Cables and Cable Glands Questions and Answers

What are different elements of a Cable? Basic about cable components &
constructional details

Conductor

Conductor is a current carrying element made up of Aluminium or Copper with a specific

cross section for the assigned rating, having resistance / km within certain specified limits.

Electrical Insulation (dielectric)

Insulation is provided over the conductors to electrically isolate them from one another.
Various types of insulating materials used are : PVC, XLPE (Cross Linked Polyethylene),
Rubber, etc.

An insulated conductor is termed as Core. A cable may have one or more cores. In a
multiple core cable , the cores are helically stranded together. In twin, three & multi-core
cables, the cores are laid up together with a suitable lay; the outer most layer has right-
hand lay and the successive layers are laid with opposite lay direction.

Inner sheath (bedding)

Cables with stranded cores are provided with Inner Sheath applied either by extrusion or
by wrapping. It is ensured that the shape is as circular as possible. Inner Sheath is so
applied that it fits closely on the laid up cores & it should be possible to remove it without
damage to the insulation. Thickness of Inner Sheath is specified in relevant standard and
is based on calculated diameter over laid-up cores.

Armour

A wire, strip or a tape applied helically over the cable, to protect the cable from
penetration by sharp objects, crushing forces, and damage from rodents or boring insects,
is termed as Armour.

Armour is applied over the insulation in case of single core cables & over inner sheath in
case of twin, three & multi core cables.

Outer Sheath

Outer sheath /Jacket is usually an extruded plastic cover over the laid-up or armoured
core. PVC is a common sheathing material. Outer sheath provides mechanical, thermal,
chemical and environmental protection. No electrical function is assigned to Outer sheath.
The colour of outer sheath is normally black.

What are different cable types and categories?

Cables can be divided into large number of types based on a combination of

classifications as follows:

 Based on the voltage ratings as low voltage, high voltage, extra high voltage cables,
etc.
 Based on the conductor material, Copper conductor or Aluminium conductor.
 Based on the insulating material as PVC insulated, Rubber insulated, XLPE
insulated, etc.
 Armoured or Unarmoured cables
 Based on the sheathing material, as PVC Sheathed, Rubber Sheathed, Lead
Sheathed, Aluminium Sheathed, etc.
 Based on the number of cores as single core, two core, three core, three-and-a-
half core, four core, multicore, etc.
 Based on the cross-section of the conductor.
 Based on the type of conductor, solid, stranded, sector shaped, etc.

From above it is evident that the types of cables will differ widely depending upon various
factors involved. To facilitate identification and description of the type of cable it is general
practice to adopt some form of type designations. With these designations it becomes
easier to convey in a few words the right type of cable.

Comparison of XLPE cables with PVC cables

The important difference is the extra toughness of insulation and, in particular, the ability
to withstand much high temperature without deformation due to mechanical pressure.
The better physical properties of XLPE enable the insulation thickness to be reduced and
hence overall size of the cable. The continuous temperature rating is increased from 70°C
to 90°C and the temperature for short circuit ratings for the cable from 160°C to 250°C.

In general, XLPE insulated cables are competitive alternative to PVC cables for industrial
use and Paper insulated cables for public supply systems.

What is screening in cable and why it is required?

Electrical Screening is necessary only for cables with phase voltage > 1 kv and fulfills the
following functions.
  Potential grading and limiting of electrical fields
 Conduction of charge and discharge currents

To satisfy these functions, the screening normally comprises a combination of conducting

layers with metallic elements.

The magnitude of electric stress and the degree of sensitivity of the insulation material
against partial discharge govern the type of screening of the insulation with conducting
layers.

Above certain voltages, as a means of containing the electrical field within the insulation,
semiconducting screens are applied over the conductor & insulation. Screens are
provided to achieve symmetrical dielectric fields within the cable structure & carry current
during short circuit. By this it is possible to eliminate any electrical discharges arising from
air gaps adjacent to the insulation.

The coefficient of expansion of polyethylene & EPR is approximately ten times greater
than that of either Copper or Aluminium, and when the conductor is at its maximum
operating temperature of 90°C a sufficiently large gap is formed between the insulation
and the surface of the conductor to enable electrical discharge to occur. This discharge
site & any others which are formed around a conductor when conductor is bent can be
eliminated by applying a semiconducting layer over the conductor. Similarly, any
discharges arising from air gaps between laid-up cores can be nullified by the use of a
screen over the insulation.

During the early 1960s semiconducting tapes were applied the conductor but these have
since been superseded by an extruded layer. This has the advantage of providing both a
smoother finish and, as it fills the interstices between the wires, a circular envelop around
the conductor. By reducing the concentration of the flux lines around the individual wires,
the electrical stress around conductor is reduced by between 10% to 15%. The
semiconducting layer is compatible with, and bonds to, the insulation and a nominal
thickness of 0.7 mm is typical.

What is FRLS H cable?

Flame Retardant Low Smoke and Low Halogen cables have improved flame resistant
characteristics and emit lower smoke and toxic gases.

Special features

 Reduced flame propagation

  Low smoke emission
 Low acid gas generation

Formulation for the FRLS compounds, which are mainly for the sheathing materials,
require special ingredients. These cables may have insulation of PVC or XLPE, but sheath
is PVC based, suitably compounded to meet FRLS H requirements.

What are the general Packing practices followed?

Cables are generally received on wooden/steel drum. There is an arrow painted on the
flanges of the drum which indicate the direction in which the drum should be rolled. The
cable will unwind and become loose if the drum is rolled in the opposite direction. All
drums should be stored in such a manner as to leave sufficient space between them for
air circulation. In no case should the drums be stored ‘ on the flat’ i.e. with flange
horizontal.

What are the different Conductor materials used as conductor?

Conductor is a current carrying element made up of Aluminium or Copper with a specific

cross section for the assigned rating, having resistance / km within certain specified limits.

What is the criterion for selecting particular type of conductor?

Conductor selection depends on various parameters like current carrying capacity ,

system voltage, voltage drop, flexibility, shape, and economics.

The most commonly used metals are Copper and Aluminium.

Resistance (R) of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross section and is
given by :

R= þ x l / A

Where

þ= Resistivity of the conductor material.

l= Length of conductor.
A = cross sectional area of conductor.

What are the different types of conductor?

Conductors are divided into different classes , the flexibility of the conductor increases
with the class number. These are as follows:

1. Cables for fixed installations: classes 1 and 2

2. The flexibles: classes 5 and 6

Solid Conductor (Class 1)

The conductor consists of single wire of plain or tinned annealed Copper and its cross-
section is circular. Solid Aluminium conductor of sizes 1.5 mm2 , up to and including 16
mm2 is of circular cross-section. Sizes 25 mm2 and above may be either circular or shaped
cross-section.

Stranded Circular Non-Compacted Conductors ( Class 2 )

The conductor consists of plain or tinned annealed Copper or plain Aluminium. The
number of wires in the conductor are not less than the appropriate minimum number as
specified in the standards.

Stranded Compacted Circular Conductors and Shaped Conductors (Class 2)

The conductor consists of plain or tinned annealed Copper or plain Aluminium. The
number of wires in the conductor are not less than the appropriate minimum number as
specified in the standards.

Flexible Conductors(Classes 5 and 6 )

Conductor consists of plain or tinned annealed Copper. The diameter of the wires in any
conductor does not exceed the appropriate maximum value as given in the standards.

What are different types of insulating material?

List the important properties of cable insulation. What are thermoplastic and
thermoset materials?

Insulation is provided to electrically isolate the individual cores from one another. The
applied insulation must perform adequately in the specified temperature range, and its
dielectric strength should be sufficient to sustain the electrical stresses.

Cable insulation should have:

 High Dielectric Strength

  Low dielectric constant
 Good Mechanical properties
 Resistance to Ageing
 High temperature withstandability

Insulating materials are classified as thermoplastic or thermoset. Thermoplastic

materials lose their form upon heating. Thermoset materials maintain their form in spite
of heating. Various types of insulating materials used are : PVC, XLPE, Rubber,
Impregnated Paper, etc.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or vinyl) is a thermoplastic. PVC compound is the standard

insulation for cables rated at 11000 volts or less & sheathing of entire range of cables.
PVC compound is a mixture of PVC resin, plasticizer, fillers, stabilizers, lubricant, pigment.
The quantity and type of each ingredient determines the properties. A broad range of
electrical, physical and chemical properties is possible. PVC has good electrical properties.
It is tough and resistant to flame, moisture, and abrasion. Resistance to ozone, acids,
alkalis, alcohol, and most solvents is also adequate. PVC can be made resistant to oils and
gasoline.

PVC has the disadvantage of having a high dielectric constant and dissipation factor. Also
plasticizer loss can cause hardening and cracking.

Crosslinked Polyethylene

Crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) is a thermoset. It is produced by compounding PE

(polyethylene) with a crosslinking agent, like organic peroxide. The molecules of
polyethylene are “crosslinked”, forming an interconnected network. The terms “cured”
and “vulcanised” are also used for “crosslinked“.

Elastomer

Elastomeric material are used for insulation and for sheaths. They are applied mainly
where the product has to be particular flexible. A wide range of elastomers is nowadays
available to the cable industry. This makes possible the manufacture of compounds with
specific properties, such as abrasion and oil resistance, weather and heat resistance and
flame resistance, combined with good overall electrical and mechanical charateristics.

The classical elastomeric material, natural rubber, has declined in significance in recent
years. In its place, the synthetic elastomers produced by the co-polymerisation of ethylene
and propylene, are constantly finding new areas of application in cable engineering. This
co-polymers, are generally known as EPR.

Rubber was the first insulant to be used in Electric cable manufacture but gave way to
other insulants like paper, PVC, XLPE etc. Rubber is still considered the preferred insulation
for flexible cables and cables where very small bending diameter is desired.

Paper

Paper tapes of specific thickness and suitable widths are lapped around the conductor.
The thickness of built up insulation depends on the rated voltage of the cable. Paper
insulated cores are dried and impregnated using mass impregnating non-draining
compound.

What is the function of Conductor / Insulation Screen and material used?

Function of Conductor / Insulation Screen

The conductor shield is a layer of semi-conducting material. Semi-conducting materials

do not conduct electricity well enough to be a conductor but will not hold back voltage.

It “smoothes” out the surface irregularities of the conductor. The conductor shield
makes the voltage on the inside of the insulation the same. Industry specifications
define the performance of conductor shield. Good insulation shields are extruded in
tandem with the insulation.

The insulation shield consists of two components. These components are the extruded
(auxiliary) shield and the metallic (primary) shield.

The extruded shield consist of a semi-conducting layer similar to the conductor shield. It
makes the voltage on the outside of the insulation the same.

The primary shield can consist of metal tape, drain wires or concentric neutral (CN) wires.
Grounding the primary shield makes the voltage on the outside of the insulation ground.
The Copper of the shield is usually bare, but may be coated with lead or tin. Some primary
shields consists of drain wires and tape. Aluminium and lead can also be used as the
shield.

Concentric neutral wires serve a two-fold purpose. They function as the metallic
component of the insulation shield and as a conductor for the neutral return current. Their
cross sectional area must be sized in order to function as the neutral conductor.
Cables with PVC Insulation
The inner conducting layer consists of PVC compound having high carbon black content.
For the outer conducting layer, a cover of conducting tapes is preferred.

Cables with PE or XLPE Insulation

Because of higher sensistivity to partial discharge the reliable well adhesive gap and cavity
free bonding to conducting layers is of greatest significance. The inner conducting layer
consists of polymer compound made conductive by adding carbon black. And the outer
conducting layer is formed by semi-conducting compound along with semi-conducting
tapes.

Cable Glands

What is Cable Gland?

A:A device designed to permit the entry of cable in to electrical equipment which provides
sealing, retention and ear thing, bonding, grounding, insulation, strain relief or
combination of all these. Gland should maintain overall integrity of enclosure in to which
it is to be fitted.

How to select the Cable Gland?

Gland should be selected on following Points

1. Type of Cable
2. Gland Size
3. Entry Type/Thread Specification of application
4. Ingress Protection required.
5. Material

What are the type of Cable and how the Gland to be used?

Unarmored: Unarmored Cable will require outer seal within Gland to not only Provide
ingress protection but also degree of retention.

Armored: Gland that required clamping mechanism to terminate the armored both
mechanically and electrically.
The Gland will usually be required to provide ingress protection by sealing outer sheath
and retention by clamping amour.

what are the types of Gland?

 1. Brass Indoor Type Gland
2. Brass Outdoor Type Gland
3. Brass Straitening Unarmored Cable Gland
4. Brass Weather Proof Gland
5. PG Threaded Gland:
6. Industrial Type Gland

Describe the types of Gland?

Brass Indoor Type Gland

 This Gland is quite handy in use with various types of cable whether plastic,
rubberized, metal or any other.
 Application: Dry indoor, for use with all type of SWA cables, plastic or rubber
sheathed cable.
 Brass indoor gland suitable for single wire armored, plastic or rubber sheathed
cable. Recommended to use with shroud for additional ingress protection.
 Cable Type: Steel Wire Amour.
 Amour Clamping: Two Part Amour Lock.

Brass Outdoor Type Gland

This come in stunning high quality material for use in outdoor or indoor application with
various types of cables sheathed or unsheathed.

 Brass indoor and outdoor gland popularly used with single wire armored.
  Plastic or rubber sheathed cable. Terminates and secure cable armoring and outer
seal grips sheath of cable thus ensuring mechanical strength and earth continuity.
 CW brass glands are also supplied with integral earth facilities.
 Recommended to use PVC shroud for additional ingress protection

Application:

a) Outdoor or indoor, for use with all type of SWA cables, plastic or rubber sheathed cable.
b) Most suitable for SWA, plastic of rubber (Elastomeric) sheathed cables.
c) Used in dry indoor conditions.
d) No loose parts and easy to install.
e)Save times & money.

 Gland size: 20 mm to 75 mm (S & L)

 Accessories :Earth Tag, PVC Shroud, Neo prime Rubber & LSF Rubber, PVC Washer,
Brass Lock Nut.
 Cable Type: Wire Braid Armor.
 Armor Clamping: Three Parts (With Lock Nut).

Brass Straitening Unarmored Cable Gland

 Nickel plated or natural brass A2 type cable glands are used with variety of
unarmored or rubber sheathed cables.
 Brass indoor and outdoor cable gland suitable for all types of unarmored cables,
plastic or rubber sheathed cables.

Application:
 1. For use with unarmored elastomeric and plastic insulated cables.
2. Indoor & Outdoor whenever it is required to provide sealing on cable outer sheath.
 Size : Metric – 20mm to 75mm (S/L)
 Accessories: Earth Tag, PVC Shroud, Neo prime Rubber & LSF Rubber, PVC Washer,
Brass Lock Nut.
 Cable Type : Unarmored

Brass Weather Proof Gland

Unlike other types of cable glands, This type cable gland is used precisely with single
armored various types of swa cables whether plastic or rubber sheathed ones. this type
cable gland is known for its uninterrupted services once the gland is fixed to the desired
wires and wire components.

 Suitable for SWA or rubber sheathed cables.

 Outer seal grips bedding layer of cable for use in most climatic conditions.
 Weather proof and water proof.
 Design has separate armor lock rings. Can be supplied with integral earth facility.
 Gland size: 20 mm to 75 mm (S & L)

Application

1. Outdoor or indoor, for use with single armored, all type of SWA cable, plastic or
rubber sheathed cable.
2. E1W Gland is Weatherproof & Waterproof Cable Gland
 Cable Type : Steel Wire Armour
 Armour Clamping: Three Part Armour Lock
 Sealing Technique: Compression & Displacement Type
 Sealing Area(s): Inner & Outer Sheath

PG Threaded Gland:
Nickel chrome plated PG threaded cable gland is a custom made threaded gland to meet
the needs from the meet industries. Apart from the round headed PG threaded cable
gland, we also offer hexagonal gland or any other like spherical rectangular or any other
dimensional PG threaded cable gland as per the specification of the customer.

Industrial Cable Gland

Brass gland suitable for wire braid armored, plastic or rubber sheathed cable. Terminates
and secure cable armoring and outer seal grips sheath of cable thus ensuring mechanical
strength and earth continuity.

 Recommended to use PVC shroud for additional ingress protection

 Cable Type: Wire Braid Armour
 Armour Clamping : Three Part (With Lock Nut)
 Sealing Technique: Compression Type.
 Brass gland suitable for steel tape armored, plastic or rubber sheathed cables.
Terminates and secure cable armoring and outer seal grips sheath of cable thus
ensuring mechanical strength and earth continuity.
 Recommended to use PVC shroud for additional ingress protection
  Cable Type : Steel Tape Armour
 Armour Clamping : Three Part (With Lock Nut)
 Sealing Technique: Compression Type.

What is difference between Single Compression and Double Compression?

 Double compression glands provide extra support to the heavy armored cables
entering or exiting the panel while single compression glands are used for light
armored cables.
 Normal Cable Gland is also called Single Compression Cable Gland. As the name
suggests, while you tighten the gland, the grip or compression is effected only at
one p [lace (i.e.) at the cable armour only. There is scope for moisture and corrosive
vapour to enter the gland and thus into the cable.
 Whereas in Double-Compression Gland, the compression happens both at the
cable armour as well as at the inner sheath. This is sort of two sealing. Hence,
chances of moisture or vapour entry are minimized. Hence these glands are also
known as Weather-proof cable glands or Flame-proof cable glands.
 The basic difference between single and double compression is in Single comp
there no cone and cone ring.
The mechanical support for the cable is only Neoprene rubber seal, When you
tighten the cable.
 In double camp gland the mechanical support to the cable only cone and cone
ring. When we are doing glanding the cable armor sits on the cone and cone ring
act as a lock for armor.
 Single compression and double compression glands are used on the basis of area
classification. Those who are affiliated with oil and gas sector they will easily
understand about area classification.
 In zone 0 where the presence of hydrocarbon is obvious (IIC) double compression
gland is used because the flame path in case of double compression gland is much
more than in case of single compression gland.
 The logic behind this is that if there is any explosion inside the terminal box of the
motor no flame should be able to come out through the cable gland in order to
prevent fire hazards but where there is no presence of hydrocarbons i.e. no danger
of fire hazards (IIA/ IIB) single compression glands are used.
 It has nothing to do with mechanical strength. Even in case of lighting fixtures used
in IIC zone double compression glands are used.

what are the parts of Double compression Gland?

Parts of Double comp

  Gland body
 Gland body Nut
 Cone
 Cone Ring
 Neoprene Rubber seal
 Rubber Washer
 Check Nut

what are the parts of Double compression Gland?

Single Comp Parts

 Gland body
 Gland body Nut
 Neoprene Rubber seal
 Rubber Washer
 Check Nut
 Flat washer

Safety Questions and Answers

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What is a BUMP TEST ?

A bump test is a functional test of a gas monitor/detector. Sensors and alarm indicators
are tested, ensuring acceptable performance of sensors and monitor before use. All
sensors are challenged with a known quantity of gas, and instrument response is
compared to the actual quantity of gas present.
OSHA says, “The International Safety Equipment Association (ISEA), founded in 1933, is a
trade association for manufacturers of protective equipment, including environmental
monitoring instruments. The ISEA recommends, at a minimum, verification of sensor
accuracy before each day’s use. The only way to guarantee that an instrument will detect
gas accurately and reliably is to test it with a known concentration of gas. Exposing the
instrument to a known concentration of test gas will show whether the sensors respond
accurately and whether the instrument alarms function properly. A bump test verifies
calibration by exposing the instrument to a known concentration of test gas.

The instrument reading is compared to the actual quantity of gas present (as indicated
on the cylinder). If the instrument’s response is within an acceptable tolerance range of
the actual concentration, then its calibration is verified. Sensors, especially LEL
(combustible) sensors, may be lose sensitivity to the target gas through poisoning.
Silicone compounds including silanes, halogens, halogenated hydrocarbons, sulfur
compounds, as well as acids and bases and various VOCs are known poisons. The only
way means of identifying loss of sensor sensitivity is by gas-checking or calibration. As a
result, OSHA and instrument manufacturers/end users require a bump test before every
day’s use.

What is a Lower Explosive Limit ?

The lower explosive limit (LEL) of a gas or a vapour, is the lowest concentration (in air) that
is needed for the gas to ignite and explode. For example, propane can explode when it
reaches 2.1 per cent of the air, by volume. At 2.1%v/v, propane has reached 100% of its
lower explosive level. 50% LEL propane is 0.6%v/v.

Most flammable gas detectors measure the percent of LEL present. Some sensors are
capable of measuring methane by volume, as well as percent LEL.

There are two explosive limits for any gas or vapor, the lower explosive limit (LEL) and
the upper explosive limit (UEL). At concentrations in air below the LEL there is not
enough fuel to continue an explosion; at concentrations above the UEL the fuel has
displaced so much air that there is not enough oxygen to begin a reaction. Concentrations
of explosive gases are often given in terms of percent of lower explosive limit (%LEL).

What is a Confined Space?

Generally speaking, a confined space is an enclosed or partially enclosed space that:

 is not primarily designed or intended for human occupancy

 has a restricted entrance or exit by way of location, size or means
  can represent a risk for the for the health and safety of anyone who enters, due to one or
more of the following factors:
 its design, construction, location or atmosphere
 the materials or substances in it
 work activities being carried out in it, or the
 mechanical, process and safety hazards present

Confined spaces can be below or above ground. Confined spaces can be found in almost
any workplace. A confined space, despite its name, is not necessarily small. Examples of
confined spaces include silos, vats, hoppers, utility vaults, tanks, sewers, pipes, access
shafts, truck or rail tank cars, aircraft wings. Ditches and trenches may also be a confined
space when access or egress is limited.

Photo-ionization Detector Related Questions

What is a PID?

A photo-ionization detector or PID, uses an electrodeless ultraviolet lamp to ionize

chemicals with ionization potentials (I.P) below the range of the lamp and thereby
measure their concentrations in parts-per-million (ppm). A PID is best used to detect low
levels (0-2000ppm) of broad band toxics or volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Sample Site Remediation Procedure using PID: Prior to use, the PID was calibrated against
a 100 parts per million (ppm) isobutylene span gas in air matrix. The instrument was then
zeroed against the ambient air near the work area. The PID is useful for qualitative field
screening of VOCs and provides a basis for comparison between soil samples collected in
the field. Soil samples were placed into sealable plastic bags and allowed to sit in a warm
area for volatilization to occur. Each bag was opened and the tip of the PID was inserted
into the head space above each sample.

What are some examples of chemicals that are detected by PIDs?

Acetone, Ammonia, Asphalt fumes, Benzene, Butane, Chlorobenzene, Cyclohexane, Diesel

Fuel, Ethyl ether, Ethylene glycol, Formaldehyde, Gasoline, Hexane, Iodine, Isobutylene,
Jet fuels, kerosene, Methyl Mercaptan, Mineral Spirits, Nitric Oxide, Octane, Pentane,
Propylene, Resorcinol, Styrene, Toluene, Turpentine, Vinyl Chloride, etc.

What are VOCs?

VOCs are Volatile Organic Compounds, organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure
and easily form vapors at normal temperatures and pressure.
The term “organic” indicates that the compounds contain carbon. VOC exposures are
often associated with an odour while other times there are no odours. Both can be
harmful.

The term is generally applied to organic solvents, certain paint additives, aerosol spray
can propellants, fuels (such as gasoline, and kerosene), petroleum distillates, dry cleaning
products and many other industrial and consumer products ranging from office supplies
to building materials. VOCs are also naturally emitted by a number of plants and trees.

What are the effects of VOC exposure?

Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include conjunctival irritation,
nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in serum
cholinesterase levels, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness.

The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are
highly toxic, to those with no known health effect. As with other pollutants, the extent and
nature of the health effect will depend on many factors including level of exposure and
length of time exposed. Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual
disorders, and memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some
people have experienced soon after exposure to some organics.

Toxic Gas Related Questions & Answers

What are TWA, PEL and REL?

The Threshold Limit Value (TLV(R) ) of a chemical substance establishes the reasonable
level to which a worker may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, over a working lifetime
without adverse health effects. TLV(R) is a reserved term of the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)(R) . It is however sometimes loosely used to
refer to other similar concepts used in occupational health and toxicology. A list of current
TLVs(R) and biological exposure indices (BEIs) are published annually by the ACGIH(R) .
A Time Weighted Average (TWA) is a TLV(R) based on a 8-hour workday and a 40-hour
workweek. For example the TWA for carbon monoxide is 25 ppm. This means that an
average of 25 ppm is considered to be the safe TLV(R) for an 8-hour workday.

A Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is a TLV(R) based on a 15 minute average.

A Ceiling is a TLV that should not be exceeded during any part of the work experience.

The Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL or OSHA PEL) is a TLV(R) established by OSHA in the
U S for exposure of an employee to a substance or physical agent, and may differ from
TLVs(R) in other jurisdictions. Permissible Exposure Limits are established by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). A PEL is usually given as a time-
weighted average (TWA), although some are Short Term Exposure Limits (STEL) or Ceiling
Limits.

RELs or Recommended Exposure Limits are TLVs(R) established by NIOSH for exposure
of an employee to a substance or physical agent.

Who decides safe levels for toxic gas exposures?

There are various organizations who make recommendations about exposure levels, or
threshold limit values (TLVs) for various chemicals. Among them are:

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Under the Occupational Safety
and Health Act of 1970, the US Congress created OSHA as a Federal agency under the
Department of Labor that develops and enforces federal standards for health and safety
in the work place. The mission of OSHA is “to assure the safety and health of America’s
workers by setting and enforcing standards; providing training, outreach, and education;
establishing partnerships; and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety
and health”.

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. A US Federal agency under
the Department of Health and Human Services created by the Occupational Safety and
Health Act of 1970, that trains occupational health and safety professionals, and is
responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of
work-related injury and illness.

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. A voluntary

membership organization of professional industrial hygiene personnel in governmental
or educational institutions. ACGIH develops and publishes recommended occupational
exposure limits each year called Threshold Limit Values (TLV’s) for hundreds of chemicals,
physical agents, and includes Biological Exposure Indices (BEI).

Different organizations may not agree on the safe level for different chemical exposures.
For example, NIOSH establishes a threshold limit of 35 ppm for a time weighted average
(TWA) for carbon monoxide for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek. ACGIH
recommends a TWA of 25 ppm.

What is H2S?

Hydrogen Sulfide is a colorless, transparent gas with a characteristic rotten-egg odor at

low concentrations. It is not detectable by odor at high concentrations. As the level of H2S
increases, the sense of smell is lost!

Hydrogen Sulfide is a naturally occurring gas mixed with natural gas or dissolved in the
oil or brine and released upon exposure to atmospheric conditions.

ACGIH 2008 recommendations are as follows for Threshold Limit Values for H2S:

A Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is a TLV(R) based on a 15 minute average.

Short Term Exposure Level – STEL (15 min Average) – 15ppm

Long Term Exposure Level -TWA (8 hr average) – 10ppm

Carbon Monoxide Related Questions & Answers

Does everyone react to Carbon Monoxide (CO) in the same way?

The harmful effects of the gas in the air are affected by exposure time and factors such as
age, health and size. Many of us encounter CO regularly and never know it because it is
invisible and odorless. That is why victims of CO poisoning often have no warning that
they are in danger – until it is too late. Symptoms include headache, nausea, chronic
fatigue, confusion, and dizziness. Extreme exposure can even cause a coma or death.

What causes Carbon Monoxide (CO) and why is it dangerous?

Carbon Monoxide is a product of incomplete (poor) combustion. It is a direct and

cumulative poison. When combined with blood hemoglobin, CO replaces oxygen in the
blood until it completely overcomes the body. Death from CO occurs suddenly. The victim
inhaling the toxic concentration of the gas becomes helpless before realizing that the
danger exists.

How much Carbon Monoxide (CO) is safe?

Toxic Gases are measured in ppm (parts per million). 1% volume = 10,000 ppm

Ammonia Related Questions & Answers

What are the hazards of working with Ammonia?

Ammonia is widely used as a refrigerant gas, as well as in the fertilizer industry. A

colourless gas with a sharp, penetrating, intensely irritating odour and a colourless liquid
under pressure, it is not considered a flammable gas. However, a large and intense energy
source may cause ignition and/or explosion.

Ammonia gas can decompose at high temperatures forming very flammable hydrogen
and toxic nitrogen dioxide. It is a COMPRESSED GAS and a confined space explosion and
toxicity hazard. Ammonia gas is a CORROSIVE GAS and may be fatal if inhaled. Ammonia
gas may cause lung injury, and the liquefied gas can cause frostbite and corrosive injury
to eyes and skin.

Ammonia gas is a severe respiratory tract irritant. Most people can detect it by smell at
0.6 to 53 ppm. Nose and throat irritation may be noticed at concentrations as low as 24
ppm after 2-6 hours exposure. A 10-minute exposure to 30 ppm may be faintly irritating
to some, while 50 ppm may be found to be moderately irritating by most. A 5-minute
exposure to 72 or 134 ppm will cause irritation of the nose and throat for most people.

At 500 ppm, immediate and severe irritation of nose, and throat occurs. Brief exposure to
concentrations above 1500 ppm can cause pulmonary edema, a potentially fatal
accumulation of fluid in the lungs. The symptoms of pulmonary edema (tightness in the
chest and difficulty breathing) may not develop for 1-24 hours after an exposure.

Numerous cases of fatal ammonia exposure have been reported, but actual exposure
levels have not been well documented. If the victim survives, complete recovery may occur
depending on the extent of injury to the respiratory tract and lungs. However, long-term
respiratory system and lung disorders have been observed following severe short-term
exposures to ammonia.

The TWA established by ACGIH for ammonia is 25 ppm. The STEL is 35 ppm.

Safety Precautions for Ammonia:

 CORROSIVE, COMPRESSED GAS. May also be an EXPLOSION HAZARD, especially in

confined spaces. Engineering controls, proper training, protective equipment
requirements and personal hygiene measures are essential.
 If ammonia is released, immediately put on a suitable respirator and leave the area until
the severity of the release is determined. In case of leaks or spills, escape-type respiratory
protective equipment should be available in the work area.
 Never work alone with this chemical.
 Unprotected persons should avoid all contact with this chemical, including contaminated
equipment.
 Use a closed handling systems for processes involving this material. If a closed handling
system is not possible, use the smallest possible amounts in a well-ventilated area separate
from the storage area. Prevent the release of gas into the workplace air. For large-scale
operations, consider the installation of a leak detection system with an alarm.
 Do not use with incompatible materials such as oxidizing agents (e.g., nitrogen oxide),
halogens (e.g., chlorine, fluorine) and heavy metals (e.g., mercury, silver).
 Regularly inspect cylinders for corrosion or other damage or leaks before handling. Use
corrosion-resistant transfer equipment.
  For large-scale handling operations use non-sparking ventilation systems, approved
explosion-proof equipment and intrinsically safe electrical systems in areas of use. Keep
aisles and exits free of obstruction. Avoid all ignition sources (e.g., sparks, open flames, hot
surfaces). Do not use near welding operations. Keep away from heat. Post “NO SMOKING”
signs. It is very important to keep areas where this material is used clear of other materials
which can burn (e.g., cardboard, sawdust).
 Never perform any welding, cutting, soldering, drilling or other hot work on an empty
vessel, container or piping until all the ammonia has been cleared. Do not heat compressed
gas cylinders. Do not handle cylinders with oily hands. Leave cylinder cap on cylinder until
cylinder is secured and ready for use. Always secure cylinders to a wall, rack or other solid
structure in an upright position.
 Use the appropriate pressure regulator. Before connecting the cylinder for use, make sure
that back feed from the system into the cylinder is prevented.
 Do not open a damaged cylinder. Open cylinder valve slowly to prevent rapid
decompression and damage to valve seat. Keep cylinder valves clean and free from
contaminants (particularly oil and water). Make sure valves on gas cylinders are fully
opened when gas is used. Open and shut valves at least once a day, while cylinder is in
use, to avoid valve ‘freezing’.
 Shut flow off at cylinder valve and not just at the regulator after use. Replace outlet caps
or plugs and cylinder caps as soon as cylinder is disconnected from equipment.
 Make sure cylinders are labeled clearly. Avoid damaging cylinders. Move cylinders by hand
truck or cart designed for that purpose.
 Keep empty cylinders under slightly positive pressure. Do not use cylinders as rollers or
for any other purpose than to contain the gas as supplied.
 Follow handling precautions on Material Safety Data Sheet. Have suitable emergency
equipment for fires, spills and leaks readily available. Practice good housekeeping.
Maintain handling equipment. Comply with applicable regulations.

Instrumentation Inspection and Quality

Control Questions
1)What is QA/QC?

Ans> QA/QC means Quality assurance/Quality control the purpose of this (QA/QC) is to
establish the sequence of requirement for the quality of material quality of works its
inspection and records.

2)What is the basic responsibilities of a QA/QC personal ?

Ans> To ensure execution of works and comply fully as per standard and approved speck.

3)What are QA/QC’s ITP’s and QCP? Give a brief?

Ans> ITP: This is procedure informs about the kinds of quality check (surveillance
inspection witness or hold points) means quality of works is being done in proper
sequences.

QCP: This is procedure addresses the activities and requirement in details.

4) What is NCR? Why does it need for a QA/QC personal?

Ans> NCR means Non-Compliance Report, QA/QC personal has reserve the right issue a
warning of the contractor doesn’t comply or violate with the standard procedure.

5) What are general work procedure (WP)?

Ans> The. general sequence of activities will be as follows;

1. Receiving Drawing and documents.

2. Reproduction of Drawing
3. Issuing of Drawing to site
4. New issuing New revision
5. Shredding of Drawings
6. Redlining Drawings
7. Transmittal of redlines to client (As-built).

6) What is ISO? Explain some of its standards?

Ans> ISO means international standard organization some of them are as below;
ISO;9001, ISO;9002, ISO,9003 etc.

7) What are the standard height to install the instruments?

Ans> Standard height to install the instruments is 1.4 meter but it can very less or more
as per locations convenience.

8) What is loop check?

Ans> To ensure that the system wiring from field to control console functioning fine.

9) What is different between open and close loop ?

Ans>
Open loop; A loop system which operates direct without any feedback and it generates
the output in response to an input signal.

Closed Loop; A loop system which uses measurement of the output signal through
feedback and a comparison with the desired output to generate and error signal that is
applied to the actuator.

10) What are inspection points for a cable tray installation.

Ans> Material check as per approved spec, size and type, trays hook-up, proper distance
structure, tray to tray i.e. power/control/and signal/low voltage and high voltage , support
fixed strongly not shaking.

11) what are inspection point for field instruments with impulse tubing?

Ans> Materials inspection as per approved spec material, type and size installation as per
hook-up, check line route to avoid any obstruction check tube support, compression
fitting of ferrules, and then pressure test (hydrostatic test) shall be done.

12) What are inspection points for cable laying.

Ans> material inspection as per approved materials, type and size, meggering, cable
routing drawing, completion of cable route (tray conduit or trench etc) and cable
numbering tags, cable bending, use of proper tools and equipment for cable pulling.

13) What are inspection points for junction box and Marshalling cabinets.

Ans> Material inspection, type, size as per approved specification, installation hook-up

For frame, bracket or stands, fixed properly means shaking free, name plate and tag no.

14) how do you determine the correct installation of flow orifice?

Ans> The orifice data (tag) shall be punched in the up stream of orifice , the data (tag)
side shall be in the upstream of flow direction.

15) |Explain why shield of signal cable is not earthed on both sides?

Ans> To avoid the current noise (resonance).

16) What is final RFI? When it shall be raised up?

Ans> When the QA/QC department of contractor is satisfied that the work detailed in the
construction RFI is completed, then request shall be submitted for inspection to the client
QA/QC department.

17) What are the required documents for an inspection?

Ans> Following are the required documents for an inspection;

1. RFI (Request for inspection)

2. P&ID for line verification
3. PP for location (pipe plan)
4. Wiring diagram for wiring details
5. Data sheet for calibration and pressure test
6. Hook-up etc. for remote tubing/air line
7. QR for maintaining record
8. WP, work procedure, to check each and every steps as per spec.
9. QCO for issuing in case of little violation
10. NCR, for issuing in case of major violation etc.

18) What are the required documents for a remote loop folder?

Ans> Following are the required documents for a remote loop folder:

1. Loop package check list

2. ILD (instrument loop diagrams)
3. Instrument loop acceptance records(TR/test record)
4. P&ID (piping & instrument Diagram)
5. ISS/IDS(instrument specification sheet/instrument data sheet)
6. Alarm List
7. Calibration record (TR)
8. Cable megger report (primary prior to pulling)
9. Cable megger report (secondary after pulling)
10. Pressure test record(TR)
11. MC check record (remote loop)(green color)
12. MC punch list, Loop check punch list etc…

19) What are the required documents for a local loop folder?

Ans> Following are the required documents for a local loop folder:

1. Loop package check list

 2. ILD (if not mechanical loop)
3. Cable megger report (primary prior to pulling) if not mechanical loop
4. Cable megger report (secondary after pulling) if not mechanical loop
5. Alarm list ( if not mechanical loop)
6. P&ID
7. ISS/ISD (instrument specification sheet/instrument data sheet)
8. Calibration record (TR)
9. Pressure test record(TR) if required
10. MC check record (local loop)(green color)
11. MC punch list
12. Visual check punch list/loop check punch list.

20) What is schedule Q?

Ans> Schedule Q is an attachment to the contract, which is the provision of quality

Assurance and control, Inspection and test plan.

21) What is ITPs? What is hold points

Ans> ITP means inspection and test plan, details of work scope and required types of
Inspections Hold point (H) is the level of inspection that client inspection must required
through RFI and cannot be proceeded until inspection is done by client. Witness point
(W) is the level of inspection that inspection activity can be proceeded without client
inspection or if client is not available as per RFI timing.

22) What is RFI? When an RFI will be raised?

Ans> Request for inspection (RFI), RFI shall be raised only when the status of the
preliminary inspection is satisfactory, and the works (items) are hold or witness point.

22) What is a Project Specification ?

Ans> A project specification specifies the minimum requirements according to the design
and relevant international codes and standards.

23) What is an ITP ?

ITP (INSPECTION & TEST PLAN) is a Document that defines the activities requiring
inspection or test (witness hold points etc.) the controlling specifications the acceptance
criteria the persons responsible and the record to be produced.
24) What is a QCP ?

QCP (QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURE) is a procedures that complements the ITP, by

providing information that cannot practically be included in the ITP , but is necessary in
order to perform control inspection and test .

25)What is a Project Procedure ?

PP is a procedure that presents the systematic controls to be implemented and identifies

the responsibilities and authorities such as to ensure that the specified requirements are
followed .

Instrumentation Interview Questions – 1

1. Why do we use pipelines for transmitters in steam service and tubes in any other service?

A) Pipe as well as tubes can be used for steam line transmitters. However pipe walls being thicker
provide more corrosion allowance. B) For steam services, with high temp and pressure needs IBR
standard. Max. Working pressure is 153 kg/cm2 at 38 degC for 1/2” O.D tube as per design standard.
So tube is not suitable.

2. What is auto cut in of the pump?

Auto cut in of pump refers to automatic startup of a standby pump when a running pump stops or when
level in a vessel being emptied becomes high.

3. What is Zero speed?

In some equipments a speed below a threshold value but close to zero is referred to as zero speed.

4. What is the purpose of measuring dissolved oxygen?

Dissolved oxygen is measured in boiler feed water for addition of dosing compounds to remove oxygen
to avoid corrosion in steam boilers. In wastewater plants it is measured to estimate quality of effluent.
(oxygen demand)

5. What is SPDT relay?

The term SPDT refers to single-pole-double-throw relay contact.

6. How Cold Junction Compensation is done for thermocouples?

Cold junction compensation is done for temperature measurement using thermocouples. The t/c
output is a function of temp. at hot junction as well as temp. at ref. junction. In order to measure hot
junction temp. accurately, it is necessary to measure ref. junction temperature and compensate for its
variation. This is done by modern digital instruments, by using a ref. junction temp. sensor to measure
cold junction temp., and compensating for it using a look-up table corresponding to the t/c.

7. What is differential tracking system?

In differential tracking system set point changes with change in process value in one direction. E.g.
there is trip of OMS in MEG plant on high oxygen flow (with diff tracker). Trip value is say 10% more
than normal process value. Now suppose process value is reducing than trip set value will also reduce
keeping 10% difference. If process value increased than trip set value will not increase and system
will trip when trip set value is reached by process value.

8. How spectacle blind occurs?

A spectacle blind is a blind plate and a plate with line size bore connected together and installed
between pipe flanges. This blind may be reversed to blind/deblind a line. It also provides a visual clue
as to whether a line is blinded at that location or not.

9. How pressure limit switch occurs?

A pressure switch typically consists of a spring-loaded plunger actuated by process pressure to

operate a micros witch. The pressure at which the micro switch operates is dependent upon spring
force, which may be varied by an adjusting nut.

10. Where should we use “ Open to alarm “ and “Close to alarm “?

A) Where probability of an open circuit fault is higher we use “open to alarm” and where probability of
a closed circuit fault is higher we use “close to alarm” strategy. “Open to alarm” strategy is usually
preferred. B) Selection should be such that whenever component/ instrument/ system fault occurs,
system should give alarm.

11. What is the difference between offset and hysteresis?

A) An offset is difference between a desired value and an actual value. The phenomenon of a
dependent variable assuming a different set of values when the corresponding independent variable
is increasing than when it is decreasing is known as hysteresis. B) Offset is fixed bias from desired
value. Hysterisis is difference between set and reset.
“ Pressure switch with setting of 0.5 kg/cm2 (head pressure included) was found in calibration report .
What is the significance of head pressure?

Head pressure refers to the pressure exerted by fluid inside the impulse pipe connecting the pressure
switch to the vessel. This pressure acts in addition to the actual process pressure in the vessel.
Pressure acting on switch = process pressure + head pressure.

12. Why and where do we use seal pots and condensate pots in level transmitters?

Seal pots or condensate pots are used to provide buffer volume of liquid for impulse lines where wet
leg measurement is used. Small quantities of draining from these lines produces very small changes
in head pressure and therefore reduces errors compared to the case when no seal pots are used. Also
in many seal pots it is possible to fill liquid into the impulse line when the line is completely drained.

13. How the sizes of proximity switches are selected?

The sizes of proximity switches are selected based on sensing distance and mounting requirements.

14. What is orifice sizing and how it is done?

Orifice sizing is done using following information: 1) flow measurement range 2) corresponding diff.
Pressure 3) piping dimensions 4) tap locations 5) fluid properties at operating conditions (like
density/temp/pressure etc.) Standard formulas are used.

15. What is control valve sizing?

Control valve sizing refers to calculation of flow capacity of a valve for a given fluid, operating
conditions and piping arrangement.
Also Read: DCS & ESD Systems Questions & Answers

16. What is galvanic isolation?

The term galvanic isolation refers to electric isolation of two circuits using a transformer or an
optoisolator. However a transformer provides a better isolation.

17. Why is dead band ( Reset and Set ) values kept in proximity switch ?

I think the question is wrong – it should read pressure switch and not proximity switch. Set and reset
points are kept different to avoid chattering of switch contact at the set point and provide a stable
switching action.

18. What does ARRH and # refer to in valve specification?

AARH refers to average roughness height and is a measure of roughness of sealing surface of a
flange. The # refers to ANSI class of flange/valve and is indicative of its pressure rating.

19. What does DN stand for in valve size?

DN stands for Diameter Nominal. It is a flange size of the valve.

20. What is the full form of ASTM standard?

ASTM stands for American Society for Testing of Materials.

21. What does BENCH RANGE refer to in an actuator?

The bench range/set of an actuator/control valve combination refers to the air pressure required to
fully open/close the valve out of line when it is not subjected to process fluid forces.

22. Why control mode specification is given in the data sheet of the transmitter?

Not mandatory. This is controller specification. Direct OR reverse.

23. What is the use of the diode in series to the coil in a relay?

A diode is often used in parallel with a relay coil to dissipate energy stored in coil inductance when the
coil is disconnected from the electric circuit. It is also known as freewheeling diode.

24. Where and Why are “O” Rings used in DPT’?

For providing leak proof seal.

25. Why is earthing provided in the rack room if the power supplies present are floating ?

Earthing is provided in rack room for purpose of safety. Even if power supplies are kept floating.

26. What is the Relationship between AWG & mm2 ?

A) AWG was used prior SI standards to specify the diameter of the core of the electrical wires. B) Both
awg and mm2 are used to specify size of cross section of a wire/conductor. The relatioship is found in
a standard table – westermann’s tables.

27. Advantages of Displacer type Level switch to float type switch?

Displacer type switches involve very little movement whereas float type switches involve large
movement of float and hence are more likely to get stuck-up. However float switches can be used over
a much longer range than a displacer switch.

28. Construction of micro switch

A microswitch is a small switch consisting of a tiny springloaded plunger which operates an electrical
contact when actuated. This arrangement is encaged in a plastic housing. It is very commonly found
in pressure switches.

29. Where should we use top mounted or side mounted level switch?

The type of switch to use depends on size of the vessel and the location of actuating level. If the vessel
is small or actuating level is near the top, top mounted switch can be used. In a large vessel with
intermediate actuation points, side mounted switch is used. A top mounted switch needs a stilling well.

30. Application of PCV

A pcv is a self-actuated pressure control valve used to maintain upstream or downstream pressure at
a set pressure using force from the process fluid if necessary.

31. Difference between PSV & PRV

A pressure safety valve is used to relieve overpressure by releasing relatively small volumes of
material and installed on smaller vessels. A pressure relef valve is used to relieve overpressure by
releasing relatively large volumes of material and installed on large vessels/tanks.

32. Why PSV in Cooling water line at outlet of a heat exchanger is required?

The PSV in cooling water line at the outlet of a heat exchanger is actually a thermal safety valve and
is used to relieve overpressure due to thermal expansion of water.

Comparison of PD meter, turbine meter & Coriolis meter in Custody transfer applications..(Accuracy
wise)

A PD meter, a turbine meter or a coriolis meter may all be used in custody transfer. A PD meter or a
turbine meter typically deliver accuracy around 0.5% and contain moving parts and require more
maintenance and indicate volumetric flow. A good coriolis meter involves almost no wear and tear,
needs less maintenance effort, delivers accuracy close to 0.1% and directly indicates mass flow. For
custody transfer of gas service ultrasonic multi-path flow meters are also used with accuracy up to
0.35%. They are maintenance free and having very good diagnostic features.

33. What is a thermal relief valve?

A thermal relief valve is typically used to relieve over pressure due to thermal expansion of liquid in
pipelines.

34. What is potential free contact? What is the significance and application of this contact?
 Contacts having not potential. E.g. Relay contacts/ field switches contacts. They are used in logic
circuits. A potential free contact is usually wired into an electrical circuit. However it must be ensured
that the contact ratings are suitable for the service in which it is used.

35. In split range control, whether the signal is splitted through I/P convertor or the convertor
itself?

This can be typically achieved by two ways:

By connecting o/p of one I/P converter to two positioners adjusted suitably for split range operation of
control valves. Taking two AO from DCS. Split range to be defined in DCS. Both I/P converters and
positioners to be calibrated with input as 4to20 ma dc and 3to15 psi respectively.

Fire and Gas System Interview Questions

& Answers
S Bharadwaj ReddyLeave a comment

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What is a fire alarm system?

Typically, a fire alarm system is made up of the following components:

 Initiating devices, capable of placing the system in the alarm state. These can be
photoelectric smoke and heat detectors, ionization smoke detectors, heat detectors, in-
duct smoke detectors, manually operated pull stations and sprinkler water flow sensors.
 Indicating appliances, whose purpose is to announce building occupants or at a remote
location when the system enters the alarm state, such as horns, strobe lights, chimes, bells,
or combination units. They are also available in weatherproof and hazardous location
versions.
 A control panel, containing programming and operating electronics and user interface, is
fed by standard branch-circuit wiring and contains replaceable circuit cards – one for each
 zone. This includes an alphanumeric display, showing the state of the system and providing
troubleshooting information, and a touchpad so that onsite personnel can silence an alarm
or trouble signal, reset the system following an event, and reprogram if necessary
 Sealed batteries similar to emergency light batteries, but listed for fire alarm systems.
These are usually 6V batteries wired in series to make up 24VDC for a power-limited
system. The batteries can be contained in the control panel or in a separate enclosure.
When AC power fails, the batteries take over with no interruption in fire protection. Of
course, there is also a charger.
 Auxiliary devices, including remote annunciators with LEDs showing the state of the
system, an alarm silence switch, and visual LED indication of the zone from which a fire
alarm is initiated. Electromagnetic door holders (floor- or wall-mounted) are available. In
case of alarm, the magnet is de-energized, allowing the door to swing shut. Later, it is
reopened manually.
 Initiating devices are connected to the control panel by a 2- or 4-wire initiating device
circuit. In the case of a power-limited system, 24VDC is applied to two wires going to a
string of initiating devices, which are wired in parallel. Neither wire is grounded, and they
are isolated from EMT or other raceways, which are grounded through the connector at
the control panel. Polarity is also critical. This voltage is used to power the solid-state
circuitry within each detector. It’s also used by the control panel to monitor the state (alarm
or no alarm) of the initiating devices and zone wiring.

A typical fire alarm system has numerous initiating devices divided among separate zones
– each connected via an initiating device circuit to a central control panel. The control
panel performs supervisory functions over the initiating devices, indicating appliances, all
associated field wiring, telephone ties, and its own internal wiring and circuit cards.

What is the main component of a fire alarm system?

The Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP). The FACP should be located where it can be
responded to as necessary either around the clock or during operating hours. This can be
at building security headquarters, adjacent to a telephone switchboard or in a
maintenance office – whichever location offers maximum coverage. It should also be
positioned in a fairly central location because if the system goes into alarm, a person
needs to be able to race to the location and verify fire status before the alarm is silenced.

How does a fire alarm system operate?

A fire alarm system operates in one of three (or more) states: normal, alarm, and trouble.
The state is reported at all times on the alphanumeric display. If the system goes into
alarm, the indicating appliances throughout the building go off. These could be very loud
horns for some occupancies, or softer chimes in others, such as a nursing home.
The control panel monitors the initiating device circuits at all times for shorts and open
wiring by means of the applied DC voltage. The initiating devices are normally open. In
the event of a fire they become conductive at close to zero ohms. How, then, is it possible
for the control panel to differentiate between a non-alarm state and an open wiring fault?
This is accomplished by means of an end-of-line resistor.

The control panel also monitors the functionality of its own wiring and zone cards, and
trouble is reported in the display.

Another capability of the fire alarm system is to call out in case of alarm. Two dedicated
phone lines are connected, and the system performs test calls periodically in accordance
with programmed instructions. If either phone line won’t connect, the system goes into
the trouble state, so repairs can be made.

The essence of a fire alarm system, as opposed to individual smoke detectors, even if they
are wired to indicate in concert, is that it is supervised from a central location. The whole
notion of supervision is critical. It does not mean that a person sits at the console and
watches it at all times. What it means is that a supervisory voltage is applied to all circuitry,
and current flow is monitored electronically to verify that equipment and wiring are intact.

If the system goes into alarm and won’t silence due to touchpad malfunction, for example,
it can be disarmed after the zone is checked for fire by cutting off the power. First, unhook
one side of the battery array, then unhook the black-white-green incoming power
connector. If a fire alarm system is disabled, maintenance and security personnel should
initiate fire patrols throughout the building. The telephone monitoring agency should be
informed, and the insurance company contacted to verify that coverage is not voided.

What is Conventional Fire Alarm System ?

Traditional fire alarm panels installed prior to 1998 were conventional zone panels. In a
zoned system, fire alarm devices in a common area or floor of a facility are connected to
the same alarm initiating circuit. Each zone requires its own circuit conductor. This
arrangement allows alarm annunciation to be reported by areas of the building to identify
which device is in alarm. Conventional panels are often used in small facilities where a few
zones can provide sufficient alarm annunciation.

What is Addressable Fire Alarm System ?

With the advent of microprocessors and digital electronics, addressable fire alarm control
panels and devices have become more common than conventional systems for medium
and large-sized facilities. They have become more cost effective in some small
applications as well.

Addressable fire alarm systems use digital encoding and multiplex technology to more
accurately identify alarm locations and device conditions. Each fire alarm device in a
system is programmed with a unique address.

The fire alarm control panel is capable of communicating with a single address or a group
of addresses depending on the functions required. The communication is often
multiplexed over a common cable, sometimes referred to as the signaling line circuit (SLC).
This arrangement significantly reduces the amount of cabling necessary to install the
system. The communication channel allows two-way communication, thus enabling the
fire alarm control panel to control as well as monitor fire alarm devices.

A significant component of addressable fire alarm system is the software programming

necessary to make the system function correctly. The programming allows for flexible
applications where you want to have specific control over the inputs and outputs.

The communication technologies employed in addressable systems allow for advanced

features to accommodate sensitivity changes due to age and accumulation of dust prior
to maintenance. These features are not available with the standard conventional system.

What are the Fire Alarm Devices ?

 Smoke (particulate and aerosol)

 Heat
 Light Radiation
 Fire detection devices are built to detect one or a combination of these components. While
all components are necessary for a fire to exist, all components may not exist at a
detectable threshold. Detectors will be selected that will detect the elements that may exist
in a fire for the ambient conditions that are present. It also should be realized the similar
non-fire components might exist in the same ambient conditions, which could cause
unfavorable false alarm conditions.
 Devices used for fire detection include smoke detectors, thermal detectors, flame
detectors, fire-gas detectors, and other devices.
 Smoke detectors sense visible or invisible particles of combustion generated by burning,
smoldering, or the incipient stage of combustion. These devices fall into two categories —
photoelectric and ionization.
 Thermal detectors sense the high temperature or the temperature rise caused by a fire.
 Flame detectors sense the radiation produced by a fire.
 Fire-gas detectors sense the gases produced by a fire.
 Other detectors sense some phenomenon other than smoke, thermal, flame, or fire-gas to
detect a fire.

Explain about Ionization Smoke Detector ?

The ionization smoke detector is widely used. Its capability to detect smoke originating
from fire is best utilized for clean-burning fires that produce small particles during
combustion.

The ionization smoke detector consists of an alpha particle producing a radioactive

source, a smoke chamber, and charged detector plates.
  The alpha source causes the air within the smoke chamber to become ionized and
conductive
 As smoke particles enter the smoke chamber, the smoke particles attach themselves to the
ionized air molecules and the air in the chamber becomes less conductive
 When the air conductivity within the chamber drops below a predetermined level, the
alarm is triggered

Advantages of Ionization Smoke Detectors:

 Detects invisible products of combustion — It can detect fires that are in the incipient
stage or detect other aerosol-type smoke products
 Quick acting — Provides for earlier detection than other types of smoke detectors or
thermal detectors
 Disadvantages of Ionization Smoke Detectors:
 May provide false detection if used where volatile solvents, conductive material dusts, or
high humidity are present
 Detects the presence of smoke only, not toxicity
 Has a potential for high false alarm rate
 Typical locations or hazards for ionization detection:
 Clean rooms
 Computer rooms
 Mechanical air ducts
 Locations where sensitive detection methods are needed

Explain about Photoelectric Smoke Detector ?

A photoelectric smoke detector is the most common smoke detector used today. It
detects smoke by using either the principle of light obscuration or light scattering. Its
capability to detect smoke originating from fire is best utilized for fires that produce large
particles during combustion.

Spot type photoelectric smoke detectors using the light obscuration principle have a light
emitting device, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), a smoke chamber, and a
photosensitive device that receives the light directly from the light source and produces
a monitored current.

Smoke that enters the smoke chamber reduces the intensity of tech light reaching the
photosensitive device, which reduces the monitored current. When the intensity drops
below a certain level, the sensor control circuitry detects a drop in the current produced
by the photosensitive device. When the current falls below a preset threshold, the smoke
alarm is triggered.
Spot type photoelectric smoke detectors that use the light scattering principle are
constructed similarly to the detectors that use the light obscuration principle except that
the photosensitive device is set so that it cannot see the light source directly. When smoke
enters the chamber, the smoke particles reflect the light from the source into the
photosensitive receiver. When sufficient light intensity is detected, the alarm is triggered.

Advantages of Photoelectric Smoke Detectors:

 Sensitive to visual particles of smoke

 Detects smoldering low heat fires
 Provide early warning

Disadvantages of Photoelectric Smoke Detectors:

 Early contamination by dust causing reduced sensitivity

 Detects presence of smoke, not toxicity
 Must be cleaned on a regular basis
 Has a potential for high false alarm rate

Explain about Beam Detector ?

Beam detectors are line-type photoelectric detectors consisting of a separate light source
and photosensitive receiver. These devices are usually installed in large open areas where
there is an unobstructed line of sight between the light source and the receiver and where
the use of spot-type detectors would be economically unfeasible due to the number of
detectors required.

Advantages of Beam Smoke Detectors:

 Cover a large area economically

 Quick acting
 Disadvantages of Beam Smoke Detectors:
 Unobstructed LoS between the light source and the receiver
 Correct alignment needs to be maintained
 Typical locations or hazards for beam detectors:
 High atriums
 Manufacturing spaces

Explain about Air Sampling Smoke Detectors ?

For environments where detection of smoke is most critical, an air-sampling system

provides the earliest possible detection. An air sampling or aspirating type fire detection
system is a self-contained smoke detection package compromised of five primary
components:

 Air-sampling system
 Aspiration system
 Filter assembly
 Detector
 Control system

It uses a network of pipes to continuously draw air samples and direct them to a central
smoke detector.

The system operates with a network of sampling pipes that extend into the protected
area. The pipes are usually made of a thermoplastic material. An internal aspirator
continuously draws air into the piping network. The systems use either a filter assembly
or laser particle counting technology to filter out airborne dust and debris particles, which
helps to eliminate false readings.

Typical locations or hazards for Air-Sampling smoke detectors:

 Telecommunications areas
 Computer rooms
 Data centers
 Hospitals
 Clean room environments

Explain about Fixed Temperature Thermal Detectors?

Fixed Temperature
 Fixed Temperature Thermal Detectors can respond to:
 Fixed temperature limit
 Rapid rate of change of the temperature in the protected area
 Combination of these types of detection

Typical fixed temperature spot-type smoke detectors contain a bimetallic switch element
that closes at a specified temperature limit. The switch is normally composed of two
metals, each having a different temperature coefficient of expansion. As this bimetallic
element heats the metal with higher coefficient of expansion, it causes the switch to bend
or curve, closing the switch; thus indicating an alarm condition.

Line type thermal detectors are cables that detect heat along their entire length. A line
type thermal detector may consist of two wires that are separated by an insulator. After
the heat builds to a certain level the insulation melts, allowing the wires to touch and
current to flow, initiating an alarm.

Bimetallic spot and coaxial style thermal detectors are self restoring. Fusible link and
melting insulation types of line thermal detectors are not self-restoring.

Advantages of Fixed Thermal detection:

 Lower cost than smoke detector units

 More reliable than smoke detector units
 Not affected by dusty or dirty environments
 Minimal maintenance

Disadvantages of Fixed Thermal detection:

 Slower to respond than smoke detectors

 Will not detect products of combustion
 Only suitable for protection of property

Explain about Rate of Rise Thermal Detectors?

Rate-of-Rise Thermal Detectors measure the rate at which the air temperature changes
during a fire event. Measuring the change in temperature provides a faster alarm response
than measuring the temperature level in a space.

The rate-of-rise detector measures the change in the temperature of the space through
the use of a differential pressure switch. This switch contains an air chamber separated for
the air in the ambient space by a flexible diaphragm. As air in the ambient space changes
temperature, the air pressure increases, creating a differential pressure across the
diaphragm.

The air chamber is constructed with a calibrated leak so that normal temperature and
pressure fluctuations within the room space adjust across both sides of the diaphragm
and will not cause the alarm contacts to close. During a fire, the air temperature rises at a
rate faster than normal, causing an increase on the room side of the diaphragme
diaphragm. The leak cannot compensate, and therefore the diaphragm moves and closes
the detector contacts.

Combination rate-of-rise and fixed temperature thermal detectors are also manufactured
and have both technologies built in.

Advantages of Rate-of-Rise Thermal detection:

  Responds faster than the fixed temperature detector
 Not affected by dusty or dirty environments
 More reliable than smoke detector units
 Less expensive than smoke detector units
 Minimal maintenance

Disadvantages of Rate-of-Rise Thermal detection:

 Slower to respond than smoke detectors

 Will not detect products of combustion
 Only suitable for protection of property

Explain about Rate Compensated Thermal Detectors?

Rate-compensated thermal detectors are devices that are designed to activate at a

predetermined temperature in a space regardless of the rate at which the temperature in
the space increases. This is accomplished by compensating for the thermal lag between
the room temperature and the interior of the device.

Construction consists of an outer metal tube that expands at a fixed rate. Within this tube,
alarm contacts close when a certain expansion distance is reached, but this expansion is
opposed by another metal device.

At a slow rate-of-rise in temperature, the outer tube expands drawing the contacts closer
together. The inner metal device exerts a counter force, keeping the contacts separated
until the entire device has been heated to its rated temperature.

At a rapid rate-of-rise in temperature, the outer tube expands faster than the inner device
can compensate. Therefore, the alarm contacts close when the entire device has been
heated to a lower level, thus compensating for thermal lag.

Advantages of Rate Compensated Thermal detectors:

 Responds accurately and positively to fire threats

 Virtually eliminates false alarms
 Not affected by dusty or dirty environments
 More reliable than a smoke detector
 Less expensive than smoke detector units
 Minimal maintenance

Disadvantages of Rate Compensated Thermal detectors:

 Slower to respond than smoke detectors

  Will not detect products of combustion
 Only suitable for protection of property

Explain about Flame Detector ?

Flame detectors are used to detect the light radiation component of a fire. Typical
detectors of this type detect the wavelength of either IR or UV or a combination of the
two. These detectors are extremely fast acting and are used in areas where rapidly
occurring fires or explosions could occur.

Advantages of Flame Detection:

 Extremely fast acting

Disadvantages of Flame Detection:

 Narrow field of vision

 Expensive
 Requires unobstructed field of view
 Difficult to maintain

Typical Uses:

 Fuel loading docks

 Industrial process spaces
 Other hazardous areas where a fast developing fire could occur

Explain about Fire-Gas Detector ?

These detectors respond to the various gases produced during the combustion process.

 Carbon monoxide
 Carbon dioxide
 Steam
 Other elements

The Fire-Gas detector employs two types of technology to predict the fire. One method
uses a semiconductor material that changes the metals conducting potential in a fire
situation. The other method uses a catalytic element encased in an aluminum bead.

Advantages of Fire-Gas Detection:

 Detects products of combustion

  Sensitive enough to detect levels of gases produced between the occurrences of
detectable particulate levels and detectable heat levels
 Detects gases prior to reaching lethal levels

Disadvantages of Fire-Gas Detection:

 Can be prone to false alarms

 Must be mounted at a low level, leaving it susceptible to damage
 Can be poisoned
 Not suitable for areas where CO and CO2 and produced as part of the functions within the
area
 Cannot be considered as a universal replacement for smoke and/or thermal detectors
 High cost

What is carbon monoxide?

Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is produced by certain gas-powered

appliances and engines. If a gas leak occurs, carbon monoxide can build up in certain
areas. If a person is exposed to the gas for an extended period of time, he or she can
suffer serious complications. For this reason, many residences and commercial buildings
have carbon monoxide detectors, similar to smoke detectors, installed to prevent injury
to occupants. Fire safety inspectors check safety equipment and alarms to ensure that
they are in compliance with codes and regulations and will keep people and property safe
in the event of a fire or other accident.

What is a preventable response?

Sometimes, firefighters are called to buildings because of a malfunction in the automatic

fire alarm system or because the system is triggered by something other than a fire. Since
a false alarm, also known as a preventable response, causes such a drain on resources,
city fire departments may fine the owners of buildings for these preventable false alarms.

These fees are meant to encourage building owners to keep their systems in top working
order through regular inspections by a certified inspection service. They also help fire
departments increase their resources for responses to actual emergencies.

With regular service and maintenance, you can prevent false alarms with your fire
prevention systems.

What is a flow test ?

A flow test is a procedure performed by fire safety inspectors to ensure that fire sprinkler
systems are working properly. This test is required in order to make sure that a fire
sprinkler system will be able to supply enough water during a fire. Even if primary water
supply systems fail during a fire, fire sprinkler systems should still be able to deliver
enough water to contain a fire.

What is an NFPA standard?

The NFPA is the National Fire Protection Association, a fire prevention and safety
organization. The NFPA creates and publishes fire safety codes and standards to reduce
the risk of fire. The NFPA has standards for each building’s sprinkler systems and alarm
systems. Fire safety inspectors will check sprinkler heads, pipes, flow water, pressure,
valves, smoke detectors, pull stations, and batteries so that they comply with these codes
and standards. Without these standards and codes, buildings would be at a high risk of
fire danger.

How do we use a fire extinguisher?

Whether you live in a high rise apartment or work in an industrial setting, it is important
to understand how to operate a fire extinguisher. Most occupational settings with high
fire risks should go through safety trainings to show employees how to properly use a fire
extinguisher. Even if you have had no proper training, you can learn the “PASS” method:

 P. Pull the pin.

 A. Aim the extinguisher at the base of the fire.
 S. Squeeze the lever slowly and steadily.
 S. Sweep the extinguisher from side to side to cover the whole area.

What are the different types of fire extinguishers?

There exist several different types of fire extinguishers, each designed to fight particular
types of fires. They are organized into different classes of fires, including:

 Class A. Paper, wood, or plastic fires

 Class B. Fires from flammable liquids, such as oil or gasoline
 Class C. Electrical fires
 Class D: Fires from combustible metals, such as sodium or magnesium (often in laboratory
settings)

Water cannot put out all fires – in fact, it can make some fires even worse. Your workplace
should have the proper type of fire extinguisher installed to help fight the type of fire
most likely to occur.
How are fires classified?

Depending on the agent that fuels the fire, fires are classified into different categories:
Class A (regular combustibles), Class B (flammable gasses and liquids), Class C (electrical
equipment), Class D (combustible metals), and Class K (cooking fats and oils). Different
fire extinguishers are specially designed to fight different classes of fires. Fire safety is
absolutely essential for protecting both human life and property investments.

How does a fire sprinkler system work?

Each sprinkler head is held closed by a small piece of heat-sensitive material. This piece
acts as a plug to prevent water from flowing at normal temperatures. When heated by a
fire, the sprinkler heads near the fire are activated and release water to put out the fire.
To keep the pressure steady and avoid overwhelming local water suppliers, the entire
system is powered by a fire pump, which pumps water at large volumes from a separate
water source.

What is a fire pump?

A fire pump is an integral part of fire sprinkler protection systems in large buildings. Local
water systems do not have the capacity to provide a steady stream of water throughout
a fire sprinkler system in the event of a fire. The fire pump is connected to a separate
source of water and has the power to pump large volumes of water, even to the top floor
of a very tall building, in a continuous flow. Fire pumps require regular inspection and
maintenance in order to ensure that the entire sprinkler system will function properly in
the event of a fire.

What are the different types of fire sprinkler systems?

Different types of fire sprinkler systems have been designed to meet the optimum needs
of your commercial building, no matter what your business or industry. Types of fire
sprinkler systems include wet pipe systems, dry pipe systems, deluge systems, pre-action
systems, foam water sprinkler systems, and water spray systems. Each type of system has
its own set of advantages and disadvantages. An Austin fire safety professional from Ace
Fire Equipment can further explain the differences and help you make a decision on which
fire sprinkler systems is best for your building.

What is arson?

If a person intentionally sets a fire to a structure, they can be charged with the crime of
arson. Businesses and restaurants, as well as residential buildings, are all at risk for arson.
What is a clean agent?

A clean agent is a fire-suppressing chemical in a gaseous form that will not harm electrical
equipment or other objects that are easily damaged by water. Clean agents are also easier
to clean up than other types of fire suppression systems. A clean agent fire suppression
system is a good option for use in areas that can be harmed by water or other types of
fire suppression chemicals.

What is active fire protection?

Active fire protection is a method which uses automatic or manual systems to detect and
suppress fires. Active fire protection includes fire suppression efforts with fire
extinguishers, sprinkler systems, and fire detection equipment such as smoke alarms. Any
active fire suppression system must be properly installed and maintained to comply with
local building and fire codes.

What is a HazMat Operations certification?

HazMat is an abbreviation of “hazardous materials.” A HazMat Operations certificate

shows that we have had the special training necessary to recognize hazardous materials
and dangerous goods. It is necessary for those working with water lines and fire
prevention systems to have a complete understanding of hazardous materials and how
to protect nearby people, property, and the environment from the effects of exposure.