367

15 Alternative drive concepts

Alternative drive concepts denote those drives 15.2 Natural gas drives
which
䢇 facilitate the use of alternative fuels, e.g. biodiesel
Natural gas is a fossil fuel composed primarily of
methane (CH4). The percentage of actual methane
(rapeseed oil methyl ester RME), natural gas or
contained in natural gas is 80% to 99%, depending
hydrogen, in conventional internal combustion
on the region where the gas is extracted. The re-
engines or
maining sources comprise carbon dioxide, nitrogen
䢇 provide for alternative types of drive, e.g. fuel-cell
and low-grade hydrocarbons.
drives.
Natural gas can be stored in a vehicle either in liquid
form at –162 °C as LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) or in
The objective of alternative drive concepts is to compressed form at pressures of up to 200 bar as
reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and to mi- CNG (Compressed Natural Gas). Natural gas is gen-
nimise pollutant and noise emissions. erally used in its compressed form because of the
high cost of liquid storage.
The high knock resistance of natural gas (approx.
140 RON) allows a compression of roughly 13 : 1.
However, this advantage cannot be exploited in bi-
valent drives, i.e. in a combination of petrol and nat-
ural gas drives, because the compression ratio must
15.1 Alternative sources of be tuned to petrol operation.
energy Advantages of natural gas drives over petrol and
These comprise exhaustible and/or renewable ener- diesel:
gies (Fig. 1). 䢇 Very good combustion properties and low emis-

In addition to the fuels produced from exhaustible sions of CO2, NOx, CO and virtually no soot and
energies (i.e. petrol and diesel), the following alter- sulphur emissions
native fuels or energy sources can be used: 䢇 Less carbon fouling of spark plugs and reduced

䢇 Natural gas contamination of engine oil

䢇 Methanol Disadvantages of a natural gas drive over petrol and
䢇 Electrical energy diesel:
䢇 Hydrogen 䢇 Stoichiometric ratio of 17.2 : 1 results in a lower

fuel mass and thus lower engine power

15
䢇 Fuels from biomass
䢇 Expensive storage of natural gas necessary
Natural gas can also be used to create synthetic
䢇 Shorter cruising range with the same tank vol-
diesel fuels. These fuels have reduced amounts of
sulphur and aromatics. The exhaust gas quality of ume
diesel engines is positively affected, since both par- 䢇 Extensive safety regulations with regard to oper-

ticulate matter and NOx emissions are reduced. ating, servicing and repairing natural gas vehicles

Exhaustible energies Renewable energies

Crude oil, natural gas, coal Nuclear fuels Solar radiation Wind power Hydrodynamic power Biomass

Electricity

Water electrolysis

Petrol, diesel Natural gas, methanol Battery current Hydrogen Fuel from biomass

Fig. 1: Energy sources for powering vehicles

368 15 Alternative drive concepts

Design. Natural gas drives are generally used in crease, thus preventing the tank from exploding in
combination with petrol operation in spark-ignition the event of a fire.
engines (so-called bivalent drives). Various addition- 䢇 Flow-rate limiter. This prevents the natural gas
al components must be installed in the vehicle for tank from draining suddenly in the event of a pipe
this purpose (Fig. 1). breakage.
Operating principle. The natural gas stored at ap- 䢇 Electromagnetic shutoff valves. This valve, which
prox. 200 bar in the natural gas tank flows to the gas is mounted on the natural gas tank, closes on
pressure regulator. This regulates the gas pressure changeover to petrol mode, in the event of a pow-
in several reducing stages at approx. 9 bar. The gas er failure, when the engine is stopped, or in the
injectors in the intake manifold are energised by the event of an accident. Another valve is located on
ECU as required and are thereby opened. The gas the pressure regulator.
mixes with the inducted air and then flows as a gas- 䢇 Flexible gas lines. These prevent breaks caused
air mixture into the combustion chamber. by fatigue failure on the low-pressure side, i.e. be-
Safety features. Natural gas drives pose certain risks tween the pressure regulator and the gas injectors.
to the environment, e.g. as a result of unchecked dis- 䢇 Overpressure regulator. This is mounted on the
charge of gas or the danger of explosion caused by pressure regulator and protects the low-pressure
a rise in pressure. These systems are equipped with side against excessive pressures.
various safety features as a result.
䢇 One-way check valves. These are located in the re- WORKSHOP NOTES
fuelling connection and on the tank shutoff valves
and prevent the gas from flowing back via the re- After installing a gas system, a gas system instal-
fuelling valve. lation inspection (GSP) is required. Workshops
䢇 Gastight sheathing. This is wrapped around the may only conduct this inspection if they installed
lines and components routed inside the vehicle. the system themselves.
䢇 Threaded joints.These are designed as double- Periodic gas system inspections (GAP) must be
clamping-ring threaded connections. carried out after particular events, such as after
䢇 Natural gas tanks. These are made of steel or an accident, which may affect the safety of the
CFRP. Each tank is connected to the vehicle by two gas system, and in conjunction with the general
retainers. The burst pressures are approx. 400 bar inspection (in Germany in accordance with the
(steel) or approx. 500 bar (CFRP). Road and Traffic Regulations § 29 StVZO). For the
䢇 Solder fuse and thermal cut-out on the natural
inspection, the components undergo visual in-
spection as well as functional and leakage testing.
gas tank. These prevent an excessive pressure in-

15
Heated gas pressure regulator with Refuelling connection Flow-rate Solder fuse Tank shutoff valve
filter, pressure relief valve and with filter and one- limiter
electromagnetic shutoff valve way check valve

Tank pressure Gas distributor

sensor rail sensor CFRP natural
gas tank

Thermal
cut-out

Operating
Low-pressure mode switch
line

Fuel level indicator

Control panel
application

YZ 0 0 Engine control unit

Gas distributor ABC
rail with
injectors Lines with gastight sheathing

Fig. 1: Components for natural gas operation

15 Alternative drive concepts 369

15.3 LPG drive systems LPG tank. The liquid gas is stored under pressure at
approx. 10 bar. The mechanical level sensor stops
Liquefied petroleum gas, or LPG, is a mixture of pro- the fuelling process automatically when a fill level
pane and butane. LPG is also called autogas. Vehi- of approx. 80% is reached. The remaining volume in
cles with spark-ignition engines can run on autogas the gas tank is required as a gas cushion in order to
if appropriately modified. compensate for the expansion of the autogas when
As with natural gas, LPG features good combustion temperatures fluctuate. In retrofitted LPG systems,
properties with low pollutant emissions. The disad- the tank is usually installed in the spare wheel well.
vantage in practice is the roughly 10 to 20% higher A safety valve is mounted on the upper section of
fuel consumption compared to operation with spark- the tank. It opens at approx. 30 bar.
ignition engine fuel. Electronic control unit. The electronic control unit
processes the following information:
Design. LPG drives are generally used in combina- 䢇 Vaporiser/pressure regulator temperature

tion with petrol operation in spark-ignition engines 䢇 Pressure, intake manifold pressure/gas pressure

(so-called bivalent drives). Various additional com- 䢇 Gas distributor rail temperature

ponents must be installed in the vehicle for this 䢇 Injection timing, petrol injectors

purpose. It is basically possible to convert a spark- 䢇 Oxygen sensor signal

ignition engine to run on LPG. 䢇 Engine speed

䢇 Petrol/gas selection switch

䢇 Tank indicator
Operating principle. The pressurised liquefied gas
stored in the LPG tank flows to the fuel injector rail The electronic control unit controls the solenoid
via the vaporiser (Fig. 1). The gas nozzles in the in- valves depending on the sensor signals. The main
take manifold are energised by the ECU as required controlled variables are the petrol injection points
and thereby opened. The gas mixes with the induct- and injection timing specified by the engine control
ed air and then flows as a gas-air mixture into the unit. For this purpose, the control and signal lines
combustion chamber. are routed to the injectors via the gas control unit.

From intake
manifold Pressure sensor
Pressure Gas
control
unit

15
Temperature
sensor

Term. 15 (+)
Vaporiser/pressure
regulator Earth/ground (–)

From gas tank (10 bar) Oxygen sensor

Dry gas filter
Gas shutoff
solenoid valve (+)
Cooling water Gas shutoff
solenoid valve
earth/ground (–)

Speed signal
Gas distributor rail
Petrol/gas
Gas nozzles Temperature selection switch
sensor
Tank indicator

Diagnostics connection
Engine management
control unit

Injectors
(petrol)

Fig. 1: LPG drive components

370 15 Alternative drive concepts

This calculates the appropriate values for actuation The pressure regulator supplies the gas nozzles with
of the gas nozzles based on injection points and tim- a constant pressure of approx. 1 bar. It has a vacu-
ing specified by the ECU. The control unit for the gas um connection from the intake manifold to ensure
system includes diagnostic capabilities. that the pressure differential at the gas nozzles can
be maintained constantly over the intake manifold
Pressure sensor. This sensor transmits the pressure pressure.
differential between the intake manifold pressure
and gas pressure to the gas control unit, thus mak- Dry gas filter. This filter removes impurities from the
ing precise gas metering possible. expanded gas and is installed between the vaporiser/
pressure regulator and gas distributor rail.
Gas distributor rail (Fig. 1). This distributes the pres-
surised gas to the solenoid valves. These are actu- Converting vehicles with direct injection spark-igni-
ated for the individual cylinders by the gas system tion engines. Direct injection spark-ignition engines
control unit. The gas flows from the distributor rail are basically not suited for conversion to autogas.
via calibrated nozzles into the engine intake tract. The petrol injectors lack cooling for autogas opera-
tion, which would damage the injectors. Systems
being developed for direct injection spark-ignition
engines provide for sporadic injection of petrol dur-
ing autogas operation or the injection of liquefied
autogas via the conventional injectors.

Tank connections for autogas systems vary by

country. It therefore is important to take along
the appropriate adapter when travelling abroad.

WORKSHOP NOTES
Impact of an autogas conversion on mechanical
engine components
The valve seats (exhaust valves) of certain en-
gines require fuel additives to be admixed with
Fig. 1: Gas distributor rail the spark-ignition engine fuel. When operating
with autogas, the valves work into the seats. In
15 Vaporiser/pressure regulator (Fig. 2). The vapo- case of doubt, the valve rings must be swapped
riser is responsible for converting the pressurised out for suitable rings before conversion.
gas from a liquid to a gas. The vaporiser must be Adjusting the mixture formation system
heated to ensure that it does not ice up. This is usu- Retrofitted autogas systems must be adjusted
ally done using engine heat via a connection to the for gas operation using software specific to the
cooling system. An electric heater is used in some manufacturer.
systems.
Testing for leaks
The system must be checked for leaks after in-
stallation using a gas detector or leak detection
Safety Water connections from LPG inlet spray.
valve engine cooling circuit
Emission certification
If a vehicle is being converted to autogas, a rel-
evant emission certificate must be on file for the
particular vehicle type. Otherwise, an individual
certificate must be prepared by an officially rec-
Temperature ognised, authorised expert.
sensor

LPG filter
Gas system installation inspection (GSP)
After installing the system, an authorised work-
Gas outlet Vacuum Gas shutoff shop or testing organisation must conduct the
connection connection solenoid valve GSP, in Germany e. g. in accordance with § 41a
StVZO.
Fig. 2: Vaporiser/pressure regulator
15 Alternative drive concepts 371

WORKSHOP NOTES • The nozzles must be positioned in the direction

of the gas flow and at the same angle and dis-
Other periodic gas system tance to the combustion chamber as possible.
inspections (GAP) • The holes must be manufactured with M6
threads.
A periodic gas system inspection (GAP) must be
conducted after particular events that could affect • Before the holes are made, it is important to note
the possible connecting layout of the connecting
the safety of the gas system as well as periodically
hoses.
in conjunction with the general inspection.
• The hoses connecting to the gas distributor rail
Notes on installing the gas distributor rail and should be as short as possible and of the same
injectors length.
• If the intake manifold is metal, it must be re-
• The distributor rail should be installed as close moved for drilling.
to the intake manifold as possible, since the
heat radiating from the engine protects it from
• The gas nozzles are sealed by means of an inte-
gral screw-locking device.
icing up. To prevent the transmission of noise, it
should not be attached to the vehicle body.
Servicing
• The nozzles should be placed as close to the ex- The dry gas filter cartridge must be replaced after
isting fuel injectors as possible. 20,000 km.

15.4 Hybrid drives 15.4.2 Functions of hybrid drive vehicles

Start/stop function. The engine of these vehicles is
Hybrid drives denote vehicle drives which have stopped automatically as soon as the vehicle comes
more than one drive source. to a standstill. Pressing the accelerator pedal or re-
leasing the brake starts the engine again. The engine
An internal combustion engine and an electric motor also starts when the parameters during the stop
are usually combined in hybrid drives. phase have changed in such a way that the system
deems it necessary to start the engine. Starting the
engine is handled by an integrated starter genera-
15.4.1 Classification of hybrid drives 15
tor (ISG), which is either connected to the engine
The micro, mild/medium and full hybrid systems dif- via a belt drive or is integrated in the drivetrain. A
fer in performance or in the voltage of the electric conventionally arranged starter can also be used for
drive system as well as in the start/stop, regenera- the start/stop function. This is reinforced because of
tive braking (called recuperation), torque assist and more frequent starts.
electric driving functions (Fig. 1).

Micro-hybrid Mild/medium hybrid Full hybrid

(Electric) power: 3 to 5 kW (Electric) power: 10 to 15 kW (Electric) power: 30 to 170 kW
Voltage: approx. 14 V Voltage: approx. 42 to 150 V Voltage: approx. 150 to 650 V

Start/stop Start/stop Start/stop

Regenerative braking Regenerative braking

Torque assist Torque assist

Electric driving

Fig. 1: Hybrid drives