 16
negative, 18
of a complex number, 19
magnitude of a vector, 39
of a matrix, 44
of a vector, 39, 40
many-one function, 15
negative angle, 23
mapping, 14
n-gon, 23
mathematical induction, 16
non-Abelian group, 25
matrix, 43
of order 8, 36
addition, 44
non-cyclic group, 28
multiplication, 44
non-homogeneous system, 43
Non-null Test, 67
maximum element, 62
non-terminating decimal, 60
non-trivial solution, 43
maximum value, 71
normal vector, 41
member of a set, 13
mesh, 88
nth root, 62
minimum element, 62
nth term
of a sequence, 63
minimum value, 71
of a series, 66
n-tuple, 48
null sequence, 63
modulus, 61
number line, 60
in modular arithmetic, 21
of a complex number, 19
octahedron, 26
of a real number, 9
odd function, 10
modulus function, 9
odd permutation, 33
106
odd subsequence, 65
polynomial equation, 18
one-one correspondence, 15
Polynomial Factorisation Theorem, 17, 20
one-one function, 15
polynomial function, 11
onto function, 15
position vector, 40
open interval, 9
power function, graph, 96
orbit, 79
power of a group element, 28
Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem, 80
Power Rule, 63
order
power series, 93, 98
infinite, 25, 28
preservation of composites, 75
of a kernel, 77
principal argument, 19
of a permutation, 32
Principle of Mathematical Induction, 16
of a quotient group, 38
product
of an image, 77
of disjoint cycles, 31
prime, 36
of matrices, 44
order properties of R, 60
of real numbers, 62
orthogonal basis, 50
Product Rule
orthogonal vectors, 41
for differentiation, 86
in Rn , 50
for inequalities, 61
orthogonalisation (Gram–Schmidt), 51
for integrals, 90
projection of a vector, 41
graph, 95
by contradiction, 16
parametrisation of, 13
by contraposition, 16
parallel lines, 39
by exhaustion, 16
Parallelogram Law, 39
by mathematical induction, 16
parameter, 12
proper subgroup, 27
parametric equations, 12
proper subset, 14
parametrisation, 12, 14
proposition, 15
parity of a permutation, 33
punctured neighbourhood, 81
Parity Theorem, 33
quadratic equation, 18
quadratic function, 9
partition, 22
quadric, 58
non-degenerate, 101
standard form, 59
quotient, 21
of an interval, 88
of complex numbers, 19
Pascal’s triangle, 17
quotient group, 38
periodic function, 10
of an infinite group, 38
permutation, 31
Quotient Rule
permutation group, 32
for ∼, 92
perpendicular lines, 39
for continuity, 70
perpendicular vectors, 41
for differentiation, 86
pi (π), 66
for integrals, 90
estimating, 94
formulas for, 91
plane of reflection, 26
range of validity, 93
plane set, 13
Ratio Test
Platonic solid, 26
for power series, 93
point of inflection, 10
for series, 68
polar form, 19
rational function, 11
polyhedron, 26
rational number, 13, 18, 60
polynomial, 17
r-cycle, 32
107
real axis, 18
series, 66
real function, 9
set, 13
real part, 18
shear, 52
reciprocal, 18
sign of an integral, 89
of a complex number, 19
simultaneous linear equations, 55
reciprocal function, 9
sine function
graph, 95
graph, 95, 96
Reciprocal Rule, 65
Taylor series for, 98
rectangular hyperbola, 42
singleton, 13
recurring decimal, 60
sinh function, 12
reduction formula, 91
graph, 95, 96
refinement, 89
size of a matrix, 44
reflexive property, 22
solution set, 13, 61
regular n-gon, 23
of a system of equations, 43
regular polyhedron, 26
Solution Set Theorem, 55
relation, 22
span, 48
relatively prime, 21
spanning set, 48
remainder, 21
square matrix, 44, 58
remainder term, 92
Squeeze Rule
‘renaming’ permutations, 33
for continuity, 70
Riemann function, 83
stabiliser, 79
Riemann sum, 89
standard basis, 49
Riemann’s Criterion, 89
standard form
right derivative, 85
of a conic, 58
right limit, 82
of a quadric, 59
Rolle’s Theorem, 87
standard partition, 88
root, 62
statement, 15
of a complex number, 20
stationary point, 10, 87
of a polynomial, 20
Stirling’s Formula, 92
of unity, 20
straight line, 13
row matrix, 44
strictly decreasing function, 69
sawtooth function, 83
strictly monotonic function, 69
scalar, 39
strictly monotonic sequence, 63
scalar multiple
subgroup, 27
of a matrix, 44
of symmetry group, 27
of a vector, 39
possible order of, 35
scaling, 9
subsequence, 65
Scaling Rule, 90
Subsequence Rules, 65
sech function, 12
subset, 14
second derivative, 85
subspace, 50, 56
Section Formula, 40
of vectors, 40
self-conjugate subgroup, 73
sum
sequence, 63
of real numbers, 62
sequence diagram, 63
sum function, 93
108
Sum Rule
transposition, 32
for ∼, 92
Triangle Inequality, 61
for continuity, 70
for integrals, 91
for differentiation, 86
infinite form, 68
for inequalities, 61
Triangle Law, 39
for integrals, 90
Trichotomy Property, 60
for primitives, 90
trivial homomorphism, 75
for series, 67
trivial solution, 43
supremum
trivial subgroup, 27
of a function, 88
trivial symmetry, 23
of a set, 62
twice differentiable, 85
symmetric group S4 , 32
two-dimensional Euclidean space, 39
unbounded sequence, 65
symmetric property, 22
unbounded set, 62
symmetry, 23, 26
uniform continuity, 84
union of sets, 14
of a regular n-gon, 23
of the disc, 23
unit circle, 13
unit vector, 40
subgroup, 27
universal quantifier, 16
universal statement, 16
upper bound, 62
least, 62
tangent approximation, 92
upper integral, 89
tangent to a curve, 88
tanh function, 12
graph, 95, 96
valid, 93
Taylor polynomial, 92
vanish, 71
Taylor series, 93
vector, 39
Taylor’s Theorem, 92
vector addition, 48
techniques of integration, 90
vector space, 40
telescoping series, 67
Venn diagram, 13
term
Wallis’ Formula, 91
of a sequence, 63
of a series, 66
wedge symbol, 78
terminating decimal, 60
theorem, 15
in a vector space, 48
trace, 56
of a polynomial, 20
transition matrix, 56
of a polynomial function, 71
Transitive Property, 60
zero complex number, 18
Transitive Rule, 61
zero matrix, 44
translation, 9, 23, 52
zero transformation, 52
transpose of a matrix, 45
zero vector, 39, 49
109