Tools & Applications Shell Kernel Hardware
Tools & Applications Shell Kernel Hardware
Shell
Kernel
Hardware
Kernel:- It is the lowest Layer of the Unix System. It provides the core capabilities of the
system and allows processes to access the hardware in an orderly manner. It manages files,
carries out all the data transfer between the file system and the H/W and also manages
memory. One of the most important functions of the kernel is to facilitate the creation and
management of processes.
Shell:- the shell is a command line interpreter that enables the user to interact with the
operating system. A shell provides the next layer of the functionality of the system. It
interprets the commands that we give and then conveys them to the kernel which ultimately
executes them.
Types of shell:--
1. Bourne shell:- (sh) known after Steve Bourne. Used almost exclusively via the
command lines , a text based mechanism by which the user interacts with the system.
Bourne shell was the 1st shell for unix , providing all language with which to script
programs and basic user functionality to call other programs . the problem with bourne
shell is that it has no good features for user interaction.
2. C shell:- (csh) was created to address some of the short coming of bourne shell and to
resemble the’C’ language . Job control features and the capability to alias commands make
this shell for much easier for user interaction for user interaction.
3. Korn shell:-(ksh) the korn shell was created by david korn to address the Bourne shell’s
user interaction issues and to deal with the short coming of C shell.
Features of unix
1. multi user
2. multi tasking
3 portability
4. system security
5 .device independence
6. system administration
UNIX Commands:-
ncftp --- especially good for downloading files via anonymous ftp.
expr-----Evaluate expressions
bc--------- An arbitrary precision calculator language
ps -----Process status
cat
This is one of the most flexible Unix commands. We can use to create, view and
concatenate files. For our first example we create a three-item English-Spanish
dictionary in a file called "dict."
% cat >dict
red rojo
green verde
blue azul
<control-D>
%
<control-D> stands for "hold the control key down, then tap 'd'". The symbol > tells
the computer that what is typed is to be put into the file dict. To view a file we use
cat in a different way:
% cat dict
red rojo
green verde
blue azul
%
If we wish to add text to an existing file we do this:
% cat >>dict
white blanco
black negro
<control-D>
%
Now suppose that we have another file tmp that looks like this:
% cat tmp
cat gato
dog perro
%
Then we can join dict and tmp like this:
% cat dict tmp >dict2
We could check the number of lines in the new file like this:
% wc -l dict2
8
The command wc counts things --- the number of characters, words, and line in a file.
chmod
This command is used to change the permissions of a file or directory. For example to
make a file essay.001 readable by everyone, we do this:
% chmod +x mycommand
Now we can run mycommand as a command.
To check the permissions of a file, use ls -l . For more information on chmod, use
man chmod.
cd
Use cd to change directory. Use pwd to see what directory you are in.
% cd english
% pwd
% /u/ma/jeremy/english
% ls
novel poems
% cd novel
% pwd
% /u/ma/jeremy/english/novel
% ls
ch1 ch2 ch3 journal scrapbook
% cd ..
% pwd
% /u/ma/jeremy/english
% cd poems
% cd
% /u/ma/jeremy
Jeremy began in his home directory, then went to his english subdirectory. He listed
this directory using ls , found that it contained two entries, both of which happen to be
diretories. He cd'd to the diretory novel, and found that he had gotten only as far as
chapter 3 in his writing. Then he used cd .. to jump back one level. If had wanted to
jump back one level, then go to poems he could have said cd ../poems. Finally he
used cd with no argument to jump back to his home directory.
cp
This copies the file jabber in the directory poems to the current directory. The symbol
"." stands for the current directory. The symbol "~" stands for the home directory.
date
echo
The echo command echoes its arguments. Here are some examples:
% echo this
this
% echo $EDITOR
/usr/local/bin/emacs
% echo $PRINTER
b129lab1
Things like PRINTER are so-called environment variables. This one stores the name of
the default printer --- the one that print jobs will go to unless you take some action to
change things. The dollar sign before an environment variable is needed to get the
value in the variable. Try the following to verify this:
% echo PRINTER
PRINTER
ftp
Use ftp to connect to a remote machine, then upload or download files. See also:
ncftp
% ftp solitude
Connected to fubar.net.
220 fubar.net FTP server (Version wu-2.4(11) Mon Apr 18 17:26:33
MDT 1994) ready.
Name (solitude:carlson): jeremy
331 Password required for jeremy.
Password:
230 User jeremy logged in.
ftp> cd mystuff
250 CWD command successful.
ftp> get homework11
ftp> quit
% ftp solitude
Connected to fubar.net.
220 fubar.net FTP server (Version wu-2.4(11) Mon Apr 18 17:26:33
MDT 1994) ready.
Name (solitude:carlson): jeremy
331 Password required for jeremy.
Password:
230 User jeremy logged in.
ftp> cd mystuff
250 CWD command successful.
ftp> put collected-letters
ftp> quit
The ftp program sends files in ascii (text) format unless you specify binary mode:
ftp> binary
ftp> put foo
ftp> ascii
ftp> get bar
The file foo was transferred in binary mode, the file bar was transferred in ascii
mode.
grep
Use this command to search for information in a file or files. For example, suppose
that we have a file dict whose contents are
red rojo
green verde
blue azul
white blanco
black negro
Then we can look up items in our file like this;
% grep red dict
red rojo
% grep blanco dict
white blanco
% grep brown dict
%
Notice that no output was returned by grep brown. This is because "brown" is not in
our dictionary file.
Grep can also be combined with other commands. For example, if one had a file of
phone numbers named "ph", one entry per line, then the following command would
give an alphabetical list of all persons whose name contains the string "Fred".
% man grep
head
% head essay.001
displays the first 10 lines of the file essay.001 To see a specific number of lines, do
this:
% head -n 20 essay.001
This displays the first 20 lines of the file.
ls
Use ls to see what files you have. Your files are kept in something called a directory.
% ls
foo letter2
foobar letter3
letter1 maple-assignment1
%
Note that you have six files. There are some useful variants of the ls command:
% ls l*
letter1 letter2 letter3
%
Note what happened: all the files whose name begins with "l" are listed. The asterisk
(*) is the " wildcard" character. It matches any string.
lpr
This is the standard Unix command for printing a file. It stands for the ancient "line
printer." See
% man lpr
for information on how it works. See print for information on our local intelligent
print command.
mkdir
Use this command to create a directory.
% mkdir essays
To get "into" this directory, do
% cd essays
To see what files are in essays, do this:
% ls
There shouldn't be any files there yet, since you just made it. To create files, see cat or
emacs.
more
More is a command used to read text files. For example, we could do this:
% more poems
The effect of this to let you read the file "poems ". It probably will not fit in one
screen, so you need to know how to "turn pages". Here are the basic commands:
mv
% mv foo foobar
ncftp
Use ncftp for anonymous ftp --- that means you don't have to have a password.
% ncftp ftp.fubar.net
Connected to ftp.fubar.net
> get jokes.txt
% print
and read the message displayed. To print on a specific printer, do this:
% print foo jwb321
% print notes.ps jwb321
% print manuscript.dvi jwb321
To change the default printer, do this:
% setenv PRINTER jwb321
pwd
Use this command to find out what directory you are working in.
% pwd
/u/ma/jeremy
% cd homework
% pwd
/u/ma/jeremy/homework
% ls
assign-1 assign-2 assign-3
% cd
% pwd
/u/ma/jeremy
%
Jeremy began by working in his "home" directory. Then he cd 'd into his homework
subdirectory. Cd means " change directory". He used pwd to check to make sure he
was in the right place, then used ls to see if all his homework files were there. (They
were). Then he cd'd back to his home directory.
rm
The first command removed a single file. The second command was intended to
remove all files beginning with the string "letter." However, our user (Jeremy?)
decided not to remove letter3.
rmdir
Use this command to remove a directory. For example, to remove a directory called
"essays", do this:
% rmdir essays
A directory must be empty before it can be removed. To empty a directory, use rm.
rsh
Use this command if you want to work on a computer different from the one you are
currently working on. One reason to do this is that the remote machine might be
faster. For example, the command
% rsh solitude
connects you to the machine solitude. This is one of our public workstations and is
fairly fast.
setenv
% echo $PRINTER
labprinter
% setenv PRINTER myprinter
% echo $PRINTER
myprinter
sort
Use this commmand to sort a file. For example, suppose we have a file dict with
contents
red rojo
green verde
blue azul
white blanco
black negro
Then we can do this:
% sort dict
black negro
blue azul
green verde
red rojo
white blanco
Here the output of sort went to the screen. To store the output in file we do this:
% sort dict >dict.sorted
You can check the contents of the file dict.sorted using cat , more , or emacs .
tail
% tail essay.001
displays the last 10 lines of the file essay.001 To see a specific number of lines, do
this:
% tail -n 20 essay.001
This displays the last 20 lines of the file.
tar
Use create compressed archives of directories and files, and also to extract directories
and files from an archive. Example:
telnet
Use this command to log in to another machine from the machine you are currently
working on. For example, to log in to the machine "solitude", do this:
% telnet solitude
wc
Use this command to count the number of characters, words, and lines in a file.
Suppose, for example, that we have a file dict with contents
red rojo
green verde
blue azul
white blanco
black negro
Then we can do this
% wc dict
5 10 56 tmp
% wc -l dict
5 tmp
% wc -w dict
10 tmp
% wc -c dict
56 tmp