British Journal of Anaesthesia, 117 (S1): i49–i59 (2016)

doi: 10.1093/bja/aew193
Special Issue

Systematic review of the anaesthetic management

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of non-iatrogenic acute adult airway trauma
S. J. Mercer1,2,3,*, C. P. Jones1, M. Bridge1, E. Clitheroe1, B. Morton1,4
and P. Groom1
1
Anaesthetic Department, Aintree University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Longmoor Lane, Aintree, Liverpool
L9 7AL, UK, 2Defence Medical Services, Royal Centre for Defence Medicine, Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham,
Mindelsohn Way, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2WB, UK, 3Postgraduate School of Medicine, University of
Liverpool, Cedar House, Ashton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK, and 4Honorary Research Fellow, Liverpool School of
Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
*Corresponding author. E-mail: simonjmercer@hotmail.com

Abstract
Introduction: Non-iatrogenic trauma to the airway is rare and presents a significant challenge to the anaesthetist. Although
guidelines for the management of the unanticipated difficult airway have been published, these do not make provision for the
‘anticipated’ difficult airway. This systematic review aims to inform best practice and suggest management options for different
injury patterns.
Methods: A literature search was conducted using Embase, Medline, and Google Scholar for papers after the year 2000 reporting
on the acute airway management of adult patients who suffered airway trauma. Our protocol and search strategy are registered
with and published by PROSPERO (http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO, ID: CRD42016032763).
Results: A systematic literature search yielded 578 articles, of which a total of 148 full-text papers were reviewed. We present
our results categorized by mechanism of injury: blunt, penetrating, blast, and burns.
Conclusions: The hallmark of airway management with trauma to the airway is the maintenance of spontaneous ventilation,
intubation under direct vision to avoid the creation of a false passage, and the avoidance of both intermittent positive pressure
ventilation and cricoid pressure (the latter for laryngotracheal trauma only) during a rapid sequence induction. Management
depends on available resources and time to perform airway assessment, investigations, and intervention ( patients will be
classified into one of three categories: no time, some time, or adequate time). Human factors, particularly the development of a
shared mental model amongst the trauma team, are vital to mitigate risk and improve patient safety.

Key words: airway management; blast injuries; blunt injuries; burns; wounds, penetrating

Trauma to the airway may cause acutely life-threatening airway airway trauma, advancing a bougie or tracheal tube blindly be-
laceration, obstruction, haemorrhage, and aspiration of blood; yond the vocal cords risks penetration through an airway lacer-
this presents the anaesthetist with a major challenge.1 2 Fortu- ation, leading to airway obstruction, pneumomediastinum, and
nately, airway trauma is a relatively infrequent complication of the creation of a false passage.1 5 Guidelines for the management
major trauma, in both the UK civilian (National Health Service) of the unanticipated difficult airway have recently been revised
and UK Defence Medical Services settings.3 4 However, complica- by the Difficult Airway Society;6 however, these do not make pro-
tions related to this injury can be catastrophic without optimal vision for an ‘anticipated’ difficult airway that could be experi-
management. For example, in a patient with blunt or penetrating enced in complex trauma, and if followed, could even worsen

Accepted: May 23, 2016

© Crown copyright 2016.

i49
i50 | Mercer et al.

the traumatic airway. Our aim was to inform best practice for air- vocal cords quoted as high as 63%.10 Bronchial disruption occurs
way trauma and suggest management options for the various in- in 1% of chest trauma; most of these patients die at the scene.11
jury patterns to reduce serious sequelae. Maxillofacial trauma is the most common type of blunt air-
way trauma but does not usually present a problem because tris-
mus is usually attributable to pain and therefore resolves on
Methods
induction. The main issues to consider are then airway haemor-
Search strategy rhage, hypoxia, and the risk of aspiration. Very rarely, trismus is
the result of impaction of a condylar head fracture, causing a
We searched Embase, Medline, and Google Scholar for papers re-
physical obstruction to mouth opening, which becomes apparent
porting on the acute airway management of adult patients who
only after rapid sequence induction.12
had suffered airway trauma. We limited the search to articles

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The cricoid cartilage and cricothyroid membrane are involved
published from the year 2000 onwards to represent contempor-
in 50% of instances of blunt airway trauma with airway com-
ary practice. The search included full-text reports of articles
promise; injury to the thyrohyoid membrane, thyroid cartilage,
from peer-reviewed journals and conference abstracts published
and extrathoracic trachea account for the remainder.1 13 Laryngo-
in English, and there were no restrictions to the studies reviewed.
tracheal separation occurs in up to 63% of instances, usually be-
In addition, the reference lists of the articles reviewed were scru-
tween the cricoid and fourth tracheal cartilage.14 15 The airway
tinized for additional relevant articles and book chapters.
can remain patent if spontaneous respiration is maintained by
splinting of peritracheal connective tissue.16 This situation is
Article selection precarious and can deteriorate rapidly.17
Titles and abstracts of the references obtained were reviewed by Blunt trauma at the level of the larynx or below can be difficult
two independent reviewers (M.B. and C.P.J.). Articles were cate- to diagnose and life threatening if managed poorly. Patients can
gorized for inclusion or exclusion. Articles were removed if both present with non-specific signs and symptoms, such as cough,
reviewers agreed independently to exclude. In the event of agree- dyspnoea, aphonia, stridor, laryngeal crepitus, haemoptysis,
ment to include or a discordant opinion, articles were reviewed and subcutaneous emphysema. These symptoms do not correl-
in full by one of four independent reviewers (C.P.J., P.G., E.C., and ate well with the anatomical site of the lesion;14 15 however, com-
S.J.M.). Inclusion criteria were as follows: adults older than 18 yr plaints of haemoptysis and stridor at presentation have been
of age with airway trauma; papers published on or after 2000; associated with severity of injury.16 18
and papers reporting airway trauma (blunt, burn, penetrating, In view of the poor relation between signs and severity of in-
blast, or miscellaneous injuries) and anaesthetic management. jury, the clinician must have both a high index of suspicion and a
The exclusion criteria were as follows: children (<18 yr old); low threshold for further investigations, including plain X-rays
animal studies; papers not dealing with acute trauma and airway (chest and lateral cervical spine) to rule out surgical emphysema,
trauma; and papers that did not have an airway management pneumothorax, or both. Nasendoscopy is useful and permits
focus. Our full protocol and search strategy are registered assessment of vocal cord movement, integrity of the laryngeal
with and published by PROSPERO (http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/ mucosa, and airway patency.13 Computed tomography is the
PROSPERO, ID: CRD42016032763); this includes the search terms gold standard and detects the site of injury in 94% of blunt
and keywords used. trauma.19 Bronchoscopy is considered the best diagnostic tool
for suspected lesions below the vocal cords,11 14 20 but utility in
acute airway compromise is limited because it is a skilled tech-
Results nique and access to equipment may be limited. The severity of
Our systematic literature search yielded 578 articles (see Fig. 1). blunt airway trauma has been classified by Schaefer and
Two hundred and sixteen were excluded after title review. After Close21 (Table 2).
abstract review, a further 214 articles were excluded. A total of 148 Trauma to the upper and lower respiratory tract should be
full-text papers were reviewed, of which we included 35 in this re- managed on a patient-by-patient basis. Minor instances of blunt
view. Figure 1 details reasons for inclusion and exclusion. We airway trauma should be observed in the critical care unit, with re-
present our results categorized by mechanism of injury, as fol- assessment of the airway at regular intervals for at least 48 h. The
lows: blunt, penetrating, blast, and burns. management of major blunt airway trauma is governed by the de-
gree of patient cooperation and a risk–benefit analysis. The safest
approach to patients requiring intubation is to instrument the tra-
Blunt injury
chea under direct vision to avoid entering a tear, creating a false
Blunt airway trauma usually involves high-energy transfer; exam- passage, or disrupting the airway completely.1 It is preferable to
ples include assault, crush, fall from height, road traffic collision, do this with the patient awake and breathing spontaneously.
pedestrian vs vehicle, hanging, accidental strangulation, and the Following these principles, there are three judicious ap-
‘clothesline’ mechanism. Table 1 describes the various mechan- proaches to airway management . First, performing an awake
isms of injury in blunt trauma and their associated injuries. tracheostomy under local anaesthesia is a common intervention
Patients who suffer blunt injury develop complex airway of choice for LTT.18 However, this technique requires a high
injuries, often as part of severe multisystem trauma. Failure to degree of operator skill, may be difficult, and is limited by
intubate, secure, and protect the airway in these patients patient cooperation and teh time taken to assemble skilled
are common factors that lead to an increase in morbidity and assistance.16 22 23 It is important to note that surgical cricothyroi-
mortality.7–9 Blunt airway trauma includes maxillofacial trauma, dotomy and percutaneous cricothyroidotomy are contraindi-
laryngotracheal trauma (LTT), and disruption of the trachea and cated in these patients because they may lead to further airway
bronchi. The sternum, cervical spine, and mandible shield the disruption.11 18 24 This is not the case for tracheobronchial trau-
airway during trauma such that the incidence of blunt airway in- ma because the lesion is commonly more distal, with 76% of in-
jury is low (∼0.4%).7–9 Despite being a rare pathology, the impact can juries occurring within 2 cm of the carina, and 43% occurring
be significant, with mortality rates of traumatic lesions below the within the first 2 cm of the right main bronchus.25 26
 Anaesthetic management of non-iatrogenic acute adult airway trauma | i51

Literature search

Assessed for eligibility

(n=578)

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Title
• 82 Paediatric
• 12 Animal
• 84 Not airway trauma
• 38 Not airway management

Abstract
(n=362) • 63 Duplicate
• 92 Not airway trauma
• 39 Paediatric
• 8 Abstract unavailable

Full article review

(n=148)

Plus 68 papers • 108 No airway management described

extracted from • 5 Papers unobtainable
reference scouring
and additional

Papers include in the

review
(n=93)

Fig 1 Systemic review literature search flow chart.

Second, awake fibreoptic intubation is an alternative tech- or positive pressure ventilation because both may aggravate the
nique, which maintains spontaneous ventilation and allows injury).30 31 A small-diameter tracheal tube should be placed at
simultaneous airway assessment and placement of a tracheal the introitus of the larynx under direct vision, and then a fibre-
tube distal to any pericarinal defect.22 23 Care must be taken scope is passed through the tube and into the trachea. The tra-
when railroading the tracheal tube so that its bevel does not cheal tube can then be delivered past the lesion safely if the
catch on a tear, extending the injury.27 This can be avoided by bevel is orientated to face the lesion. Modified rapid sequence in-
using a lubricated small-diameter tube, fitting snuggly onto the duction and rigid bronchoscopy is an alternative choice, because
scope, and twisting the tube so that its bevel faces any lesion dur- airway inspection is simultaneous with intubation. This tech-
ing its advancement into the trachea. The use of the Lightwand in nique requires a high degree of operator skill and needs appropri-
blunt trauma has also been described.28 ately trained personnel but can deal effectively with distal
Third, conventional intubation is a rapid way of securing the tracheal or bronchial disruption.11 18 32 A summary of the asso-
airway but risks intubating a tear, creating a false passage, or dis- ciated problems and cautions in relation to the anatomical terri-
ruption of the larynx or trachea.21 29 Consequently, we recom- tory is presented in Table 3. The technique of choice depends
mend fibrescope-assisted direct or videolaryngoscopy as part of upon the patient’s condition, urgency, and the experience of
a modified rapid sequence induction (with no cricoid pressure the anaesthetist and surgeon.33
i52 | Mercer et al.

Table 1 The mechanisms of injury associated with blunt trauma to the airway7

Type of trauma Mechanisim of injury Airway injury

Road traffic collision Severe flexion/extension Tracheal tears

Fall Rapid deceleration Fractures of the larynx
Laryngotracheal separation
Hanging Direct blows Fractured thyroid or cricoid cartilages, or both
Accidental strangulation Layrngotrachael separation
‘Clothesline’ mechanism
Assault

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Crush Crush injuries to chest Tracheobronchial disruption
Pedestrian vs vehicle Sudden, explosive increase in intrathoracic pressure
against a relatively closed glottis
Rapid deceleration shears airways at fixed points: Transection at carina or cricotracheal junction
cricoid cartilage and carina
Pulmonary compression tears the airway at the level Carinal tear
of the carina

Table 2 Classification of the severity of blunt airway injury (adapted from Schaefer and Close)21

Minor endolaryngeal haemotoma, laceration, or both

Group 1
No detectable laryngeal fracture
Laryngeal oedema, haemotoma, or both
Group 2
Minor mucosal disruption, but no exposed cartilage
Group 3 Massive oedema, large mucosal lacerations, exposed cartilage, displaced fracture, vocal cord immobility
Group 4 As group 3 plus comminuted or unstable fracture

Penetrating and blast injury Wounds in the anterior and lateral aspects of the neck com-
promise the airway more often than those in the posterior re-
Penetrating injuries to the face and neck are uncommon in both
gion.11 20 25 40 42 The clinician should also consider the presence
civilian25 34 and military3 35 populations. However, the incidence
of blood and debris within the lumen of the airway, injury within
is increasing in military personnel because modern body armour
the airway wall itself, or injury outside the wall (e.g. expanding
does not protect the face and neck.26 34 36–38 Airway wounds can
haematoma or surgical emphysema). If possible, computed tom-
cause immediate life-threatening compromise34 because of the
ography is the first-line investigation in stable patients with
density of vital structures within the neck.1 2 39 40 Indeed, on ex-
penetrating neck injuries21 35 56 in order to identify the location
ploration, a clinically superficial stab wound may reveal a vascu-
of an airway injury.
lar or aerodigestive injury.3 4 32 Blast-induced injuries result from
As with blunt injuries, major penetrating and blast airway
direct or indirect exposure to an explosion and have high poten-
trauma management is governed by the degree of patient cooper-
tial for an associated upper airway injury,5 34 41 the most severe of
ation and a risk–benefit analysis. Potential difficulties to consider
which is complete disruption of the airway.1 35 42
are neck haematoma or subcutaneous emphysema around the
The causes of penetrating airway trauma are diverse and
airway that can distort anatomy and impair tracheostomy. Fi-
include assault or self-inflicted injuries with firearms or
breoptic intubation is difficult if blood or debris is present within
knives.36–38 40 Facial wounds are usually the result of gun-
the airway. Regardless, awake fibreoptic intubation in skilled
shot2 7 9 38 39 43–45 or blast injuries.4 10 46–53 Objects or projectiles can
hands has proved effective.1 18 39 41 43–45 54 57
transfix the mouth and limit mouth opening.11–15 25 34 40–45 54 55
The literature suggests that the safest approach to patients re-
Patients may also present with neck lacerations and open
quiring intubation is to instrument the trachea under direct vi-
wounds to the airway.2 16 38 40 Gunshot and blast injuries result
sion in order to avoid entering a tear, creating a false passage,
in penetrating neck trauma,25 46–53 so the clinician must always
or disrupting the airway completely.5 16 22 23 50 58 It is preferable
consider the likely trajectory of projectiles or fragments and
to do this with the patient awake and breathing spontaneously.
their potential airway effects. The location of great vessels in
Similar to blunt trauma, awake tracheostomy is the intervention
the neck adjacent to the airway means that haemorrhage can im-
of choice,5 11 18 22 23 25 26 35 38 40 42 59–64 and surgical or percutan-
pact airway patency,14 15 54 56 with high mortality.16 18 34 43 44 45 54
eous cricothyroidotomy are contraindicated.27 59 It is important
When assessing these patients, an effective approach is to div-
to consider thoracotomy if a patient presents with chest trauma,
ide the structures of the head and neck into three zones.13 39 55
and low tracheal or bronchial transection standard tracheostomy
Zone 1 is from the clavicles to the cricoid cartilage, zone 2 from
in this situation will result in malposition distal to the defect.
the cricoid cartilage to the angle of the mandible, and zone 3
Awake fibreoptic intubation is an alternative option to permit
from the angle of the mandible to the base of the skull. Zone ana-
simultaneous airway assessment and placement of a tracheal
lysis predicts potential injuries and the need for urgent airway
tube distal to any laceration.21 29 41 45 57 65 66 As emphasized al-
management solutions.5 19 25 Blood loss and upper airway obstruc-
ready, great care must be taken when railroading the tracheal
tion are the major determinants of injury severity.14 38 40
tube so that its bevel does not extend a laceration. A modified
 Anaesthetic management of non-iatrogenic acute adult airway trauma | i53

Table 3 A summary of the the associated problems and cautions in relation to the anatomical territory in blunt injury. LTT, laryngotracheal
trauma

Anatomical Associated problems Caution: red flag signs and symptoms

territory

Maxillofacial Traumatic brain injury and Signs of elevated intracranial presssure

base of skull fracture Neurological deficit
Cervical spine fracture Neurogenic shock
Ophthalmic injury Significant bleeding from fracture displacement
Vascular injury Bilateral anterior mandible fractures

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Aspiration of blood and debris and airway obstruction
Ventilatory failure
Laryngotracheal Cervical fracture Haemoptysis and stridor have previously been
Vascular injury reported as cardinal features of severe LTT
Oesophageal injury Massive surgical emphysema
Rib fractures and flail segment Ventilatory failure
Pneumothorax Cardiovascular collapse
Haemothorax
Pneumomediastinum
Pulmonary contusion
Trachea and Vascular injury Haemoptysis
bronchi Oesophageal injury Massive surgical emphysema
Rib fractures and flail segment Ventilatory failure
Pneumothorax Cardiovascular collapse
Haemothorax
Pneumomediastinum
Pulmonary contusion

rapid sequence induction and fibreoptic-assisted direct or video- because the oropharynx and nasopharynx act as an efficient
laryngoscopy may be undertaken if a general anaesthetic must be heat sink.26 34 36–38 66 74 Smoke inhalation delivers a pathological
administered immediately. However, the clinician should avoid insult to the lungs as a result of the particulates, respiratory irri-
neuromuscular blocking agents (muscle tone may be important tants, and systemic toxins that it contains.34 75 In this context, it
for airway integrity in airway transection)30 50 58 67 and be cogni- is necessary to look for and treat carbon monoxide76 and cyanide
zant that conventional intubation risks intubating a tear.5 31 68 poisoning.77
We suggest that this may be mediated by fibrescope-assisted Inhalation injury is a greater contributor to overall morbidity
direct or videolaryngoscopy as part of a modified rapid sequence and mortality than either body surface area percentage or age57 67
induction (with no cricoid pressure or positive pressure ventila- and is present in 60% of central facial burns.61 68 Burns patients
tion). A tracheal tube should be placed above the vocal cords without smoke inhalation have a mortality of 2%, compared
under direct vision and then a fibrescope passed through the with a mortality of 30% with this type of injury.78
tube and into the trachea. The tracheal tube can then be delivered Patients who present acutely with facial and neck burns have
safely as described above. Large neck wounds can be intubated two predominant airway issues: airway obstruction and smoke
directly over a fibrescope in this manner. Combined usage of an inhalation. These risks prompt the early intubation of high-risk
Airway Scope and gum elastic bougie for emergency airway man- patients,75 79 80 because the rate of difficult intubation increases
agement in a patient with a neck stab wound has also been from 11.2 to 16.9% if delayed (owing to the development of airway
described,69 as has the use of the AirTraq in traumatic asphyxi- oedema).61 62 71 81 However, intubation is not without risk, and
ation,70 and the use of the Lightwand.28 A summary of the asso- the clinician should carefully evaluate individual patients.72–74 82
ciated problems and cautions in relation to the anatomical Nasendoscopy is an important tool to diagnose the extent and
territory for non-iatrogenic injury to the airway caused by pene- severity of an airway burn, and serial nasendoscopy of vocal fold
trating injury is presented in Table 4. oedema has been used to predict the need for intubation in pa-
tients at risk.66 74 Fibreoptic bronchoscopy supports the diagnosis
of smoke inhalation and may reveal carbonaceous debris, ery-
Burns
thema, or ulceration.
Burns to the upper airway caused by direct heat and steam injury, Intubation is mandated in instances of heat and smoke inhal-
electrocution, or contact with corrosive chemicals can lead to ation injury combined with facial, neck, or extensive body burns.
marked swelling of the face, tongue, epiglottis, and glottis and re- In contrast, physiologically stable patients with smoke inhalation
sult in airway obstruction.11 18 25 32 34 60–64 71 Airway swelling may injury but no facial or neck burns may be monitored by nasal en-
not occur immediately but may develop over a period of doscopy and intubated later.57 In addition to airway oedema,
hours (exacerbated by fluid resuscitation). Therefore, a high other causes of difficulty include limited mouth opening and
index of suspicion and frequent re-evaluation of the airway are intractable trismus in electrical burns.61 Mask ventilation may
essential.3 35 65 72–74 Thermal injury is primarily restricted to also be challenging because of the presence of dressings and exu-
structures above the vocal cords, unless steam is inhaled, dates,42 78 and the application of nasal oxygen should be
i54 | Mercer et al.

Table 4 A summary of the the associated problems and cautions in relation to the anatomical territory for non-iatrogenic injury to the
airway caused by penetrating injury

Anatomical Associated problems Caution: red flag signs and

territory symptoms

Zone 3 Cranial nerve injury Oesophageal injury Neurological deficit

Vascular injury (to branches of the Neurogenic shock
external carotid artery, internal carotid artery, Odynophagia
vertebral artery, and internal jugular and facial Haematemesis
veins) Air bubbling from wound

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Zone 2 Oesophageal injury Massive surgical emphysema
Vascular injury Expanding or pulsatile haematoma
(to common carotid, carotid bifurcation, vertebral Active bleeding
arteries, and jugular veins) Cardiovascular collapse
Zone 1 Oesophageal injury Haemoptysis
Vascular injury (to subclavian and
innominate vessels, common carotid and lower
vertebral arteries, and jugular veins)

considered. This can significantly boost the effective inspired positive pressure ventilation either via a face mask or a supra-
oxygen and can be left on during tracheal intubation attempts. glottic airway device, and surgical cricothyroidotomy are all
The application of additional nasal oxygen during intubation contraindicated.
has been termed NO DESAT).83 Consequently, if the primary intubation plan fails, there is
For an anticipated difficult airway, clinical examination and na- only one rescue plan to avoid making the situation worse, name-
sendoscopy will provide vital information; however, this does de- ly surgical tracheostomy. The management of burns patients
pend on the degree of patient cooperation and the severity of the is broadly similar but with the caveat that the Difficult Airway
injury. Minor injuries can be managed conservatively in a moni- Society 2015 guidelines6 apply throughout because the clinician
tored (high-dependency unit) setting. For major burns requiring is not faced with the problem of an airway laceration or
immediate treatment, for cooperative patients awake fibreoptic in- transection.
tubation should be considered if the preoperative evaluation re- Ultimately, when considering all these types of airway trau-
veals concern for upper airway patency or difficult mask mas, the clinician is faced with a time-management issue, with
ventilation.79 For severe injuries or non-compliant patients, a pri- a patient being classified into one of three groups: no time,
mary surgical airway is mandated.61 62 81 Tracheostomy may also some time, or adequate time for airway assessment, investiga-
be indicated if a laryngeal injury is suspected.82 84 In uncooperative tion, and intervention. If the patient is in extremis and there is
patients or those with less severe pathology on clinical examin- no time for assessment, the anaesthetist must manage the pa-
ation and nasendoscopy, rapid sequence induction followed by vi- tient urgently while planning for the worst-case scenario; a
deolaryngoscopy is appropriate. One article described the use of false passage in blunt, penetrating, and blast trauma, for ex-
the Combitube in the airway management of burns patients.85 ample. If the airway appears stable then there is adequate time
After intubation, the tube should be secured carefully because for assessment, planning, and intervention in optimal condi-
accidental extubation may have fatal consequences.86 Fixation tions. Most patients are somewhere between these two extremes,
methods include wiring the tube to a tooth and the use of such that informed decision making is crucial for the anaesthe-
archbars. The tracheal tube should be left uncut because facial tist because the situation can be worsened or stabilized by their
swelling can cause it to retreat into the oropharynx, requiring subsequent actions. For example, allowing a patient to assume
re-intubation at the worst possible time. A summary of the their most comfortable position, be that sitting, lateral, or
associated problems and cautions in relation to the anatomical prone, may ‘buy enough time’ to undertake nasal endoscopy or
territory for non-iatrogenic injury to the airway caused by burn computed tomography.4 Objects that impale the patient should
injuries is presented in Table 5. be trimmed carefully so they do not impede subsequent airway
interventions.42 87 Finally, location is very important; it could be
safer to transfer the patient to theatre to secure the airway, espe-
Conclusion cially if a tracheostomy is required, because there is more space,
Our systematic review of the literature on acute adult non-iatro- better lighting, and staff more familiar with the intervention.
genic airway trauma has highlighted common themes that Human factors are key to the management of a complex
should guide the clinician. The hallmark of airway management anticipated airway problem.88 89 The recently revised Difficult
in these patients is the maintenance of spontaneous ventilation Airway Society Guidelines for the management of an unantici-
if at all possible, intubation under direct vision to avoid the cre- pated difficult airway6 devote a significant section to these. Lead-
ation of a false passage, and the avoidance of both intermittent ership, followership, teamwork, and situational awareness and
positive pressure ventilation and cricoid pressure during a rapid communication amongst the team are all vital to ensure that
sequence induction. This situation is distinct from the manage- the airway is safely secured. A trauma team will often have
ment of an unanticipated difficult airway. Here, adherence to the 10–15 min to prepare to receive a patient once they have been ac-
Difficult Airway Society 2015 guidelines6 could even worsen the tivated.84 During this period, the anaesthetist should consider
situation in this patient population because cricoid pressure, the likelihood of airway trauma and the possible investigations
 Anaesthetic management of non-iatrogenic acute adult airway trauma | i55

Table 5 A summary of the the associated problems and cautions in relation to the anatomical territory for non-iatrogenic injury to the
airway caused by burn injuries

Anatomical territory Associated problems Caution: red flag signs and symptoms

Face, tongue, and Pulmonary oedema Evidence of thermal or chemical

oropharynx Cardiovascular injury to face, lips, mouth, pharynx,
dysfunction or nasal mucosa
Carbon monoxide and Inflammation, blistering,
cyanide poisoning oedema, and mucosal lesions
Hair singeing

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Soot in mouth
Larynx Stridor
Hoarseness
Trachea, bronchi, and Carbonaceous sputum
distal airways Dyspnoea
Hypoxaemia
Increased concentrations of
carbon monoxide and cyanide may
not cause cyanosis
Ensure primary survey completed to assess for
Decreased level of
other traumatic injuries
consciousness, confusion, or signs
Avoid task fixation with burns
of cerebellar dysfunction
Mortality increases significantly
with inhalation injury

Burns and maxillofacial trauma

(Blunt and penetrating)

Cooperative patient Uncooperative patient

Not time
critical Time critical Time critical

Perform diagnostic Awake tracheostomy under local Plan A:

imaging and formulate plan anaesthesia Standard RSI

Risk vs benefit analysis:

Transfer to theatre
Plan B:
Surgical cricothyroidotomy

Fig 2 An example of shared mental model maps for burns and maxilliofacial trauma. RSI, rapid sequence induction.

and airway interventions required. This includes consideration The majority of anaesthetists have limited exposure to com-
of what personnel and equipment are needed and specifically plex airway trauma and need to develop shared mental models
who will perform a tracheostomy or surgical cricothyroidotomy to optimize management techniques; examples of these are in-
if required. The UK Defence Medical Services have developed cluded in Figs 2 and 3. Our review presents contemporary evi-
the concept of a ‘command huddle’,90 where decisions are dence in management of airway trauma to inform clinical
made by a senior team about further management after the pri- practice. The clinician should also consolidate knowledge
mary survey. A conversation around airway management (if it through mechanisms such as high-fidelity simulation scen-
has not already taken place) should occur here, with a discussion arios91 and by attending workshops specifically for the manage-
around the airway technique of choice. ment of airway trauma.
i56 | Mercer et al.

Laryngotracheal trauma
(Blunt and penetrating)

Cooperative patient Uncooperative patient

Not time critical Time critical Time critical

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Perform Plan A:
diagnostic Perform
Awake Tracheostomy awake RSI
imaging and under local
formulate plan fibreoptic Fibreoptic scope assisted
anaesthesia. intubation direct laryngoscopy or
videolarygoscopy.
Fibreoptic scope to
Risk vs benefit identify distal lesion, Avoid cricoid pressure and
analysis Tracheal tube positive pressure ventilation
Transfer self advanced under until Tracheal tube cuff
ventilating to theatre. direct vision. inflated distal to lesion.

(Surgical and ( Tracheal tube placed at

percutaneous introitus of cords and
cricothyroidotomy are only advance
Perform awake
contraindicated) under direct vision via
fibreoptic
fibrescope)
intubation

Plan B:
Emergency tracheostomy
Fibreoptic scope to identify
distal lesion, Tracheal tube
advanced under direct vision.

Trachea and bronchi trauma

(Blunt and penetrating)

Cooperative patient Uncooperative patient

Not time critical Time critical Time critical

Perform diagnostic Perform awake

imaging and Plan A:
fibreoptic intubation
formulate plan RSI
Fibreoptic scope assisted direct laryngoscopy
or videolarygoscopy.

Risk vs benefit (Tracheal tube

analysis placed at introitus of cords and only
Transfer self ventilating advance under direct via fibrescope)
to theatre.

Plan B:
Emergency surgical cricothyroidoyomy or
Perform awake Tracheostomy
fibreoptic intubation Fibreoptic scope to identify distal lesion, Tracheal
tube advanced under direct vision.

(If a lesion is at the level of carina, or distal,

extending into a unilateral main bronchus -consider
using a double lumen tube or advancing a standard
uncut Tracheal tube into opposite bronchus and
perform one lung ventilation)

Fig 3 A shared mental model map for laryngotracheal trauma (blunt and penetrating). RSI, rapid sequence induction.
 Anaesthetic management of non-iatrogenic acute adult airway trauma | i57

Authors’ contributions Anaesthesia 2005. Available at: http://www.anzca.edu.au/

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Acquisition of data: S.J.M., P.G., M.B., C.P.J., E.C.
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Analysis of data: B.M., S.J.M., P.G., M.B., C.P.J., E.C.
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Interpretation of data: B.M., S.J.M., P.G., M.B., C.P.J., E.C.
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Drafting work for important intellectual content: B.M., S.J.M., P.G.,
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Declaration of interest
20. Shimizu J, Hirano Y, Ishida Y, Kinoshita T, Tatsuzawa Y,
B.M. has received an honorarium for a lecture by Grifols, Inc.; this Kawaura Y. Use of a silicone T-tube for management of a tra-
represents no conflict of interest for the submitted manuscript. cheal injury in a patient with cervical blunt trauma. Jpn J
S.J.M., C.P.J., M.B., E.C. and P.G. have no conflict of interest to declare. Thorac Cardiovasc 2003; 51: 541–4
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Handling editor: T. Asai