Social Internet of Vehicles For Smart Cities
Social Internet of Vehicles For Smart Cities
Social Internet of Vehicles For Smart Cities
Abstract: Digital devices are becoming increasingly ubiquitous and interconnected. Their evolution
to intelligent parts of a digital ecosystem creates novel applications with so far unresolved security
issues. A particular example is a vehicle. As vehicles evolve from simple means of transportation
to smart entities with new sensing and communication capabilities, they become active members of
a smart city. The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) consists of vehicles that communicate with each other
and with public networks through V2V (vehicle-to-vehicle), V2I (vehicle-to-infrastructure) and V2P
(vehicle-to-pedestrian) interactions, which enables both the collection and the real-time sharing of
critical information about the condition on the road network. The Social Internet of Things (SIoT)
introduces social relationships among objects, creating a social network where the participants are
not humans, but intelligent objects. In this article, we explore the concept of the Social Internet of
Vehicles (SIoV), a network that enables social interactions both among vehicles and among drivers.
We discuss technologies and components of the SIoV, possible applications and issues of security,
privacy and trust that are likely to arise.
1. Introduction
Smart cities are areas where innovation is supported through digital networks and
applications [1]. Smart cities are often called sustainable, digital or connected cities [2]. The goal
of converting a city into a smart environment is to alleviate the problems resulting from urbanization
and increased urban population. A smart city is an urban area that provides the conditions for
sustainable economic growth and quality of life. Smart solutions, like traffic congestion avoidance [3],
green buildings [4] and modern industrial control systems (ICS) [5], are some of the technologies that
can make today’s urbanization sustainable. A smart city involves the intelligent use of technology to
improve how people live, work, commute and share information [6]. A key aspect of a smart city is
next generation vehicles that incorporate new sensing, communication and social capabilities as part
of the wider Internet of Things concept. By providing mobile wireless sensing and communications,
vehicles can facilitate data access, which is fundamental to make smart cities a reality.
Wireless networks can be divided into three main categories. First, infrastructure wireless
networks rely on a central station that coordinates all communications [7]. Second, non-structured
networks or ad hoc networks give equal roles to all stations in the network [8,9]. Third, hybrid
networks combine the first two categories [10]. An example of hybrid networks is hybrid vehicular
ad hoc networks (hybrid-VANETs) [11], which use ad hoc networks for communication between
vehicles and infrastructure networks, such as wireless local area networks (WLANs) and cellular
systems for communication with a core network [12,13]. Smart vehicles, through their advanced
communication capabilities, will be able to interact not only with navigation and broadcast satellites,
but also with passenger smart phones, roadside units and other smart vehicles, making them an
important component of IoT and the development of smart cities [14]. VANETs combine these
with new applications and methods to enable the intelligent communication between vehicles and
the connection to the Internet. VANETs rely on roadside units (RSU) and on-board units (OBU)
to facilitate the connectivity and the intelligence of the smart vehicle. RSUs are communication
infrastructure units that are positioned next to roads to connect vehicles to a larger infrastructure
or to a core network, such as a metropolitan traffic management system. The OBU is a network
device integrated into smart vehicles that supports different wireless networks, such as dedicated
short-range communication (DSRC) and WLAN. A VANET has a diverse range of applications, from
road safety, through the detection and avoidance of traffic accidents [15], traffic control, through
reduction of traffic congestion [16], as well as infotainment, through the improvement of driving
comfort [17]. Recently, three of the biggest companies that provide digital content and operating
systems for mobile devices, Google, Apple and Microsoft, have announced their actions toward
taking over the in-car infotainment system with their operating systems dedicated to vehicles and
mobile devices (CarPlay, Android Auto and Windows Mobile) [18].
The Social Internet of Things (SIoT) [19] is a network of intelligent objects that have social
interactions. The Social Internet of Vehicles (SIoV) [20,21] is an example of a SIoT where the objects are
smart vehicles. The authors in [21] designed analytical models of the subsystems involved in the SIoV
interaction process and proposed models that could be useful in order to deploy Social Internet of
Vehicles (SIoV)-based safety, efficiency or comfort applications. Although the basic rules are the same
for both social networks of humans and social networks of vehicles, there are significant differences
in terms of the dynamic nature of the entities, their social interactions, the topology of the network,
privacy concerns and security issues that arise. In this article, we will present a comprehensive review
of the research and analysis of such systems.
Social Internet of Vehicles (SIoV) describes both the social interactions among vehicles [22]
and among drivers [23]. As described in [23], a vehicular social network is created when a driver
enters an area where other people with common interests or relevant content exist. Contrary to this,
Nitti et al. [22] describe a vehicular social network as social interactions among cars, which
communicate autonomously to look for services (automaker patches or updates) and exchange
information relevant to traffic. Given that vehicles are becoming more and more autonomous [24]
and that applications supporting social interactions among drivers and passengers are already being
developed [25,26] we strongly believe that SIoV will eventually be a network of both drivers,
passengers and cars. This new interconnection among entities on different levels (vehicles, drivers,
passengers) creates new capabilities, poses new challenges and exposes the network to new threats.
New applications that are based on the social concept of vehicular networking were recently
developed. For example, RoadSpeak [27] is a voice chatting system that allow commuters to
dynamically enter vehicular social networks on the fly and exchange messages. NaviTweet [26]
incorporates the driver’s preferences into the navigator’s route calculation using traffic voice tweets.
Caravan Track [25] is a similar application that allows drivers to share mobility data among a cluster
of cars. This application, supported by Ford, can be used to filter incoming information to suit
the needs and desires of the driver. Porsche also unveiled its new concept electric car that has
the ability to post updates to social media [28]. As we move to the era of the next generation of
vehicles, smart vehicles with sensing, communication and sociability capabilities, more applications
and technologies are going to be developed that will materialize the idea of SIoV.
This article provides an comprehensive survey of the Social Internet of Vehicles. We first review
components and technologies of the SIoV in Section 2. We then discuss context awareness in Section 3.
In Section 4, we present how social network analysis methods can be applied in SIoVs. Next, in
Section 5, we review security and trust issues related to SIoVs. Finally, we discuss current challenges
and open issues regarding driver privacy in Section 6.
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2016, 5, 3 3 of 22
2.1. Self-Driving
The aim of autonomous cars is to drive independently without human interaction and to
navigate the roads safely to reduce traffic accidents. According to a report by KPMG [33], the use
of autonomous vehicles could eliminate 90% of all vehicle accidents. The industry [34] defined six
accreditation levels of autonomous driving: At Level 0 (no automation), the driver has control of
all aspects of the driving, even if he or she is assisted by various intervention or warning systems.
At Level 1 (driver assistance), the vehicle will be fully controlled by the driver. This might include
specific warning applications, such as blind spot detection. Level 2 (partial automation) has a low
level of automation, including lane detection and an assisted braking system. Level 3 (conditional
automation) combines two functions for congested traffic, namely driving in a straight line and
automatic speed reduction. Level 4 (high automation) allows limited self-driving, which requires
the driver to maintain consistent observation of the roadway in selected environments, to cede
control when required. At Level 5 (full automation), the vehicle is capable of reaching the navigated
destination without human interaction.
Current mass-market technology offers features on accreditation Level 2 (partial automation).
For example, the 2014 Mercedes S-Class comes with options for auto-parking, clever steering, lane
keeping, automated acceleration/braking and fatigue monitoring [35]. In traffic jams, the 2014 BMW
i3 can accelerate autonomously and brake up to 30 miles per hour [36]. The 2015 Audi A7 provides
autonomous braking in traffic jams [37].
In the future, most technology companies and automobile manufacturers predict to offer features
on higher accreditation levels. For example, Tesla expects to build a vehicle that can drive 90% of
distances in fully-automated mode in 2016. In 2018, Google expects to provide fully-autonomous
vehicles on the market. In 2020, Mercedes-Benz, GM, Nissan, Volvo, BMW and Audi all expect to sell
fully-automated/self-driving vehicles.
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2016, 5, 3 4 of 22
3. Vehicle Context-Awareness
A key aspect in IoV is to enable vehicles to be context-aware, i.e., to be aware of the
circumstances that exist around the vehicle, especially those that are particularly relevant to it [52].
Context-aware systems are those that have the capability to adapt their behaviour to their current
contextual environment. Context-awareness in vehicles can be provided by three main subsystems:
sensing, reasoning and acting [53,54].
The sensing subsystem gathers contextual information from different sensors integrated with
the vehicle’s OBU. The type of these sensors differs according to the vehicle’s requirements, for
example location, infrared or ultrasound. In other terms, this phase represents the way context data
are collected.
The reasoning subsystem processes raw data to extract high-level contextual information, such
as the driver’s situation. Contextual information can be either extracted from a single sensor,
defining certain contextual information, or extracted from multiple sensors, defining uncertain
contextual information. Detecting driver’s fatigue levels is considered uncertain (high-level)
contextual information.
The acting subsystem represents the application enforcer, which provides services to users or
other drivers. Disseminating warning messages, in-vehicle alerts and smart assisted parking are
examples of high-level applications deployed to prevent accidents and reduce road congestion.
Several context-aware systems and frameworks for the SIoV have been proposed in the
literature. Hu et al. [55] presented s-frame, a framework for social vehicular networks formed by
in-vehicle or mobile equipment used by passengers, vulnerable road users and drivers that supports
high-level context-aware applications.
Alhammad et al. [54] designed a VANET on-street context-aware smart parking assisting
system, deploying the concept of the centralized InfoStation to locate and reserve a parking slot.
This reservation process is dictated by the driver’s preferences. All parking zones have a dedicated
InfoStation that acts as a terminal, providing wireless coverage over DSRC, as shown in Figure 1.
Wan et al. [29] presented a cloud-based context-aware dynamic parking service that provides
planning services for traffic authorities, a parking reservation service and context-aware optimization.
Their framework allows drivers to park their vehicle alongside the road for short periods, provided
this does not impede the traffic flow. To provide this service, the framework considers contextual
information, such as time (e.g., rush hours) and road conditions (e.g., the width of a road).
Traffic authorities can manage this service dynamically and effectively reduce parking problems in a
smart city.
Shu et al. [56] designed SocialDrive to allow drivers to disseminate real-time travel information
on social networks and to help them understand their own driving behaviour. SocialDrive provides
contextual data to drivers to reflect the ultimate driving style, which can reduce fuel consumption by
eliminating unwanted habits.
In mobile ad hoc networks, centrality metrics represent the significance of nodes at any time
instance. Daly et al. [67] show an effective use of social network and centrality analysis in mobile
networking. They derive a social routing algorithm from a combination of similarity and betweenness
centrality. When the exact location of the destination node is unknown, the algorithm forwards
messages to the nearest central node, thereby increasing the potential of selecting a suitable carrier of
the information towards the destination.
Aside from betweenness centrality, there are similar metrics that combine graph theory with
social characteristics. In degree centrality, central actors are the ones that have the most ties in the
network graph. Closeness centrality focuses on how close one actor is to the other. The idea is that
an actor is central if it can quickly interact with all others, and it is based on the geodesic distances
among nodes. Smart vehicles that are equipped with GPS and communication capabilities can make
use of closeness centrality to dynamically identify the central nodes that can be good candidates for
forwarding important messages [68].
Maglaras et al. [69] proposed to rank vehicles based on the road segments that they are going
to follow. They start by ranking each road segment according to how many vehicles that enter the
network are going to traverse it, based on their historic data. For vehicles with no previous historic
data, the shortest path in terms of distance is assumed as the preferred path. Then, each vehicle
is assigned a unique ranking based on the accumulated ranking of the roads that it is going to
traverse. This metric represents the significance of the node in terms of dissemination capabilities,
and it ranks the importance of a node based on dynamic features, e.g., the traffic of road segments
and the route of the vehicle. Following a similar approach, Bradai and Ahmed [70] rank vehicles
based on the relative location to their neighbours and their potential of reaching other vehicles.
Based on these characteristics and inspired by SNA, they propose a new centrality metric, called
dissemination capacity. The proposed ReViVprotocol adds a rebroadcaster selection module to the
existing IEEE DSRC and thereby reduces the reported delay, so that real-time streaming applications
become feasible.
The role of central nodes can be played by roadside units (RSUs), which are computing devices
located on the roadside that provide connectivity support to passing vehicles. RSUs can be of
different kinds, for example cellular base stations or wireless access points, and can provide various
kinds of communication capabilities to approaching vehicles. The optimal placement of RSUs is
similar to determining the central nodes in a VANET, and it has been widely investigated both
for urban [71] and highway [72] environments. Rongxing et al. [73] propose a novel Social-based
PRivacy-preserving packet forwardING(SPRING) protocol for vehicular networks. In SPRING, the
optimal locations where the RSUs must be deployed are intersections where many social interactions
happen. The RSUs are used as relay nodes to assist cars in packet forwarding. Similar to this work,
Huang et al. [74] investigate the RSU optimal placement problem, taking into account location privacy
parameters. The authors in [75] present a density-based approach for roadside unit deployment in
urban scenarios, where RSUs are placed according to the inverse proportion of vehicles densities, in
order to reassure seamless connectivity to the Internet.
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2016, 5, 3 8 of 22
protocol that reduces network overload, message duplication and packet collisions by allowing
vehicles to selectively transmit messages.
When moving on the social aspect of vehicular communications, new parameters, like the
frequency of interactions between entities, historical data of driver behaviour and driver habits, must
be taken into account. As drivers tend to follow similar routes when moving in a city or on a highway,
past mobility information can be used to build distinct social profiles of the drivers. These social
profiles can become a basic characteristic to create social groups of vehicles and drivers. In [84], the
nodes are divided into different groups based on the regularity of contact between vehicles with
fixed routes. Using the social behaviour of vehicles as a basic parameter in the clustering formation
procedure, the method presented in [85] manages to increase cluster stability. The social behaviour
of drivers is derived from historical data that are collected from RSUs, which are deployed at critical
points of the road network. To implement the proposed clustering method, the path that vehicles
are likely to follow is added to every beacon message. Both methods use the routes that the vehicles
follow or tend to follow as an additional parameter to form stable clusters.
A special category of clusters is platoons. Platooning describes the automated coupling of
vehicles by electronic means, with the first vehicle taking control [86]. The lead vehicle decides the
speed with which the platoon will move, while the remaining vehicles regulate their speed to follow
automatically. The advantages of this scheme are higher security and improved use of resources.
Large transport vehicles naturally have a high air resistance, which can be reduced through slipstream
effects within a platoon. This saves fuel and helps to make better use of road space [87]. A platoon
can consist of an arbitrary number of vehicles, and as vehicles become members of the platoon, they
can also form a social network on the fly [88]. After the creation of the platoon, the leading vehicles
can serve as the clusterhead and take over most of the communications between the platoon and the
outer network (see Figure 4).
5.1.3. Malware
Malware, such as viruses or worms, is usually introduced through outside unit software and
firmware updates. Malware can infect vehicles and even allow remote adversaries to take control of
individual vehicles. Remote access Trojans, paired with the advanced communication facilities that
VANETs bring to the SIoV, can gain control of the internal CAN bus and disrupt essential services.
Remote attacks of this form have been widely demonstrated and have shown in dummy tests to risk
the safety of drivers and passengers [94]. Other research on malware targeting vehicles has shown
that the spread of malware can be achieved through vulnerabilities in the computers used to maintain
and diagnose vehicles during servicing. This has wider implications than just the infection of a single
vehicle, because the spread of malicious software is taking place through a trusted service platform,
potentially affecting an entire product line. As this is already possible with today’s technologies, the
potential for malware to spread through the SIoV is even higher, for example when a vehicle’s social
component receives software or firmware updates from another unknown vehicle.
Existing work proposed the person authentication system [95] to ensure only the authorized
user can use the vehicle. Zhang proposed a cloud-assisted vehicle malware defence framework
to address the malware challenges [96]. A key challenge is the maintenance of up-to-date patches
and signature files. While cloud-assisted frameworks can centralize some of these efforts and make
the problem more manageable, the roll-out of automated patch management in a large-scale SIoV
is a formidable challenge, given the heterogeneous nature of current vehicles. Other considerations
are that the sophistication of advanced persistent threats (APT) is beyond what manufacturers and
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2016, 5, 3 11 of 22
infrastructure providers are prepared to or can afford to defend against. This means that the defence
of individual vehicles will be left to individuals, which based on experience with currently-available
ICT infrastructures, is open to a wide array of threats, including masquerading and social engineering
attacks on the members of the SIoV.
Uncertainty
Trust in the SIoV is uncertain and dynamic. Because the SIoV is inherently dynamic, information
can change rapidly, and trust may only be valid for a short period of time. When establishing trust,
the SIoV needs to take into account three uncertainties caused by the SIoV’s dynamic nature: the
uncertainty of an entity’s identity, the uncertainty of an interaction entity’s behaviour (intentional
or unintentional) and the uncertainty in observations. Existing work in social networks addressed
this issue by expressing trust using a continuous variable instead of a discrete-valued variable, as the
former can better capture the dynamic feature of the context [105].
Subjectivity
Trust in the SIoV is subjective. Our level of trust depends on how our own actions are affected by
the context [106]. Trust decision-making thus exhibits a level of subjective probability that is difficult
to predict and monitor. We face an inherent risk in vehicular networks when we make trust decisions
within the SIoV. Existing work in social trust addressed this issue by proposing recommendation
systems. For example, Yang proposed a recommendation system for online social networks based on
Bayesian inference [107]. Users can share content ratings with their friends, allowing them to make
informed decisions. This provides an opportunity to choose the option with the smallest level of
perceived risk.
Intransitivity
Trust in the SIoV is not always transitive. Trust is transitive when it can be extended outside the
scope of the two entities who established it [108]. However, this is not always the case. If A trusts B
and B trusts C, this does not necessarily mean that A trusts C. Trust transitivity depends on the extent
to which you trust the trustee and the trustee’s recommendations. As with subjectivity, research in
social networks has developed recommendation systems to make trust-based recommendations by
allowing users to share trust ratings with peers.
Context Dependence
Trust in the SIoV is context-dependent. For example, A may trust B as a physician to perform
medical checks (in the context of a medical situation), while A would not trust B to perform surgery
(in the context of an accident). Similarly, different types of trust need to be established in an SIoV,
depending on the given context. In social networks, Jøsang’s subjective logic [109] has been widely
used to model trust networks. Cerutti uses subjective logic in a decision-making approach that
considers the notion of confidence. The approach determines weights associated with trust ratings
and outputs a trust degree that depends on the current interaction context [110].
Non-Cooperativeness
Trust in the SIoV is not always cooperative. Trust decisions are usually made cooperatively
between different entities. However, not all entities in an SIoV are cooperative. Entities may refuse to
cooperate for selfish or malicious reasons. Existing work in social networks aims to separate selfish
entities once they are detected and encourages altruistic behaviours with incentive mechanisms.
Cho [111] researched the trade-off between selfish and altruistic behaviours in terms of a node’s
individual welfare, for example saving energy, and global welfare, for example achieving a goal with
adequate service availability.
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2016, 5, 3 13 of 22
by strong authentication of message senders, the vehicular network cannot provide privacy at the
same time.
Therefore, privacy-preserving solutions for vehicular networks often rely on pseudonyms.
A pseudonym takes the place of a vehicle identifier, and it should not be possible to link pseudonyms
to the real identifier. Because it can be desirable to allow authorities to find the real origin
of a message, for example when misbehaviour has been detected, cryptographic schemes have
been designed to provide privacy against ordinary participants, but allow authorities to revoke
privacy [118]. To protect against tracking attacks, pseudonyms need to be exchanged frequently, and
it is important to ensure that successive pseudonyms cannot be linked to each other [119]. Methods to
achieve this unlinkability of pseudonyms include mix zones [120] and silent periods [121]. Recently,
a new method that guarantees anonymity while at the same time spotting and revoking malicious
users of a VANET is introduced [122].
issues associated with cloud computing apply, for example data privacy both towards the cloud
provider and the provider’s other customers [134]. Second, the privacy protection proposed in their
architecture consists of tagging all messages with a privacy value (public, private and protected).
This policy-based protection depends on whether the recipient of a message honours the transmitted
privacy value and is ineffective against most adversaries. Third and most importantly, it does not
include technical privacy protections, such as cryptographic means.
Future privacy-enhancing technologies for SIoVs should be based on proven privacy-enhancing
technologies for social networks and vehicular networks. New privacy-enhancing technologies
and those resulting from combinations of existing technologies need to be evaluated thoroughly to
make sure that they provide an adequate amount of privacy. Because the SIoV is a combination
of social and vehicular networks, evaluations need to use a selection of privacy metrics from both
domains [135,136].
7. Conclusions
In this article, we surveyed the key concepts of the Social Internet of Vehicles (SIoV), a new type
of network that enables social interactions between vehicles, drivers and passengers in the Internet
of Vehicles. More specifically, we reviewed enabling technologies and key components of the SIoV
and presented context-aware SIoV applications that can be deployed in a smart city. Three main
components were introduced that include next-generation vehicles, vehicle context-awareness and
SIoV context-awareness applications. Context-aware systems allow vehicles to adapt their behaviour
as per the contextual information gathered from different subsystems, such as sensing, reasoning
and acting. Several context-aware frameworks are available that support high-level context-aware
applications design. Future work should enhance the context-aware systems by adapting existing
frameworks and incorporating context-aware applications from different vendors.
We also identified the types of interactions that can happen between vehicles, drivers and
passengers and discussed how social network analysis methods can be used to improve the operation
of an SIoV. Using historical data of drivers, vehicles that are moving in a road network can be ranked
in terms of their social behaviour. Ranking of vehicles can be used in order to perform efficient
message dissemination by selecting the nodes that follow populated roads, so as to alleviate the
broadcast storm problem. In order to cope with the interference caused by flooding of messages,
clustering of vehicles can also be used, where the social characteristics of the drivers can help in
the creation of more stable and robust clustering formations. Combined communication capabilities
along with social behaviour of the vehicles can facilitate eco-routing and dynamic charging of electric
vehicles. Established social metrics, like degree or betweenness centrality, finally, can be modified in
order to cope with the dynamic environment of a vehicular network and provide efficient tools for
facilitating the communication among the nodes. Future work should focus on the development of
new social metrics that can be dynamic and also able to rank in an efficient manner different entities
that co-exist in an SIoV; smart vehicles, passengers, road users and drivers.
Finally, we discussed the issues of security, trust and privacy that SIoVs faces and highlighted
how existing security solutions can be applied to these highly dynamic networks. Current security
solutions place an imbalanced focus on technical aspects over social aspects. However, with the
integration of smart devices and vehicles, the human aspect has become vital. Future research
should address the social perspective of security and the interaction between human agents and
technical solutions. Trust has been well studied in social networks, but less work can be found in
the SIoV. Trust in the SIoV has demonstrated five different characteristics, which are uncertainty,
subjectivity, intransitivity, context dependency and non-cooperativeness. Future work should focus
on the adaption of the trust decision frameworks, models and systems in social networks, addressing
the trust characteristics of the SIoV. Future privacy-enhancing technology in SIoV should be based on
existing work for both social networks and vehicular networks. Privacy metrics from both domains
need to be considered in order to thoroughly evaluate the upcoming SIoV privacy technologies.
J. Sens. Actuator Netw. 2016, 5, 3 16 of 22
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