Parallel-Axis Theorem

l  In the previous examples, the axis

of rotation coincided with the axis
of symmetry of the object
l  For an arbitrary axis, the parallel-
axis theorem often simplifies
calculations
l  The theorem states I = ICM + MD 2
l  I is about any axis parallel to
the axis through the centre of
mass of the object
l  ICM is about the axis through
the centre of mass
l  D is the distance from the
centre of mass axis to the
arbitrary axis
 The element dm is distance
r = (x2 + y2)½ from the axis

∴I = ∫r2dm = ∫(x2 + y2)dm

Express the equation above in

terms of the CoM coordinates:

⇒I =∫[(x’ + xcm)2 +(y’ + ycm)2]dm

=∫[(x’)2 + 2x’xcm + (xcm)2 +
[(y’)2 + 2y’ycm + (ycm)2]dm

=∫[(x’)2 + (y’)2]dm + 2xcm ∫x’dm +

2ycm∫y’dm + (xcm2 + ycm2)∫dm
= 0 because the M
coordinates are
D2
relative to the CoM

Moment of inertia
relative to the CoM
 I =∫[(x’)2 + (y’)2]dm + 2xcm ∫x’dm + 2ycm∫y’dm + (xcm2 + ycm2)∫dm

Question: Why are these 2 integrals zero?

Answer: We are integrating x’ and y’ and

x’ and y’ are measured from the CM.

Consider one of the integrals, e.g. y’.

The contribution to the quantity inside the integral
from distances with y’>0 will be exactly balanced by
distances with y’<0.
In other words, the integral sums to zero.
It’s the same for x’.
Moment of Inertia for a Rod
Rotating Around One End
l  The moment of inertia
of the rod about its
centre is
1
ICM = ML2
12
l  D is ½ L
l  Therefore,
I = ICM + MD2
2
1 ⎛L⎞ 1
I= ML2 + M ⎜ ⎟ = ML2
12 ⎝2⎠ 3
Torque
l  Torque, τ, is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about
some axis
l  Torque is a vector, but we will deal with its magnitude first

l  τ = r F sin φ = F d

l  F is the force

l  φ is the angle the force makes with the horizontal

l  d is the moment arm (or lever arm) of the force

l  The moment arm, d, is the

perpendicular distance
from the axis of rotation to
a line drawn along the
direction of the force
l  d = r sin Φ
l  The horizontal component of the force (F cos φ) has no
tendency to produce a rotation
l  Torque will have direction
l  If the turning tendency of the force is counterclockwise,
the torque will be positive
l  If the turning tendency is clockwise, the torque will be
negative

Net Torque
!
l  The force F1 will tend to cause
a counterclockwise rotation
about O !
l  The force F2 will tend to
cause a clockwise rotation
about O
l  Στ = τ1 + τ2 = F1d1 – F2d2
Torque vs. Force
l  Forces can cause a change in translational motion
l  Described by Newton’s Second Law
l  Forces can cause a change in rotational motion
l  The effectiveness of this change depends on the force
and the moment arm
l  The change in rotational motion depends on the torque

l  The SI units of torque are N.m

l  Although torque is a force multiplied by a
distance, it is very different from work and
energy
l  The units for torque are reported in N.m and
not changed to Joules
Torque as a vector
We saw before that torque is defined as the product of
the applied force and the distance from point of
application to point of rotation. Force and distance are
both vectors. Hence, we need a new way of combining
vectors, the cross-product or vector product:
! ! !
A × B = C = ABsin θ nˆ
! !
So the magnitude is A × B = ABsin θ
! !
θ is the angle between A and B
€
The direction of€the resultant vector
is given by the right hand rule
θ
To get the direction of the cross-product:
!
1.  Using right hand, point!fingers in direction of A
2.  Curl fingers towards B !
3.  Thumb now points along C ! !
B !
B C
Notes:
i)  Order of cross-product
€ !
A
!
€ € € A
is important! ! !
€
! !
€ ! A ×B B×A
C
ii) If vectors are parallel,
€ €
cross-product is zero
€ € €
iii) If vectors are at right-angles,
cross-product is maximum
Torque and Angular
Acceleration
l  Consider a particle of
mass m rotating in a
circle of radius r under
the influence of !
tangential force Ft
l  The tangential force
provides a tangential
acceleration:
l  Ft = mat !
l  The radial force, Fr
causes the particle to
move in a circular path
l  The magnitude!of the torque
produced by∑Ft around the
center of the circle is
l  Στ = ΣFt r = (mat) r
l  The tangential acceleration is
related to the angular
acceleration
l  Στ = (mat)r = (mrα)r = (mr 2)α

l  Since mr 2 is the moment of

inertia of the particle,
l  Στ = Iα
l  The torque is directly
proportional to the angular
acceleration and the constant of
proportionality is the moment of
inertia
l  Consider the object
consists of an infinite
number of mass elements
dm of infinitesimal size
l  Each mass element
rotates in a circle about the
origin, O
l  Each mass element has a
tangential acceleration

l  From Newton’s Second Law

l  dFt = (dm) at
l  The torque associated with the force and using the
angular acceleration gives
l  dτ = r dFt = at r dm = α r 2 dm
l  Finding the net torque
2 2
l  ∑ τ = ∫ α r dm = α ∫ dm
r
l  This becomes Στ = Ια
Falling Smokestack Example
l  When a tall smokestack
falls over, it often breaks
somewhere along its length
before it hits the ground
l  Each higher portion of the
smokestack has a larger
tangential acceleration than
the points below it
l  The shear force due to the
tangential acceleration is
greater than the
smokestack can withstand
l  The smokestack breaks
Torque and Angular Acceleration, Wheel Example
Calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel,
the linear acceleration of the object and the
tension in the cord.
Torque on wheel is TR, i.e. Στ = Iα =TR
α =TR/I
Mass moving in straight line so apply Newton’s 2nd,
ΣF= mg - T = ma ⇒ a = (mg – T)/m
Three unknowns (α, a & T) but only two
equations – need one more
Object and wheel connected by cord which does
not slip, so linear acceleration is same as tangential
a = R α = TR2/I = (mg – T)/m
⇒T = mg/[1 + (mR2/I)]
⇒a = g/[1 + (I/mR2)]

⇒ α = a/R = g/[R + (I/mR)]

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
l  Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force
that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the squared distance between them (“inverse square
law”):
m1m2
Fg = G
r2
l  G is the universal gravitational constant and equals
6.673 x 10-11 N m2 / kg2

l  Current We have no theoretical explanation for its value!

l  Gravity is 1032 times weaker than the electromagnetic force!

ΔG
l  Current known precision on the relative uncertainty is ≈ 10 −6
(Rosi et al, Nature 510, 518–521 (2014) ) G
! m1m2
l  In vector form F12 = −G 2 r̂12
r
More About Forces
! !
l  F12 = −F21
l  The forces form a Newton’s
Third Law action-reaction
pair
l  Gravitation is a field force
that always exists between
two particles, regardless of
the medium between them
F12 is the force exerted by particle 1
l  The force decreases rapidly on particle 2
as distance increases (due The negative sign in the vector form
to the inverse square law) of the equation indicates that particle
2 is attracted toward particle 1
F21 is the force exerted by particle 2
on particle 1
Gravitational Force Due to a
Distribution of Mass
l  The gravitational force exerted by a finite-size,
spherically symmetric mass distribution on a particle
outside the distribution is the same as if the entire mass
of the distribution were concentrated at the center
l  In other words – on or above the Earth’s surface, all
of its mass appears to emanate from a point at its
centre (last part also true inside spherical
distribution)
The force exerted by the Earth on a particle of mass m near
the surface of the Earth is
ME m
Fg = G 2
RE
 … negated by
matter above
here, pulling in
opposite direction
(Birkoff’s theorem,
in General Relativity)

If you are here, the gravitation attraction

due to matter “above” is …