Lecture 15C.

5: Chimneys
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:

To outline the specific characteristics of wind loading of chimneys; to give current

PREREQUISITES:

Lectures 8: Plates and Shells

RELATED LECTURES:

Lecture 15C.1: Design of Tanks for the Storage of Oil and Water

Lecture 15C.2: Structural Design of Bins

SUMMARY:

The types of steel chimney and their associated equipment, e.g. liner, are
described.

The specific aspects required in the calculation of actions are introduced, in

Force calculations and the design of the structural shell are discussed. Specific
items of design covered include buckling of cylindrical unstiffened shells, buckling
of cylindrical stiffened shells, openings in cylindrical shells, and fatigue.

Fabrication and erection tolerances are introduced.

1. INTRODUCTION
More and more chimneys are required to carry vertically and discharge to the
atmosphere gaseous products of combustion, chemical waste gases, exhaust air,
etc.

There are several types of steel chimneys

 self-supporting chimney
 guyed chimney
 stayed chimney (on a supporting column)
 bracketed chimney (on a nearby building).
This lecture covers only self-supporting chimneys. The principles of calculation
which are given here would have to be modified for application to other types of
chimney.

There are also several types of self-supporting chimney

 bare steel shell

In double-skin or multi-flue chimneys, it is recommended that the liners are

The mechanical properties and the chemical composition of structural steels should
comply with the European Standard EN 10025 [1].

For high temperatures, the yield stress and the Young's modulus of steel are
modified as shown in Section 2.5.

In order to limit the corrosion allowances (see Section 2.6) stainless or alloy steels
should be used. Ordinary stainless steels have poor corrosion resistance in the
presence of condensing sulphuric or other acids and are therefore not
recommended in chimneys burning fuels containing sulphur under conditions of
medium or high chemical load. They are acceptable when steel temperature is less
than 65C and acid concentration is less than 5%.

Where it is not possible to avoid high chemical loads, the use of high nickel alloy
steels is a solution.

2. ACTIONS
2.1 Permanent Load

The permanent load includes the weight of all permanent parts, i.e. shell, fittings,
linings, flues, and insulation and any permanent equipment.

2.2 Dust Load (Temporary load)

In many cases, it is necessary to consider the carry over of ash or dust. Ash and
dust may adhere to the interior surface of the structural shell or liner and cause an
additional load.

2.3 Wind
The calculation of the wind actions is described according to the Model Code for
Steel Chimneys edited by CIC.IND [2].

2.3.1 Basic wind speed Vb

The basic wind speed, corresponding to the chimney site, is defined as the mean
hourly speed at 10m above ground level in open country which occurs once every
50 years. Although steel chimneys are normally replaced after a shorter period than
50 years, the basic recurrence period is taken as 50 years and the factor of safety is
determined according to a design life period (20 years for instance).

The determination of the factor of safety according to a design life period is not
discussed further in the present lecture.

2.3.2 Design wind speed

The design wind speed at level z above ground is obtained from the basic wind
speed Vb multiplied by three factors:

V (z) = Vb k(z) kt ki... (m/s)

where

* k(z) is the height factor: k(z) = max [1 , (z/10)]

 is equal to 0,14 if the chimney is erected in open terrain or projects well above
the surrounding buildings.

* kt is the topographical factor:

kt is generally fixed by the contract. The following method for the determination of
kt is valid for situations in which the chimney (height h above its foundation) is
erected on a hill or escarpment which is described by:

u : the upwind slope  0,05

d : the downwind slope  0,05

U : the horizontal length of upwind slope

Then kt = 1 + 1,2 E [1 - x/UE - h/UE] ≤ 1

where:

x is the distance of the chimney from the crest of the escarpment

E = 0,3 and 3,3 UE = U u if u > 0,3

* ki is the interference factor:

- if the height of the interferance object is less than half the chimney height: ki = 1

- if the interference object is an almost cylindrical structure:

ki = 1,25 - a (0,15/9d') for 6d  a  15 d

ki = 1 for a > 15 d

where

a is the distance of chimney from the interference object

d' is the diameter of the interference object

- if a  6 d, ki should be determined by a wind tunnel test.

2.3.3 Mean hourly wind load in the direction of the wind

The mean hourly wind load per unit length of shell is:

Wm (z) = a [V(z)]2 CD d (z) / 2 ... (N/m)

where  is the density of air: a = 1,25 - (h1/8000) .. (kg/m3)

h1 is the altitude of the chimney site (m)

d (z) is the outside diameter of the chimney at height z (m)

CD is the shape factor which depends on Reynolds number Re:

Re = 6,9.104 V(z) d(z)

CD = 1,2 if Re  3.105

CD = 1,2 - 1,36 (log Re - 5,48) if 3.105  Re  7.105

CD = 0,7 if Re  7.105

For chimneys with vanes (see Section 2.3.7), CD = 1,4 applied to the outer diameter
of the chimney in the vaned part and not to the outer dimension of the vanes.
For attachments (such as ladders), the area presented to the wind is factored by 1,2
for circular members and by 2 for other shapes.

2.3.4 Design wind load in the direction of the wind

W (z) = Wm (z) G ... (N/m)

where

G is the gust factor which represents the influence of the fluctuating part of wind
actions.

G=  (1 + 2 g i)

g is the peak factor = with  T =

i is the turbulence intensity = 0,311 - 0,089 log h ... (h in m)

B is the background turbulence = [1 + (h/265)0,63]-0,88

E is the energy density spectrum =

S is the size reduction factor = [1 + 5,78 (f1/Vb)1,14 x h0,98]-0,88

f1 is the natural frequency in s-1 of the chimney oscillating in its first mode; care
must be taken to include the stiffness of the foundation in the calculation of f1.

 is the damping expressed as a fraction of critical damping

if all connections are executed by welding or prestressed bolts:

=

if connections are executed by ordinary bolts:

=
if a lining is continuously attached to the shell:

=

where

V is the design wind speed at the top of the chimney

t is the thickness of the wall in the top third (equivalent thickness in the case of
lined chimneys calculated as the total mass per square metre divided by 7850
kg/m3

2.3.5 Vortex shedding

Forces due to vortex shedding cause a response of the chimney perpendicular to

Vortex shedding occurs at the critical wind speed:

Vcr = f1 d/St

where

St is the Strouhal number, equal to 0,2 if there is no interference object nearer to

If there is a cylindrical interference object - diameter d' - at a distance a which is

St  0,1 + 0,1

If a is smaller than 6d, wind tunnel tests are necessary.

Vortex shedding can be neglected if the critical wind speed exceeds 1,2 times the
maximum design speed at the top of the chimney.

If not, the amplitude y of the movement of the top of the chimney in the cross-wind
direction is calculated as follows:

= F (K)
where:

d1 is the diameter of shell averaged over the top third of its height

K= with mo =

where

x1 (z) is the mode shape of the first resonance frequency.

 is the damping ratio calculated from Section 2.3.4 with V=0

Table 1 Values of = F (k)

K 0,47 0,70 0,86 1,27

Bending moments are calculated from the first mode shape normed on y at
the top of the chimney

2.3.6 Ovalling

The uneven wind pressure distribution around the circumference of a circular

Mmax = 0,09 W5 sec (z) d2 (z) ... (N)

where

W5 sec is the pressure averaged over 5 seconds:

W5 sec (z) = a (1,4 Vb)2 / 2 ... (N/m2)

To avoid ovalling vibrations caused by vortex excitation resulting in amplified

The minimum second moment of area about a vertical axis is:

0,4 10-5  103,5  t0,5

2.3.7 Aerodynamic stabilizers

Cross-wind vibrations usually can be reduced by aerodynamic stabilizers. The

The extra wind drag must be considered.

If there is no object causing interference to the wind flow within an effective

2.4 Earthquake Loading

The earthquake stress on a steel chimney is usually less than the wind loading
stress. Normal steel chimneys can generally resist earthquake with an intensity of
up to Mercalli scale 10 without serious damage.

However, in cases where a heavy mass is fitted at the top of the chimney, a special
investigation is necessary.

2.5 Thermal Effects

The main effect of high temperature in self-supporting chimneys is the

(1) Young's modulus: for temperature T between 100 and 400C

ET = E (1 + (15,9 10-5) T - (34,5 10-7) T2 + (11,8 10-9) T3 - (17,2 10-12) T4)

(2) Yield stress: for temperature T between 100 and 400C

fy.T = fy
When a chimney is restrained from adopting a distorted shape under differential
expansion, bending stresses are introduced in the shell.

Stresses are high when a single unlined chimney carries gases from several sources
at different temperature or when a single side entry source introduces gases at high
temperature. In addition, the resulting differential steel temperature introduces
secondary thermal stresses. Typically restraint occurs in bracketed, stayed or guyed
chimneys.

For bare steel chimneys, the metal temperature can be assumed to be midway
between ambient air temperature and that of the flue gas over the range of flue gas
velocity 5 - 15m/s.

2.6 Chemical Effects

The degree of chemical load is in relation with the number of operating hours (n)
when the temperature of the surface in contact with flue gases is below the
estimated acid dew point + 20C:

(1) For a S03 content of 15 ppm, the chemical load is low if n  25, medium if 25 <
n  100, and high if n > 100

(2) For a different S03 contents, limit values of n vary inversely with S03 content.

(3) Where chlorides or fluorides are present in the flue gas, chemical load is high if
n  25.

Depending on the degree of chemical load, thickness of the steel shell is increased
by an internal corrosion allowance as follows:

Temperature of metal in Chemical load Design life

65C - 345C low 1mm 1mm

> 345C low 1mm 1mm

The thickness of steel shell is, in the same way, increased by an external corrosion
allowance as follows:
 Exposure Design life
10 yrs 20 yrs
painted carbon steel nil 1mm
carbon steel protected by insulation/cladding nil 1.5 mm
unprotected carbon steel 1,5mm 3mm
unprotected "corten" or similar steel 1mm 2mm
unprotected stainless steel nil nil

3. DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURAL SHELL

(1) a check of the load resistance, in order to show that the stresses resulting from
the service loads multiplied by the partial factors i do not exceed the resistance of
the shell (strength and stability).

(2) a check of serviceability in order to show that the deformations of the shell
under service loads is acceptable.

(3) a fatigue check which is carried out if the loads due to vortex shedding cannot
be neglected.

3.1 Resistance Check

The main equations for checking the resistance are:

(1) N* + M*  K/m

where N* is the normal stress due to simultaneous factored loads

M* is the bending stress due to simultaneous factored loads (if vortex shedding
effects cannot be neglected). It results from the combination of bending moments
in two directions).

m is the partial safety factor for steel: m = 1,1

K is the critical buckling stress, where

K = (1 - 0,4123 1,2) fy when   2

K = 0,75 fy /when  > 2

 = (fy/ cr)0,5

cr = 0,605 Et/r

E is the Young's modulus of steel at design temperature

t is the corroded shell thickness

r is the radius of shell for the section considered.

=

N and M are in relation with maximal imperfection Wmax of the shell (see Section
5)

If Wmax is less than 0,04 , then:

N = for r/t  212

N = for r/t  212

M = 0,189 + 0,811 N

If Wmax is between 0,04 and 0,08 , then:

 calculated as above is multiplied by

(2) <

where x* = N* + M*

y* is the factored bending stress due to ovalling

T* is the factored shear stress.

where h is the height of the chimney

N is the total axial load

EI is the stiffness of the cross-section at the base of the chimney.

3.2 Serviceability Check

The deflection at the top of the chimney is limited to .

The deflection due to vortex shedding should not be greater than 0,3 d from
centreline.

3.3 Fatigue Check

The fatigue check ascertains that the loading due to vortex shedding will not result
in initiation and propagation of cracks in the steel material.

It shows that the difference  = max - min of nominal stresses in the

 

R = 1,10 if the steel temperature is less than 200C;

R = 1,32 if temperature is more than 200C.

 R is given by the following equation:

log R = - log N + C

where N is the number of stress cycles

N = 0,4 x 108 x A2 e-A² f1

where A = 3,5
Vcr is the critical wind speed for vortex shedding

Vh is the design wind-speed at the top of the chimney

m = 3 for N  5.107 and m = 5 for N > 5.107

C = log [cat] + 2,1

where [cat] is the category number of the constructional detail for which the
fatigue check is required, see Eurocode 3 [3].

4. SOME SPECIFIC ITEMS OF STEEL CHIMNEY

These connections are generally welded "shell on shell".

In some cases, they are bolted connections with external flanges.

For welded connections, the design should be such that the fatigue strength is as
high as possible. The welding process is designed in order to limit shell
deformation.

For bolted connections, the design of the bolts and the flanges takes account of the
prying effect in the tension zone.

4.2 The Support at the Base

At the base, the cylindrical shell is welded onto a ring which is connected to the
reinforced concrete foundation by anchor bolts.

The best design is a ring with bolts on the inner and the outer sides of the shell.
The forces in the anchor are calculated by considering a mixed section, compressed
concrete and extended bolts. The axis of this section is determined by calculation.

Where the ring is an external one, the prying effect is considered to amplify the
bolt forces.

4.3 Large Apertures

Where large apertures are cut in the shell plates, as for inlets or inspection panels, a
structural analysis is made.
The shell is reinforced around the aperture by a frame which consists of U sections
having their two flanges welded on the shell.

The profile is chosen by calculating the frame for the wind blowing parallel to the
aperture on the one hand, and perpendicularly to the aperture on the other hand.

5. FABRICATION AND ERECTION TOLERANCES

After the erection of a chimney, shell imperfections must be measured

6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
 There are several types of steel chimney, the main ones being self-
supporting, guyed, stayed (on a supporting column) and bracketed (on a
nearby building).
 Self-supporting chimneys may consist of a bare steel shell, a double skin in
which the steel is internally covered with a liner, or multi-flue chimneys in
which the steel shell contains several liners.
 Actions which have to be taken into account in the design of self-supporting
chimneys include permanent and dust loads, wind loads including vortex
shedding and ovalling, earthquake loading and thermal and chemical effects.
 In some cases the effects of uneven wind pressure distribution and vortex
shedding may have to be limited by the use of stiffening rings or
aerodynamic stabilisers. Chemical effects require the use of an appropriate
corrosion allowance on the thickness of the steel shell.
 Verification of design requires checks of load resistance (strength and
stability), serviceability and fatigue.
 Specific consideration in the detail design is required concerning
connections, large apertures and anchors at the base.