A Buddhist Monastery Type of Ancient Ceylon Showing Mahāyānist Influence

Author(s): L. Prematilleke and R. Silva

Source: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 30, No. 1 (1968), pp. 61-84
Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers
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 ,

L. PREMATILLEKE - R. SILVA

A BUDDHIST MONASTERY TYPE OF ANCIENT CEYLON

SHOWING MAHAYANIST INFLUENCE

T he numerous Buddhist monastic ruins of Ceylon found at Anuradhapuraand elsewhere

schemeas suchbut aredistributedirregularly
generallydo not showa pre-planned around
colossal ddgdbaswhich
form the nucleusof such
V 3AyUARAIA
monasteries. This is a fea- \ MP OFANURADHAPURA
k
a

ture common to the cen-

A"aUo"PuA
1 \Pu M
tral monasteries of the
three major sects, namely, KALUDAPoCUNA ptVULLY#

the Mahavihara,the Ab- \

hayagiriand the Jetavana, ,
into which the Sinhalese
Buddhist sanghawas di- AP Or
CEV {4
LONL
vided during the first mil- e c a 9
w
r
lennium A. D. Yet, there i=
are a few sites of the same ca ?KAP \ l
* . V LAMA
PULIYAHK(U
u
period which offer exam- //1l
ples of a pre-plannedmo- "( '
'!
nastictype.Thispaperhas c it T
been preparedon the ob-g n /r PNAtSAP^B
/
servations of the ruins of

The sitesconsideredfor U. , ,, S
discussionare'Vijayarama, W f //
Pankuliya, Puliyankulama,: & ///
Pacinatissapabbata-vihara, //tp a^ TO UV^I
_
Toluvila and Vessagiriya , ??
< g (
at Anuradhapura(North- \\t ,l ^ \l

diya-pokuna(ancientDa- y'C
kkhinagiri-vihara) at Sigi- j f a)
riya (Central Province) and 'vissAIC
Ruhunumahavihara(an- s0. v
at
cientMagulmahavihara) Fig.I Mapshowingsites

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Lahugala (Eastern Province) (fig. I). The remains of these monasteriesshow a distinct disci-
pline in planning and layout which signifies a clear and well definedfunction within the esta-
blishmentof the monasteries.Referingto one of these sites, namely, the 'Vijayarama',H.C.P.
Bell reportedin I89I, "...here existeda typicalsangharama
or Buddhistestablishment,
perfect
in itself, with its shrinesand meeting halls,its priestlyresidences,bath house, storerooms,etc.",
The literaryand archaeologicalevidencemakesit clear enough that the monasteriesin
questionwere closely connectedwith the centralmonasteriesof the Abhayagirisect which
wasnotedfor entertaining heterodoxBuddhistteachingsin ancienttimes.Forinstance,accord-
ing to the Mahavarsa,an imageof the Buddhawhichwas broughtfrom the Thuparama and
installedat the Pacinatissapabbata-vihara
in the third centuryA.D., was subsequentlytaken to
the Abhayagiriviharafor permanentinstallation2.An inscriptionrecoveredfrom the shrine
complex of the monastery at Puliyankulama refers to this monastery as Uda-Kitagbopavu
and further states that the vihara was dedicatedto the monks
(Udaya-Kittaggabodhi-pabbata)
who came from Puvaram-vehera(Pubbarama)belonging to the Kaparamulaof the Abhayagiri
monastery3. The location of the monasteries, too,
too, is significant. At Anurdhapura, they are
situated closer to the allied monasteriesof the Abhayagiriand the Jetavanasects or in places
which had had some influence of the latter monasteries. Sigiriya, to, was apparently under
the influence of the Abhayagirikas 4.
The monks of the Abhayagiri vihara came to be known as Dbarmarucikasfrom about the
first century B.C., and it was thay who played a major role in accepting Mahayanistteachings
from time to time. The firstimpactof Mahayanismin Ceylon, accordingto literarysources,was
felt not long after Nagarjuna'sactivities in India, when the doctrine known as Vetullavada
was
introducedto the island in the third centuryA. D.5 Beginning with this century, the Sinhalese
Buddhist sanghahad to face many vicissitudes and changes in the doctrine. The sanghawas
divided into three main nikayasor sects with their headquartersin the Mahavihara,the Abhaya-
giri, and the Jetavana.While the Mahaviharaendeavouredto remain orthodox, the latter two
factions welcomed esoteric teachings. The two chief opponent factions, however, were the
Mahaviharaand the Abhayagiri.The monks of the Jetavanahad apparentlychanged allegiance
to either of these two sects but were more inclined towards the Abhayagirisect.
The disturbing elements that became evident from time to time had a lasting influence on
the Buddhist thought. The ritualistic and other esoteric ideals of the Mahayanistsenhanced
the popular characterof the Sinhalese Buddhism. This accounts for the increasingpopularity
the Abhayagirivasinsenjoyed towards the latter part of the Anuradhapuraperiod. The vene-
ration of the Dharma-dhadt,a Mahayanistpractice,was introduced in the sixth century A.D.6
The prevalence of this practice is supported by archaeologicalevidence. Copper plaques in-
scribed with quotations from Mahayanatexts such as Astasdhasrikd-prajnadpramitd have been

I Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report, I 89 I, p. 4.

2
Mahavamsa, XXXVI, 128; XXXVII, 14.
3 Epigraphia Zeylanica, I, pp. I 82 ff.
4 Mahavamsa, XXXIX, 14-I 5 .
5 Nikayasangraha,
p. 14. According to the Dipavamsa (XXII, 43-45), the Vetullakas were followers of frivolous doctrines
( Vitandavadi). E. Kern rightly points out that Vetulla (Skt. Vaitulya) is the same as Vaipulya of the Mahayanists. Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society (Gr. Brit. a Ir.), I 907, pp. 432 ff.
6 Cdlavamsa, XLI, 37.

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found from the stupaknown today as Indikatu-sayaat Mihintale7.Similar plaques containing
invocations to Mahayanadivinities like Avalokitesvara,Tara,and Akasagarbhawere recovered
one of the monasteriesundersurvey8.Two slabsfromthe
from the stupaof the 'Vijayarama',
monastery at Puliyankulama,too, refer to dharma-dhdau (daham-daya)9.These finds from the
'Vijayarama'and Puliyankulamaare significantin that they evidently show Mahayanistaffilia-
have also been found from various sitesIO.
tions. Clay votive tablets containing Tantricdhdranis
were introducedto the island
Moreintensiveforms of Mahayanadoctrineslike Vajiriyavdda
in the ninthcenturyI.
These esoteric practices and teachings, however, did not succeed in setting up a strict
Mahayanaorder in Ceylon. Hiuen Tsang reports that the monks of the Abhayagiri vihara
'studied both vehicles and widely diffused the Tripitakas12.'Moreover, the factions between
the Mahaviharaand the Abhayagirisparkedoff from personalanimositiesratherthan religious
The Abhayagirikas,
differences. in a way,laidmoreemphasison mentalandmoraldisciplinein
conformitywith Mahayanist trendof thought.It hasbeenexplainedthat'a MahayanistBhiksu
is not one who belongsto a MahayanaOrderin the senseof a separatereligiouscorporation,
but simply one who, observing in fundamentalsthe same monastic discipline as his Hinayana
brother, devotes himself to the study and practice of the Mahayana
shtrasI3.' This explanation
expressly illustrates the attitude of the monks of the Abhayagiri sect. It is apparent that they
formed a highly organized coenobium and followed a stricter discipline. The larger stock of
bhikkh0s devoted to ascetic practices known as Pahsukulikas belonged to the Abhayagiri
monastery. As reported in the Mahdvafhsa,the Paorsukulikas of the Abhayagiri retired to the
Tapovana(ascetics' grove) situated to the west of the cityI4. The monastic ruins now known as
the 'Western Monasteries'
most probably constitute the Tapovanaof the chronicler, and A. M.
Hocart sees a similarityin the architecturalplan of these monasterieswith those under surveyI5.
The monasteriesin question, which are located on the outskirtsof the city, have been named
pabbata-vihiras(rock-monasteriesor mountain-temples)by the chronicler, e.g., Pacinatissa-
pabbata-vihara, Silameghavannapabbata-vihara, Udayakittaggabodhipabbata-vihara, etc. Yet,
apparentlythey were not built on rocky eminences.However, as will be clearfrom the ensuing
discussion, the terracednatureof the plan offersa superficialsimilarityto the temple-mountains
of Cambodia and JavaI6. On the other hand, the separatist ideal incumbent upon the monks
who resorted to a stricter discipline, living in the quieter surroundings of the hills, may have
From this point of view, even though
prompted these monasteriesto be calledpabbata-viharas.

7 Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, I, pp. I 5 ff.; Ceylon Journal of Science (Section G), I, pp. I66-I67.
8 Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Sessional Paper, I 896, XII, Appendix A.
9 CeylonJournalof Science(SectionG), II, p. 46; EpigraphiaZeylanica,IV, p. 74.
IO Some of these tablets are said to be housed in the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford.
I Nikayasangraha, pp. 21-22. According to this text, they were followers of mystic teachings. Chas Eliot remarks: "Vaji-
riyans seem to be identical with Vajrayanists, a school of Buddhism which flourished in Eastern India about this time
and which was an exponent of the worst phases of Tantrism." Hinduism and Buddhism, III, p. 40.
12 Beal, S., Buddhist Records of the Western World, p. 247.
13 Sangharaksita, Bhiksu, Survey of Buddhism, I957, pp. 147-148.
14 Culavamsa, LI, 52.
15 Ceylon Journal of Science (Section G), II, p. 12.
6 Inscriptional evidence testifies to the relations that Buddhist monks of Java maintained with the Abhayagirivasins. See
Casparis, J. G. de, 'New evidence on cultural relations between Java and Ceylon in ancient times', Artibus Asiae, XXIV,
3 /4, pp. 24I-248.

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these monasteries display a well organized community life apparently due to Mahayanist
(forest-dweller)seems to have prevailedthroughout.
inspiration,yet the ideal of the vanavadsi

Layoutof the monasteriesin comparison:

Generally,each of the monasteriesconsideredhere forms a large quadrangle,approximately
Iooo ft. x IIoo ft., surroundedby a wide moat and is approachedby a broad avenue on one
sideor on allfoursides.The avenueor avenuesled straightto the centralsquareterraceheldby
retainingwalls.The spacebetweenthe moatandthe terraceformeda lowerplatformandhad
been made use of for the layout of the living quartersor cells (k.ti) of the residentmonks. The
centralterracewas occupiedby the sacrededificesmeantfor devotionaland ecclesiastical
practices.Beyondthe moatwas an outerplatformwith a bathhouseandprobablya refectory
on the front side and the whole monasterywas enclosed by a boundarywall provided with a
gatewayin the middleof the front side. Further,a shrinecomplexwas placedusuallybeyond
the moat and facing the middle of the rear side of the quadrangleand was connected to the
moatedsite by a formalavenue(fig.2). Thus,the basicunitsof the layoutcouldbe categorized
underthe followingheadings:

(A) Sacredquadrangle
(B) Shrinecomplex
(C) Dwellingplatform
(D) Moat
(E) Outerplatform
(F) Boundarywall

(A) Sacredquadrangle
The sacredquadrangleconsistsof an elevatedplatformwith a retainingwall of brickor
stonedecoratedwith mouldings.This quadrangleusuallyhasfourentrancesfacingthe cardinal
points, having the main entrancegenerally facing the south. The buildings contained within
the sacred quadrangleare: (i) Bodhighara (Bo-tree shrine), (ii) Patimaghara(Image house), (iii)
Uposathaghara (Chapterhouse) and (iv) Stypa.
The positioning of these buildings seems to follow a distinct pattern.If the main entrance
were to the south of the quadrangle,the bodhigharawould be in the south-west or first quadrant,
the patimagharain the north-west or second quadrant,the uposathaghara in the north-east or
third quadrantand the stupain the south-eastor fourth quadrant(figs. 3, 4, 5, 6). This arrange-
ment is applicableto all the examplesunder discussion except Toluvila and Kaludiyapokuna.
At Toluvila,the stupais placedin the firstquadrantandthe bodhighara in the fourthquadrant.
Kaludiyapokuna seemsto follow a similarexception,but it is difficultto establishthis con-
clusivelyin the absenceof excavateddata(figs.7, 9).
A characteristicfeaturein the layoutof the quadranglebuildingsis thatthey arenot sym-
metricallypositioned. The paftimaghara in the second quadrantgenerally takes a more central
position, almost directlyfacing the visitor on entering the quadranglefrom the main entrance
but still lying within its own quadrant.The bodhighara in turn takes a position more towards
the south-westcornerof its own quadrant.The stupapositions itself close to the easternentrance

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but still within its own quadrant.Likewise, the uposathaghara
takesa position closer to the north-
ern entrance.The reason for this particulararrangementwhich is obviously non-symmetrical,
may be explainedfrom functional,aesthetic,religious or superstitiouspoints of view. The func-
tional aspect may be viewed on the basis of the convenience of the devotees moving from one
shrine to another. For instance, the uposathaghara,which is not a shrine of worship, has been
madeto recedefromthe pathof the worshipper,while the otherthreeshrinesof worshipare
positionedto be of closer proximity.The aestheticconsiderationmay be the aspectof one
viewing the four buildings as a unit of artisticcomposition. The religious aspect may perhaps
be that the buildingshad to be so positionedthat the worshippermovedfrom one shrineto
another in a certain sequence of worshipping the bodhi tree, the image of the Buddha and
finally the sftupa17.The superstitiousconsideration,too, may have demandedthat these build-
ings have a non-symmetrical
accent.

(B) Shrinecomplex
This unit of buildings was probablythe most dominatingfeaturein the temple layout, with
a large significantpatimaghara as the centralfeature. Usually, this shrine complex was attached
to the sacredquadrangleby a formalavenue (figs. 5, 7). The length of the avenue is such that it is
kept aloof from the sacred quadranglein spite of its definitelink with the main monastery.At
the Pacinatissapabbata-vihara and probablyat the monasteryat Kaludiyapokuna,this featureis
absent.At Pankuliya,the shrinecomplexis turnedinwardsto be accommodated within the
quadrangleprobablydue to geographicalreasons,for the land surroundingthis monasteryis
swampy and it lies on the flood plain of the Malvatu-oya(ancient Kadamaba-nadi).At the
'Vijayarama',while the shrine is clearly demarcated,the building itself appearsto have been
either not completed or built out of perishablematerialand its superstructureno longer exists.
The fact that this terracewas used as a shrineis clearfrom the evidence of a relic chamberbelow
terracelevel at a positionwherethe statueof the shrinewouldhavenormallystood18.At Vessa-
giri, the shrine complex is placed non-axiallydue to a range of rocks immediatelyadjacent.The
designershave deflectedthe formalpathinto a squarespiralstairwayto reachthe summitof
the rock (fig.8).

(C) Dwellingplatform
The area allocated to the dwelling platform is distinct in all the examples where the cells
(keti) surroundand are at a level below that of the sacredquadrangle.Usually,the cells are
symmetricallydistributedon all four sides of the platformand are madeto face the sacred
quadranglewith some exceptionsat Vessagiriand Kaludiyapokuna(figs. 8, 9). A distinctfeature
of this arrangementis that all the cells are linked with one another in succession and with the
sacred quadrangle by formal footpaths. The functional aspects of the dwelling units are cared
formal
for in that
the wells, lavatories and closets are located within easy reach of the cells; ponds, too,
have been provided within this area. Some unidentifiableancillarybuildings found on this plat-
I7 In this sequence, the bodhi tree represents the enlightenment of the Buddha, the image the Buddha after enlightenment
and the stupa the passing away (mahdparinibbana). Yet another sequence of worship is the stupa (sdririka), bodhi tree
(padribhogika)and the Buddha image (uddesika). The location of the three edifices on the sacred quadrangle enables the
worshipper to follow this sequence as well.
I8 For details of this structure, see Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report, 189I, p. 5.

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form may well be some utility buildings such as libraries,storerooms, etc., or they may have
beenbuildingsbuilton the site at a laterdate.

(D) Moat
In the monasteriesunder discussion,the moat forms a clearand distinctfeaturesurrounding
the central group of the sacred quadrangleand the dwelling platform. There are either four
entrancesbridgingthe moatto enter the inner compoundor one formalentrancegenerally
located on the southern side (figs. 5, 6). As the moat is constructed out of earth, it has been
subject to much alterationwith time. For example,at Toluvila, the moat has been transformed
into an irrigationchannelwhich has in recenttimes been divertedeven acrossthe dwelling
platformof the ancientmonastery.
(E) Outerplatform
The outerplatformconsistsof the areathatlies betweenthe moatandthe boundarywall.
This forms comparativelya narrow strip of areaexcept on the side of the main entrancewhere
the dimensions are more generous. On this wider width of the platform are located the bath
house (jantaghara)I9 and probably the refectory (bhattasala)
20
(figs. I7, I8). The monasteryat
Pankuliyadoes not possess an outer platform due to the swampy nature of the surrounding
area,but the buildings normallyaccommodatedon the outer platformare containedwithin the
dwelling platform. A similar arrangementprevails at the Ruhunumahavihara,Lahugala(figs.
4, IO). the outerplatformis not well defined.
At Vessagiriand the Pacinatissapabbata-vihara,

(F) Boundarywall
This is a simple brick or stone wall encirclingthe entire monastery.Access to the monastery
is providedby an entranceporchwith a guardroom(fig.5).

Detailsof buildings:
(A) Sacredquadrangle
(i) Bodhighara
The bodhighara,
a buildingenclosingthe bodhitree,is usuallysquarein plan,the exceptions
to this being the circular structureat Toluvila and perhaps one similar at Kaludiyapokuna.
Generally, the square bodhigarahas four entrances in the direction of the cardinal points. Each
of these entrancesis often shelteredby a porch projectedout of an otherwise simple foursided
roof. The sides of these structuresmay measure between 30 and o50feet. The bodhi tree is
plantedat the centreof this squareon a raisedplinth squarein plan. The spaceabove this plinth
has no roof and so provides the necessary opening for the tree to spread out and over the
bodhighara.It is the space between this inner plinth and the outer wall that is both paved with
stone slabs and roofed with flat tiles forming an ambulatory.The worshippers congregate in
this ambulatoryto veneratethe bodhi tree. Offeringsare placed on flower altarsusually placed
19
Cullavagga, V, 14. See also Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report, I940-45, p. i8.
20 One of the best known alms-halls in ancient times is the Mahdpili the ruins of which are seen in the inner citadel at
Anuradhapura.Memoirsof the Archaeological Surveyof Ceylon,III, pp. 24ff.

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above the inner plinth and facing the entrances.At times, a Buddha image is placed between
each of these flower altarsand the inner plinth and facing the entrances.A characteristicfeature
of these bodhigharasis the small flight of steps provided in the inner plinth at a position non-
symmetrical, which no doubt was provided to permit the watering of the bodhi tree (fig. I I A).
The act of wateringthe greatbodhitreeat Anuradhapura
wasindeeda specialandmeritorious
act and this ritualwas no doubt extendedeven to other bodhi trees plantedin every monastery.

(ii) Patimaghara
The patimagharaor image house consists of two chambers,the inner sanctum (garbhagrha)
and an outerbay projectedto the front. The innersanctumis almostsquarein planwith its
sides being between 25 and 35 feet. The floor of this area is generallypaved with stone slabs.
The image of the Buddhais placed in a position to the rear middle of the room on a pedestal
with sufficientroom for the worshippersto circumambulateround the statue. The pedestal is
usually of stone and quite often it is placed over a relic containercalledyantragala21. The outer
bay is oblong its width being narrowerthan the sanctum. This outer bay only performs the
functionof a lobby,in that the worshipperentersthe shrineroom throughits mainentrance
into the outerbay and throughthis into the innersanctum.The exit is differentto the extent
thatthe worshipperpassesthroughthis outerbayto the outsideby a sideexit to the rightand
not by the mainentrance.The innersanctumand the outerbay are togetherpositionedon a
raised platform or plinth with its outline similar in plan to the two units. Both units were
roofed and tiled originally, but the superstructureincluding the walls has completely dis-
appeared (fig. I4).

(iii) Uposathaghara
or chapterhouseconsistsof an oblongsinglecellwith the entranceon the
The uposathaghara
lengthof the room.The floorof the insideis left unpavedwith stoneslabsas in the caseof the
shrineroom, exceptfor a definitesquarein the rearrightor left corner.The tiled and timber
roof, which now has disappeared,rested on stone columns with eight of them standing free
within the inner space. The roof, though four-sided basically,has a simple projection in the
frontto providea porchover the entrancedoorway.The dimensionsof the roomareapproxi-
is a building which has assumed its sanctity by the per-
mately 45 ft. x 37 ft. The uposathaghara
formance of ecclesiasticalacts by the Buddhist monks, and the limits (sima) are a constituent
part of the structure.The free-standingboundary stones are placed at the four corners of the
building. In the ritualof the chief monk discussingthe finerpoints of the Vinaya,he would no
doubt have to read from the Vinayatexts which perhaps were stored in this building. Thus,
books were very likely stored in masonry cupboardsbuilt over the stone-paved square space
in the right or the left corner of the room (fig. 11 B). Such storage cupboardshave been found
in the Indian monasteries22.The uposathaghara at Puliyankulama,Toluvila and Vessagiri have
water troughs cut on the threshold of the entrance doorway. These water troughs may have
had ritualisticreasonswhich are not quite clearin their presentcontext. In some examples,e. g.,
the 'Vijayarama',an image of the Buddhawas placed at the centre of the rear wall facing the
2I See O'Connor, S.J., "Ritual deposit boxes in Southeast Asian sanctuaries," Artibus Asiae, XXVIII, 1, pp. 5 3-60.
22 Dutt, S., Buddhist monks and monasteriesof India, London, I962, figure on page 337.

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entrance, a practice prevalent even today. At Pankuliya, Puliyankulama, and Vessagiri, a stone
seat runs along the inner wall of the building which is approximately 6 in. high and I 8 in. wide.
This no doubtprovidedsittingaccommodation for the participants
at the chapter,while the
chiefmonkprobablysaton a specialseatbesidethe Buddhaimage.

(iv) Stupa
The stupas erected on the sacred quadrangle have a distinct character. They are certainly
not the colossal type of Sinhalese stupas. Each stupa has a proportionately high square platform,
the sides of the platform varying between 40 ft. and 50 ft. The approximate height of these
stupasis less than 50o ft., including the height of the terrace. The square terrace is usually paved
with stone and is approached by formal flights of steps in the direction of the cardinal points.
In some, however, there are only two flights of steps. Four flower altars are generally placed
facing each of the four entrances except due to lack of space when they are shifted diagonalwise
as at Pankuliya. The stupa itself sits on a characteristicallyoctagonal base. The three base
of the dagdbaare characteristic in that they are hardly processional paths
cylinders (tunnadl-pesadva)
as commonly used in the colossal stuipasof India and Ceylon. They are reduced to heavily
moulded basal units. Further, the dome of the dagabasprings from a lotus petal moulding. This
is characteristic to such an extent that the classical shape of the dagdbas known aspadmdkdramay
probably be attributed to this type. The relic chamber of this type of stupasoccurs at the top level
of the square terrace and not at the top of the pesava as usual. There is not one ddgabawith the
in position;as suchone is at a loss to visualizethe upperportionsof the stypas.
superstructure
It may,however,be surmisedthatthe superstructure of thesestupasfollowedthe form of the
colossal dadgabasat Anuradhapura, which consisted of the square (hatardskotuva), cylinder
(devatdkotuva)and the conical spire (kot-kdrdlla),all solidly built (figs. 12, I3).

Shrinecomplex

Patimdghara
This is very well illustrated at Puliyankulama and at Toluvia (figs. 5, 7, 15). It no doubt was
the most dominatingbuildingin the entirecomplexof the monastery.Thus,the prominence
to this shrinewas achievedeitherby its size andscaleor by raisingit on an artificialmoundor
by its geographical setting. The building plan is not very different to the patimdgharaon the
sacred quadrangle having the same characteristic inner sanctum (garbhagrha)and an outer bay
projected to the front. This is distinctly noticeable both at Puliyankulama and Pankuliya. At
Magulmahavihara, the modern pansala is built over it. Vessagiriya has both a cave and two
circular structures on the top of the rock and are much mutilated. This large and dominating
shrine has the characteristic terrace following the exact outline of the building including the
recessed porch. Puliyankulama apparently had a colossal standing Buddha image (about 20 ft.
high), while Toluvila and Pankuliya have two large seated images approximately 6 ft. high.

Ancillary buildings
The ancillary buildings (fig. 5) to the major shrine room may not have been units contempo-
rary to the original plan as visualized by the architect monks of the monasteries but they seem

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 s-'

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Fig. 3 Site plan 'Vijayarama', Anuradhapura

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 (

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Fig. 6 Site plan Pacinatissapabbata-vihara,Anuradhapura

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Fig. 5 Site plan Puliyankulamamonastery, Anuradhapura

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 Fig. 7
U Site plan Toluvila monas-
tery, Anuradhapura

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Site plan Vessagiriya
monastery, I#I 0
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3! CHAiNS
Anuradhapura I

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 Fig. Io Site plan Magulmahavihara, Lahugala

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 ri
r----------------

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L,,-, -- , - - -- -- - -,, - , -
-.

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plan, Sacred quadrangle, Puliyankulama
B. Uposathaghara
plan, Sacred quadrangle, 'Vijayarama'

1" 0 8'
I S I I 1a aI. .

Fig. I2 Stupaplan, Sacred quadrangle, 'Vijayarama'

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 1 0 6'
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Fig. I3 Stupaelevation, Sacred quadrangle, 'Vijayarama'

Iv/ 0 8'
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Fig. 14 Patimagharaplan, Sacred quadrangle, 'Vijayarama'

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 5i

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() TOLUVILA

Fig. 15 Patimdghara plan, Shrine complex, Puliyankulama Fig. I8 Refectory plan, Outer platform: A. 'Vijayarama' B. Toluvila

VESSAG1RIYA .. I. 'VIJAYARlMA a

Fig. I6 Cell plan and elevation: A. Vessagiriya. B. 'Vijayarama'

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 /

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Fig. 17 Bath house plan, Outer platform: A. IPuliyankulama.B. Pankuliya

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e PANKULIYA

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Fig. 19 Privy plan, Dwelling platform: A. 'Vijayarama'B. Pankuliya

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.
51
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to have been vital to the residentmonks due to their functionalcharacter.The idea of guarding
the shrineroom and protectingits treasureswas indeed a practicalproposition. This requirement
was satisfiedby providing the necessaryguardrooms,etc., within close proximityto the shrine.
It is not surprisingthat these guardroomsare present only at Puliyankulamaand Toluvila, as
these are the only places where this large patimaghara is positioned so far away from the sacred
quadrangleand the dwelling platform. Where this complex of the shrine is within easy reach
of the monastic cells there was no special effort to build guardrooms.

Dwelling platform
Cells
The cells (hkti) have been built to a compact size. Each cell was probably occupied by one
or two monks. The cells are approximately16 ft. squarewith a treasurecupboardat the right
or the left corner (fig. 6 B). The cupboardconsists of a stone paved areaapproximately3 ft. to
4 ft. squareor oblong and raiseda few inches above the ground. Our suggestion that this area
was used for a cupboardis clearly seen by the dowel marks to fix the door jambs. These cup-
boards would no doubt have contained all their vital possessions such as manuscripts,relics,
images, etc. The reason for the stone paving beneath this cupboardwas apparentlyto protect
the articles from being damaged by termites and white ants, which is still a serious problem
in the tropics. The use of storage cupboards,as indicated above, is found in Indian Buddhist
monasterieslike Nalanda.
The area of the floor not covered by the stone paved cupboardwas built of consolidated
earthand probablysurfacedwith cowdung as a floor finish, a practiceprevalenteven at present.
The monks would likely have used a mat as their bedding. The cells which were symmetrically
built surroundingthe elevated central quadranglewere very uniform and built to a type plan.
The squareplan of the cell was raisedon a plinth (2 ft. 6 in. high) with a formalentrancein front.
The four walls surroundingthe rooms were raised to a height of about 8 ft. and levelled off
with stone pillars embeddedin the brickwork. The roof was carriedon these stone pillars and
it is likely that it sloped in the four directions with a central finial. The entrancewas further
accentuatedby the projection of a roof supportedon two stone pillarsstandingfree on the two
sides of the balustrades,thus forming an entrance porch. The door jambs spring off from a
stone threshold. There is, however, little evidence as to whether they relied on the doors for
light and ventilation or whether they had windows as well. It is possible that some arrangement
for light and ventilation in the form of narrow openings was provided at the upper levels of the
walls. An interesting feature is the hollowed out stone bowl at the entrance just inside the
door frame very likely on the side where the door was not pivoted. This carved out space was
perhapsused as a standfor the pot of water used by the monks in the daily ablutions, a practice
which has come down to the present day.

Lavatories
The lavatorieswere dispersedat vantage points on the dwelling platformwithin convenient
reach of the cells (fig. I9 A). They were usuallydouble units of a urinaland a water closet. These
units were two separaterooms about 7 ft. x 5 ft. each and entered through a common lobby.

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 The urinalconsists of a decorativelycarved slab of stone meant to be used in a squattingposi-
tion. The urinal slab has a wide pocket and a very narrow apertureleading the contents to a
below andis linedwith largepots one above the other.No doubtthe
pit placedimmediately
narrowapertureconnectingthe pit andthe outsidewas to preventthe smellin the pit escaping
out. On the otherhand,the waterclosetwas a similarbut moreelaborateslabof carvedstone
once again to be used in a squatting position. There were carved steps in the shape of sandals
for the feet and a decoratedstand to retainthe pot of waterhaving a round bottom. Water was
used lavishlyto wash andflushthe waste matteralong a sloping drainalso carvedout of the same
slab. The water and contents was directedto a pit immediatelyoutside the lavatory.The pit was
usually 3 ft. in diameterand 6 ft. deep and lined with terracottarings. The top of the pit was
sealed off with a curved terracottacover slab23.Water closets adjacent to each other under
the sameroofhavebeenfoundat suchsitesas Pankuliyaandpossiblyat the 'Vijayarama'.
These
units are devoid of decorationand were probablyused by younger membersof the sangha.Such
buildings are located a suitabledistanceaway from the dwelling platform(fig. I9 B).

Moat
Entrance
These are not clearly demarcatedin the masonry except that one finds an earth mound to
bridge the otherwise continuous moat. The number of such entrances vary with each site, but
thereis at leastone suchentranceveryoftento the south.

Outerplatform
Bathhouse
This is no doubt the classicaljantaghara
or hot water-bath(fig.I7A,B). The buildingis
characterizedby the prominentcentralsteam-bath.This stone bath consists of a paved depres-
sion with a definiteoutlet for water.The buildingdimensionsvaryfrom 60 ft. to 40 ft. It is either
square or rectangularwith one or more entrances.Each building has a double set of columns
positioned close to each other around the central paved stone bath. This does provide some
datafor one to conjecturea two-levelroof over the buildingwith a clearstorylighting the
areaof the bath and enablingthe steamand hot humid air to escapefrom within the large room.
The fire places with charcoalremnantsindicatethat the boiling of water was done beneaththis
roof and the smoke and steamfound an escapethrough the splayedtwo-storied roof. The stone
paving at Puliyankulamaand the brick paving at the 'Vijayarama'support the conjecturethat
pots of water were heated over these platforms. The bath at Pankuliyahas an area cluttered
with short stone columns which would perhaps have been the supports for the hearth. This
bath house has an added refinementin that of an entrancelobby. The triple entranceof the
bath at Puliyankulamais in itself characteristicas a detailin that the refectoryof the 'Vijayarama'
The centreroomwasno doubtwalledexceptfor the doorsandventi-
hassuchan arrangement.
lationopenings.
23 Some of the fine examples of urinals are seen at the 'Western Monasteries'at Anuradhapura.Memoirsof the Archaeological
Survey of Ceylon, I, fig.75; Devendra, D.T., Classical Sinhalese Sculpture, London, 1958, figs. I27, i28.

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 Refectory
As muchas one is reluctantto labelthis buildingas the refectory,we arecompelledto do
so in the absence of any other building that would suit such a purpose. The location of this
building and its plan further support our conjecture.At Puliyankulamaand Pankuliya,a side
entranceis provided in the boundary wall near the refectory possibly for the convenience of
bringing in the food cooked and preparedby laymen. The tradition of lay groups taking their
turn to feed the monks of a monasteryis a practicevery muchalive even today. The inner
spaceof this oblongbuildingis undividedandlendsitselfto the monksbeingseatedalongthe
walls, while the food is placedat the centre(fig.I8A). The oval-shapedbuildingat Toluvila
was probably used as a refectory (fig. 18B). A similar structureis found at Magulmahavihara.
The triple entranceof the 'Vijayarama'refectorycorrespondsto that of the bath house at Puli-
The roof of the refectorieswouldhavebeenfour-sidedandsloping.
yankulama.

Outerwall
Entranceporch
The formalmainentranceto the entiremonasterywould be this. It is no exceptionto the
usualentranceto any buildingcompoundwith two flightsof stepsfor entranceand exit. The
porchplatformpossessesa commandingpositionoverlookingthe exteriorand the interiorof
the monasterylayout.Theusualprovisionsareset out with enclosedroomson eithersideof the
porchfor the guards.They approximate30 ft. x 20 ft. in plan.The roof would be tiled with
finialson the endsof the ridge.The high parapetwall of the monasterybeginson one side of
the entranceporchand endson the other.

Somesignificantfeatures:
It is evidentfromthe abovediscussionthatthe overallplanof thesemonasteriesis charac-
teristicallysimilarexceptin the applicationof certain
the details.On otherhand,they seemto
differmuchfromthe architecture of the centralmonasteriesof Anuradhapura.
The stuipas of the monasteriesare comparatively muchsmallerin size and are alwaysbuilt
on a squareterrace.The octagonalbase,the threemouldedringsin placeof the ambulatory
pesdvas,andthe lotus mouldingat the baseof the domearecharacteristically differentfromthe
normalarchitectureof the colossalddgabas. Unlike in the latterwhere the relic chamberis
usuallyplacedon level with andabovethe uppermostbasalring (pesava),in the st.pasof these
monasteries,the relicchamberis builtinsidethe squareterraceandunderneaththe baseof the
is of great religious sig-
stupa(fig. I3). As explained earlier,the enshrinementof dharma-dhadtu
nificance.
apparentlyfollow the gandhakutiplan consisting of a sanctum chamber
The patimdgbaras
(garbhagrha)anda projectingbay (ma.n.dapa), a planuniversallyemployedin the imageshrines
of ancientIndiaandCeylon.However,thepatimdgharas of thesemonasteriesstrikea difference
in havingthe buildingput up on a raisedplinthof threerecedingtierswhichfollowthe ground
planof thepatimdghara itself.This featureis commonto the imageshrinesof the sacredquad-
rangleas well as the shrinecomplex,e.g., patimdgharas of Puliyankulama and Toluvila.This

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architecturalfeatureveryprobablyrelatesto the 'mountain-temple' ideapointed
(pabbata-vihdra)
out earlier.
The oval plan for a building is indeed rare. However, this plan had been used at least at
two sites, Toluvila and Magulmahavihara, and as indicatedabove, the buildingwas most
probablymeantfor a refectoryandthe plansuitsthe purposewell.
The circularplanfor a cell, too, is unusual.At leastat threesites,Pacinatissapabbata,
Tolu-
vilaandVessagiri(fig.I6A), the circularplanhasbeenadopted.Thesebuildingswereevidently
usedfor somepurposeotherthanthe residenceof monks.At the Pacinatissapabbata-vihdra, a
circularcell is positioned at the south-west corner of the dwelling platform. It is likely that
similarstructureswereplacedat the north-westandthe north-eastcornersas well (fig.6). These
circularcells may perhapshave been meditationhouses (padhanagharas),
for these were essential
for the monkswho devotedthemselvesto the practiceof meditationandrecitationof dharans.
The use of the boundarystones (sima) is a necessaryfeaturein the uposathaghara
or chapter
house. However,suchsimdstonesa r round
used
epeatedly othersacredbuildingsas
well. Sometimes,theymarkthe limitsof the sacredquadrangle
too.
The triple entranceto a building is also unusual. However, this featureoccurs in the refec-
tory at the 'Vijayarama'
andthe bathhouseat Puliyankulama.
All the sites except Pacinatissapabbataand possibly Kaludiyapokunashow characteristic
stoneworkin that the stone units used are proportionatelyheavierthan in most other sites. The
use of the decorationis less lavish and tends to createan atmosphereof heavy stone masonry.
The use of the quarter-circlemoulding as a stone parapetrepeatsitself most often at almost
all sites and forms a prominentdecorativeelement.Paclnatissapabbata
and Vessagiripossess
unusualand identicalmouldings in the use of projectingheaderbricks ratherlike buttons used
horizontally. The coping stones used on all the parapets of these sites show a combined and
inverted cyma-recta
moulding.
The retaining walls of the platforms at Pacinatissapabbata and Toluvila show a distinction
in the use of the elephant decoration in a repetitive pattern24.
In keeping with the general austere atmosphere of the architecture,all other decorative
elements of the flower altars,guardstones,balustradesand moonstones are comparativelyless
ornamented.The flower altarstend to be simple rectangularstone slabs with no decorationand
minimum mouldings. The guardstones of the stupasat the 'Vijayarama',Puliyankulamaand
Magulmahaviharaare decoratedwithpurnaghatasmerely by incised lines and are not carved in
relief. Very often these arched slabs are left plain. However, the guardstones flanking the
flights of steps of the southern and the western entrances of the sacred quadrangleof the
'Vjayarama'are carved with the figure of a dwarf (bhbita)each25.The arch outline of the
guardstonewith a specialprojectionfor the accompanyingbhbtafiguresis seen employedin the
guardstonesof Magulmahavihara26. A similarprojection, though plain, is noticed at Toluvila.
The use of the directionalanimalsboth on guardstonesand the entrancesseems to be a promi-
nent feature and the conventional order, elephant-east,bull-south, horse-west and lion-north,

24 Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report, I894, Thirteenth Report, p.4 and P1.G.
25 Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report, I89I, Fifth Progress
Report, P1.VIB; Artibus Asiae, XXVIII, 2/3, p. I5 8,
fig-3-
26
CeylonJournal of Science (Section G), II, P1. XLII.

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has been strictly followed. At the 'Vijayarama'and Puliyankulama,the main entrancefacing
the south of the sacredquadrangleis flankedby two large pedestalssupporting the figure of a
seated bull27. The balustrades are often plain and rectilinear. The moonstones are plain, the only
decorationin some being the concentricrings. However, the moonstone placed at the entrance
flight leading to the image shrine at Pankuliyais ornamentedwith the usual motifs, creeper,
geese and directionalanimals28.
The decorationof the plinth of the projectingopen terraceat the 'Vijayarama'is distinctive
in the use of the human figure for the purpose of ornamentation.To quote G. E. Mitton: "The
most attractivefeatureof this fine piece of work ('preachinghall') are the carvedstones decorat-
ing the exteriorwall of the platform.Thesearepanelswith figuresdifferingfrom eachother,
somecontaininga singlemalefigureandothersa maleandfemale.Theystandbeneatha carved
canopy of curious makara-pattern.These bloated dragon beasts face each other open-mouthed,
each with a figure, sometimes human, sometimes animal,in their jaws. In the hollows of their
backs and fish-like tails, here much more resemble dolphins than crocodiles. Besides there are
striking gargoyles and bits of floraldecorationfallingvertically29."The humanfiguresobviously
representdeities.This is evidentfrom the centralniche containinga couple (fig. 20).Here the male
figure is four-armedand the two hands at the back hold some objects which are now indistinct.
It is probablethat the couple representseitherSiva or Visnu with Sakti.The single figuresat the
cornersrepresentndaga
kings.
The most prominentamong the sculpturesof these sites are the images of the Buddha.The
preservedimages belong to Toluvila and Pankuliya.While the seatedimage from Toluvila, now
preserved in the Colombo National Museum, depicts samdadhimudrad which pose is normal to
otherBuddhaimagesof ancientCeylon,the seatedimageat Pankuliyashowseithervitarkamudrd
or abhaya30.A small bronze image of the Buddha in samadhimudra was recovered from Tolu-
vila3I. These images, which may be datableto the period between the fourth and the seventh
centuries A.D., constitute some of the finest products of the Sinhalese sculptors during the
Anuradhapuraperiod32.
The bronze statuettes recovered from cellas underneaththe four entranceporches of the
sacred quadrangleat the 'Vijayarama'and Puliyankulamaare significant. These representthe
directional deities (dipala), viz,
vIndra (east, Yama (south), Varuna (west) and Kuvera (north).
Following the Brahmanical iconography, each figure is shown holding the respective attribute
of the deity: Indra holds the vajra, Yama the danda, Varuna the pasa and Kuvera the gada.
However, the figurines of the 'Vijayarama' show an iconographical novelty in that each figure
is doubled in addorsed manner. The two hands of that half of the figure facing the shrine are
shown in anjalmudrad, while the other two hands of the half facing the opposite direction carry
the respective attributes (fig.2I). Considering the iconographic significance of these figures,
27
Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report, 1891, Fifth Progress Report, P1. IV.
28 Only two animals, horse and elephant, are repeated here. CeylonJournalof Science(Section G), II, P1.XXI, fig. 2. On
the significance of the animals, see Artibus Asiae, XVII, pp. 197.ff
29 Mitton, G. E., The Lost Cities of Ceylon,I 928, pp. I 37-I 3 8.
30 As the fingers of the hand are broken off, it is difficult to say whether the mudra represents vitarka or abhaya. Ceylon
Journal of Science (Section G), II, P1. XLIX. See also History of Ceylon, University of Ceylon Press Board, Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 406.
31 Devendra, D.T., TheBuddhaImageand Ceylon,1957, P1. XVII.
32 Surveyof Ceylon,Annual Report,I894, p.4; Wijesekera, Nandadeva, Early SinhaleseSculpture,I962, pp.23I,
Archaeological
246.

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 observes:"The peculiarcharacterof the imageswas due to the functionthat
S.Paranavitana
the gods were expected to perform. Each one of them had to ward off evil coming from the
quarterthathe occupied.For this he had to look towardsthat quarter;but this couldnot be
done withoutturninghis backto the shrineif he had only one face. The imagesof the gods
were thereforeprovided with two faces and four hands, the normalface at the front facing the
shrine with hands in a worshipping attitude,while the face at the back watched evil influences
from that quarter. The extra pair of hands could deal with any possible intruders with evil
intentions, without disturbing the worshipping attitude of the front turned towards the object
of veneration33."The directionaldeities of the 'Vijayarama'were accompaniedby the respective
vehicles (vdahana),
viz., elephant(east),horse (south), bull (west) and lion (north). The statuettes
recoveredfrom Puliyankulamaare single-bodiedbut four-armedand were not associatedwith
the vdhanas34.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to acknowledge that figs. 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, IO, II, 12, 13, 14, 15, i6, 17, 18 and 19 were
taken from the Annual Reports of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon. Fig. 21 by courtesy,
Archaeological Department, Ceylon. Our thanks are due to Mr. L.K.Karunaratne, Chief
Architect,ArchaeologicalDepartment,for the preparationof illustrations.

33 Artibus Asiae, Supplementum, XVIII, pp.49-50.

34 Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Annual Report, I896, p. 3; Memoirs of the Colombo Museum, Vol.1, pp. 21-22, P1. XXIII,
figs. I25-I28.

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