Stress Fields Around Dislocations
Stress Fields Around Dislocations
Stress Fields Around Dislocations
The crystal lattice in the vicinity of a dislocation is distorted (or
strained). The stresses that accompanied the strains can be calculated
by elasticity theory beginning from a radial distance about 5b, or ~ 15 Å
from the axis of the dislocation. The dislocation core is universally
ignored in calculating the consequences of the stresses around
dislocations.
The stress field around a dislocation is responsible for several
important interactions with the environment. These include:
1. An applied shear stress on the slip plane exerts a force on the
dislocation line, which responds by moving or changing shape.
2. Interaction of the stress fields of dislocations in close proximity to
one another results in forces on both which are either repulsive or
attractive.
3. Edge dislocations attract and collect interstitial impurity atoms
dispersed in the lattice. This phenomenon is especially important for
carbon in iron alloys.
Screw Dislocation
Assume that the material is an elastic continuous and a perfect crystal
of cylindrical shape of length L and radius r. Now, introduce a screw
dislocation along AB. The Burger’s vector is parallel to the dislocation
line ζ . Now let us, unwrap the surface of the cylinder into the plane of
the paper b
A
2πr
GL
b
γ= = tan θ
2πr
G
bG
τ = Gγ =
B 2πr
2
Then, the strain energy per unit volume is: τ×γ b G
Strain energy = = 2 2
2 8π r
We have identified the strain at any point with cylindrical
coordinates (r,θ,z)
τZθ τ θZ
B
r B
θ r
θ
Slip plane
z Slip plane
A z
G A
bG The elastic energy associated with an element is its
τ θZ = Gγ =
2πr energy per unit volume times its volume.
The volume of a pipe is 2πrδr
1 2 r1 2πr 1 ⎛ r1 ⎞
Energy per unit Length = Gb ∫ δr = Gb 2
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2 r 0 (2πr )2
4π ⎝ r0 ⎠
To obtain the total energy locked in the crystal due to the screw
dislocation we need to integrate the above equation for all values of r
with a ro (minimum) of 5b.
Energy per unit length of screw dislocation Roughly, due to r dependence
(integrating from r0 to r):
Sh 1 ⎛r ⎞ 1
e ln⎜ ⎟ ≈
ar Elasticity theory breaks down for r0~5b so 4π ⎝ r0 ⎠ 2
pla core energy is ignored here.
ne
Gb 2 ⎛ r ⎞ Gb 2
Escrew = ln⎜ ⎟ ≈
4 π ⎝ r0 ⎠ 2
The total strain energy of a dislocation is the sum of the elastic strain
energy plus the energy of the core of the dislocation (about 1/15th of
the total energy – quantum mechanical calculations).
We have shown the distortion of a cylindrical element by a screw
dislocation and the equivalent to a simple shear type of distortion.
When translated to a coordinate system, the only shear possible are
those with a z‐component.
−b y − b sin θ
γ13 = γ31 = =
The strains given in cartesian and 2π x + y
2
(
2
2π r )
cylindrical coordinates are: b x b cos θ
γ23 = γ32 = =
2π x + y
2
(
2
2π r )
σ 11 = σ 22 = σ 33 = σ 12 = σ 21 = 0
All the other strains should be zero
− Gb y − Gb sin θ
in an isotropic material. The σ 13 = σ 31 = =
associated stresses are given by: 2π (x + y )
2 2
2π r
Gb x Gb cos θ
σ 23 = σ 32 = =
The strain field surrounding the ( )
2π x 2 + y 2 2π r
core of a screw dislocation can be
represented as:
Where each value εij depends on the x‐y
⎡0 0 ε13 ⎤ position for dislocation lying along the z‐
ε = ⎢ 0 0 ε 23 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
axis (or 3‐axis).
⎢⎣ε 31 ε 32 0 ⎥⎦
Energy of Edge Dislocations
For idealized edge component, one entire plane has been pushed into
the other planes above the glide plane but not below (tensile +
compressive stresses). Hence, there is Poisson Effect along length of
line, which yields a (1‐v) in denominator for strain.
co Idealized Edge
mp
res
sio
n Gb 2 ⎛r ⎞ Gb 2
Eedge = ln⎜ ⎟ ≈
4π (1− ν ) ⎝ r0 ⎠ 2(1− ν )
For many metals, ν~ 1/3, so
3
Eedge = Escrew
2
Elasticity theory breaks down for r0~5b so core energy is ignored here.
Slides presentations taken from http://web.mse.uiuc.edu/courses/mse406/Handouts/index.html
Dislocation Stress Fields: Edges
Edges with z‐axis line direction See book, Hirth and Loath.
best describe in x‐y plane in +Edge at center with u=(001) and b=(100)
cartesian coordinates. Use: interacting with +edge somewhere nearby
y=x
x1 = x = r cosθ
x2 = y = r sin θ
x3 = z
Other stresses are zero!
y=–x
General trend:
• Above the edge (x=0, y>0), pure compression.
• Below the edge (x=0, y<0), pure tension.
• Along the slip plane (y=0), pure shear.
• All other locations, compression + tension + shear.
– Gby 3x2 + y 2
σ xx =
2π (1 −ν ) ( x2 + y 2 )2
co + Gby x2 – y 2
mp
res σ yy =
sio
n 2π (1 −ν ) ( x2 + y 2 )2
– Gbyν 1
σ zz = ν (σ xx + σ yy ) =
π (1 −ν ) ( x2 + y 2 )
+ Gbx x2 – y 2
τ xy = τ yx =
2π (1 −ν ) ( x2 + y 2 )2
1 2 Gb y
p = − (σ xx + σ yy + σ zz ) = (1 +ν )
3 3 2π (1 −ν ) ( x2 + y 2 )
The elastic displacements around edge dislocations in isotropic
materials include all three normal strains εxx, εyy and εzz, and the shear
strains in the x‐y plane γxy.
⎡ε11 ε12 0 ⎤
For an edge dislocation with a core along the z‐ ⎢ε ⎥
axis and the Burger’s vector in the positive x‐ ε = ε
⎢ 21 22 0 ⎥
direction ⎢⎣ 0 0 ε 33 ⎥⎦
Energy and Forces between
Gb 2
Edge dislocations Idealized Eedge ≈
2(1− ν )
Roughly, your expectation should be (as found from intuition):
Energy before: 2Gb2 b
Should attract
–b
Energy after: Gbtot2 = 0 b=0
Energy before: 2Gb2 b
b Should repel
Energy after: Gbtot2 = G(2b)2 = 4Gb2 b=2
Mixed Dislocations
Mixed dislocations are dislocation
segments wherein the angle between
the Burgers vector and the line
direction is neither 90o (edge) or 0o
(screw).
Each mixed dislocation can be
resolved into edge and screw
components.
Energy has component from
both types:
2
G(b⊥ )2 ⎛ r ⎞ G(b|| ) ⎛ r ⎞
E mixed = ln⎜ ⎟ + ln⎜ ⎟
4 π (1− ν ) ⎝ r0 ⎠ 4π ⎝ r0 ⎠
Edge Screw
Combining (Screw, Mixed, Edge): Where θ is the angle between
Gb 2 ⎛r ⎞
the Burger’s vector and the line
E mixed = ln⎜ ⎟(1− ν cos2 θ )
4π (1− ν ) ⎝ r0 ⎠ direction.
b
Screw
mixed 1 ⎛r ⎞ 1
ln⎜ ⎟ ~ (core energy < 10% of E )
4π ⎝ r0 ⎠ 2
u
θ b
π
−θ
b|| = b sinθ 2
The elastic energy of a dislocation
b⊥ = b cosθ can be generalized as:
b
Edge Edislocation = αGb 2l
Where α is a dimensionless factor (0.5‐1.0) and l is the dislocation
length. It can be noted that smaller values of b lead to smallest energy.
FCC Partial Dislocations and Stacking Faults
(111) fcc plane
Partial Dislocations b = b1 + b2
a a a
[ ] [ ] [1 1 2]
b
1 01 = 2 11 +
2 6 6
b1 b2
b1y b2y
b1x b2x
E = Gb = Gb • b =
2 Ga 2
(1 + 0 + 1) =
Ga 2 Ga 2 Ga 2
> E 1+2 = 2 (4 + 1+ 1) =
4 2 36 3
Favorable for partials to form, i.e. dislocation disassociate.
Dislocations may be sessile if not on the correct slip plane.
due to …ABC… stacking
Here partials form, edge repulsion wins out, which creates stacking
faulted region in between.
Partial Dislocations b = b1 + b2
a a a
Motion of
partials 2
[ ] 6
[ ]
1 01 =
6
[1 1 2]2 11 +
In FCC, due to …ABC… stacking, if partials
b
form, edge repulsion wins out, which
creates stacking faulted region in
between. Green Partials Separate.
Separation of Stacking Faults are defects that cost energy
partials
Energy balance between separating partials to lower elastic
energy and creation of more SF.
FCC partial
A A
B
C
B
C
Partial dislocations move
apart. As they move apart
leave hcp SF ribbon.
ABC = 3 layers
AB = 2 layers
HCP ABCABC converts to ABABAB
Non‐conservative Motion for Edge Dislocation:
Vacancy‐assisted Climb
Edge climbs up
⊥
Swapped with atom
at bottom of edge
Vacancy:
Missing atom
Climb is non‐conservative in work.
Only a part of the dislocation line climbs up, hence it will generate
jogs.
Edge can climb down too!
n
Vacancy‐assisted Climb creates jogs!
• n is the slip plane normal. b, τ
• b is the Burger’s vector of edge dislocation.
• τ is shear stress (could be applied or from other
dislocation lines). Slip plane
Jogs will create sessile edge dislocation segments
Moves = Glissile Does not move = Sessile bxn
With jogs, an edge dislocation will have sections
that are sessile! Why? Because segments are not
laying in possible slip plane. n
b, τ τ
Not a
slip plane
Slip plane
bxu2
b
bxn bxn
Conservative Motion for Screws: Cross‐Slip
For a FCC n1 = (111)
( )
n2 = 111
n1 = (111)
b u
The Burger’s vector is :
This is a Screw dislocation b ( ) [ ]
= n1 × n2 = (111) × 111 = 1 0 1
= (111) × (1 0 1) = [1 2 1]
It moves in the direction of
d = n1 × b
Cross‐Slip of Screw Component n1 = (111)
( )
n2 = 111
n1 = (111)
b u
Separation of Partials: Stacking Fault
Partial Dislocations b = b1 + b2
Here partials are favorable,
a a a
Gb2 > Gb12 + Gb22,
2
[1 01] = [2 11]+ [1 1 2]
6 6
since Ga2/2 > Ga2/3.
In FCC crystals, the b1 screw b2
u for edge
magnitude of the b1 y b2y
Burgers’ vector is: b1x b2x
a edge edge
b= a
2
a
[1 01]
4
[1 01]
4
As the edge components have the same direction, the b = a 1 2 1
1y
12
[ ]
b1x and b2x components of the partials will repel.
As the screw components of the partial dislocations b1y b = a 1 2 1
2y
12
[ ]
and b2y are in opposite direction these will attract.
As the partials separate, the energy increase by d*SFE, where SFE is
the stacking fault energy and d is the fault separation distance. Thus,
the “chemical” force resisting separation is SFE (dimensions of joules
per square meter or force per unit length).
The attractive force between the parallel screw dislocations separated
by a distance d is: Gbs2
FScrew = ±τb = ±Gγbs = ±
2πd
The repulsive force between the edge components of the dislocations
is: + Gb2 x x2 – y 2
Fedge =
2π (1 −ν ) ( x2 + y 2 )2
Since the dislocations are in the same plane and Gb2
Fedge =
separated by a distance d, then y=0 and x=d 2π (1 −ν )d
Since the units of SFE are in force per unit length, and so are those of
the forces above, we can just equate them directly.
SFE + FScrew = FEdge
Gb2 1 Gb2 1
SFE + =
2π d 2π (1 −ν ) d
Gb2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
d= ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
2π ⋅ (SFE) ⎝ (1 −ν ) ⎠
a
For a perfect dislocation 11 0
2
For a partial dislocation G a a
b = 112 b=
6 6
Ga2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
d= ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
12π ⋅ (SFE) ⎝ (1 −ν ) ⎠
High SFE low separation, low SFE large separation in TEM.
Stacking Faults and Energy
Partial dislocation repel and leave stacking faults
Stacking Faults are defects that cost energy
Energy balance between separating partials to b
lower elastic energy and creation of more SF. Partial Dislocations b = b1 + b2
fcc
fcc
hcp
For ideal case: b2
b1 dSF
Gb1 • b2
d sf =
2π ( SFE ) TEM image
In TEM, you see contrast between faulted and
unfaulted regions, hence, you can measure dSF
and get SFE.
Full (Mixed) Dislocation Recombination: Lomer‐Cottrell “Locks”
C Consider two slip planes in FCC crystals, δ and γ,
δ namely (111) and (11‐1) planes .
α The three perfect dislocations in the (111) plane
β
[ ] [ ] [ ]
are a a a
D b1 = 11 0 b2 = 1 0 1 b3 = 0 11
2 2 2
A The three perfect dislocations in the (11‐1)plane
γ B
are a
b4 = 11 0
2
[ ] a a
b5 = [1 0 1] b6 = [0 11]
2 2
The direction b1 and b4 are in opposite direction and they will cancel
each other. The combination b2 and b5 will result in a higher energy
(not possible). The sole combination that result in a energy reduction is
the b3 and b5. b + b = a [0 1 1] + a [1 0 1] = a [1 1 0] This dislocation is not
3 5
2 2 2
a2 a2 a2
mobile in either (111)
+ > or (11‐1) planes.
2 2 2
Full (Mixed) Dislocation Recombination: Cottrell “Locks”
(MIXED) full dislocation reaction: b = b1 + b2
Check slip planes? (11 1)
a
101] n1 = (11 1) b1 • n1 = 0
[
n
io
b1 =
ot
a
2 [101]
m
b1 =
2
n=(001)
[
u1 = 1 1 0 ]
01 1] n2 = (111)
a b2 • n2 = 0
b2 =
2
[ b=
a
[110] [
u2 = 1 1 0 ]
2 a
[
u = 110 ]
b2 =
2
[01 1]
mo
tion (111)
Mixed dislocations: u’s are all parallel to intersection,
and b’s are not ⊥ to u’s.
Burger’s vector, b? (See figure above in cube)
a a a
2 2
[ ] [ ]
b1 + b2 = 101 + 01 1 = b = 110
2
[ ]
Favorable to recombine? Yes, Gb12 + Gb22 > Gb2
2 2 a2
b1 + b2 = a 2 > b2 =
2
Slip Plane? does not lie in either of the two slip
a
planes, but does lie in n = b x u= (001). b=
2
[
110]
• Unless lock (sessile dislocation) is removed, dislocation on same plane cannot move past.
• Going back b => b1 + b2 would allow other dislocation to glide again.
Schockley Partial Dislocations Recombination: “Locks”
Partial dislocations reaction: b = bp1 + bp2
(11 1 )
n
a a a b 1p 1⊥ u
[ ] [ ] [ ]
io
b1 = 101 → b1p 1 + b1p 2 = 112 + 2 1 1
ot
m
2 6 6
n
b 1p 2 [ ]
b1 • n1 = 0 n1 = (111)
u1 = 1 1 0
b 2p 1
b 2p 2 ⊥ u
a a a [
u = 110 ]
2
[ ] 6
[ 6
] [ ]
b2 = 01 1 → b2p 1 + b2p 2 = 1 2 1 + 112 mot
ion (111 )
b2 • n2 = 0 n2 = (111)
Lormer‐Cottrell lock.
But if full b’s combine, it is Cottrell lock.
Burger’s vector? Leading partials combine
a a a
b1p 2 + b2p 1 =
6
[ ] 6
[
211 + ]
121 = b =
6
[
110]
i j k
Line Direction?
u = n1 × n2 = 1 1 1 = i 2 − j 2 + k 0 → [1 1 0]
1 1 1
Slip Plane?
n = b × u = [00 1 ]
Glissile or Sessile? Sessile, not {111} fcc slip plane
Unless lock (sessile dislocation) is removed, dislocation on same plane a
cannot move past. Other possible combinations give:
b=
3
[
110]
Edge‐Edge Interactions: creates edge jogs
**Dislocations each acquire a jog equal to the component of the other dislocation’s
Burger’s vector that is normal to its own slip plane.
Energy cost of jog: Gb2/2 (Energy/length) x b (length of jog) = Gb3/2
This dislocation got a jog in direction of b1e.
before after
b1e
b2e b2e
b1e
What happens when dislocations are extended, i.e. composed of two trailing partials?
Screw‐Edge Dislocation Interactions: creates edge jogs
Direction of screw
dislocation motion Time snap shots
bs line
edge (later) bs
edge
be be
B of screw be
This end of edge
goes underneath
creates jog .
Edge jog is in direction of bs.
Jogs slow motion of dislocation.
Energy cost of jog is Gb3/2
Why does screw also have jog?
Screw‐Edge Dislocation Interactions: creates edge jogs
Direction of screw
dislocation motion
Edge jog is in direction of bs.
bs line
Jogs slow motion of dislocation.
edge (early) bs
B of screw be
be
edge (later)
Screw jog is in direction of be.
Why is there a jog in screw?
Screw‐Screw Dislocation Interactions: creates edge jogs
bs
line
screw (later)
Time snap shots
screw bs
bs
bs
be
Energy cost of jog Gb3/2
Jogs slow motion of dislocation.
In screw‐screw case, jog has to move via CLIMB, or generate a
row VACANCIES or INTERSTITIALS.
Climb is non‐conservative, and point‐defects costs more energy.
Multiplication of Dislocations
To account for large plastic strain that can be produced in crystals, it is necessary to have
regenerative multiplication of dislocations. Of course, there are many variants that lead
to many effects.
Two important mechanisms for this are:
• Frank‐Read sources and multiple cross glide
Marked pts could be from cross slip
Fig. 3.10 Cross slip of single crystal of Fe‐3.25%Si
From Hall and Bacon 4th Ed
Dislocations Generation: single‐ended Frank‐Read source
Single‐ended Frank‐Read source leads to regenerative multiplication.
This mechanisms can be attained from a “superjog”, where an extended
line is out of the slip plane and thus sessile.
Sessile segment
• Segment BC is edge
anchored at one end. (a)
CEF
• Moves by rotating. (b)
• Each revolution around B
displaces the crystal above
slip plane by b, so n
revolutions gives nb slip.
• Spiraling around B
increases line length.
For super‐jogs, see book and
Gilman and Johnston, Solid State Physics 13, 147 (1962).
Dislocation Generation: Frank‐Read Source
After effects of dislocation‐dislocation interaction
Small jog τ applied Shear bowing of line
shear stress Unstable position: loop expands τ
rθ
L
r θ/2
θ/2 T
Tsinθ/2 Tsinθ/2
Line Tension (E/L)
= 2T sinθ/2 ~ Tθ = θGb2/2
opposes bowing via shear τ:
What type of dislocations? F/L * bowing arc = τb rθ
Screws annihilate
What can happen?
So, τb rθ = θGb2/2
τ = Gb/2r
Generated a dislocation in place of old one,
which is now a loop. Radius of curvature r smallest
(Shaded area has 1 unit of slip.) for semicircular arc of r = L/2.
Shape due to Si Larger L easier to deform.
Larger density. Back stresses hinder motions. directional bonding τmax = Gb/L
A more likely mechanism for dislocation loop formation is the Frank
Read Source – dislocation pinned at both ends.
Radius of curvature depends on applied shear stress.
Critical bow out for R = L/2 (L = AB)
Further steps are the formation of a kidney‐shaped loop and the
annihilation of dislocation segments with the same b vector but
opposite line sense.
Dislocation Generation: Frank‐Read Source via Cross Slip
What type of dislocation is in (a)?
τ applied
τ applied shear jog shear stress
stress can be
parallel and L
perpendicular to
b.
Looks like two pints on
(111) plane, as in Si case Bowing of cross slipped dislocation
line is similar to jogged dislocations.
Summary
• Dislocations (line defects) give rise to complicated interactions in a crystal.
• Dislocation multiplication is responsible for the very large increases in YS.
• Dislocation‐dislocation interactions, or dislocations interacting with other
defects, lead to higher stresses required to move the dislocations further
(work‐hardening). For example, dislocation pile‐up, jogs, trasnfer across grain
boundaries, etc., all contribute to YS increases.
• Dislocations interacting with anything lead to other defects (point, planar,
volumetric).
• Consequences are found in the allowed slip and strengthening of materials.
• Be familiar/conversant with how dislocations interact and the
consequences.
Are these consequences able to be mathematically described?