Refining Gas Processing Petrochemicals: Outlook Automation & Control Environmental

ptq
Q1 2011
petroleum technology quarterly
refining
gas processing
petrochemicals
special features
outlook
Automation & Control
Environmental
cover and spine copy 6.indd 1 9/12/10 13:10:44

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ptq
3 Peak oil? What peak oil?
Chris Cunningham
5 Outlook
15 Processing Trends
19 Clean diesel project

PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY QUARTERLY Luigi Valagussa
Koch-Glitsch Italia
29 Simulation model increases visbreaker conversion

Q1 (Jan, Feb, Mar) 2011 Ernesto Agorreta, Carlos Angulo and Aleixandre Soriano Repsol Tarragona
www.eptq.com Cristina Font and Marco Respini Baker Hughes
37 Drivers for zero discharge in refineries

Gary Howard
Foster Wheeler
43 Rental strategies counter seasonal performance problems

Umesh Mathur
Aggreko Process Services
49 Independent verification of refineries

Donald Payne
DNV Vietnam
57 Bottom of the barrel upgrading

Alan Kramer
Albemarle
75 Steps towards optimal refinery blending

David Seiver
Valero Energy Corporation
81 Processing high TAN crude: part II

Wu Qing
CNOOC
87 Maximisation of VGO through deep-cut distillation

Rajeev Kumar, Chithra V, Shalini Gupta, Sonal Maheshwari, Peddy V C Rao
and N V Choudary
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd, India
93 Renewable fuels and biofuels in a petroleum refinery

Jukka Keyriläinen and Matti Koskinen
Neste Jacobs
101 Protection analysis in refining

Robert Absil
Intertek PARC
111 Improving crude unit operation

Tim Olsen and Gary Hawkins
Emerson Process Management
115 Technology in Action
117 Industry News
Nynäshamn refinery, Sweden, recently inaugurated a new hydrogen plant. Photo: Nynas AB
©2011. The entire content of this publication is protected by copyright full details of which are available from the publishers. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
The opinions and views expressed by the authors in this publication are not necessarily those of the editor or publisher and while every care
has been taken in the preparation of all material included in Petroleum Technology Quarterly the publisher cannot be held responsible for any
statements, opinions or views or for any inaccuracies.
contents/ed com copy 9.indt 1 10/12/10 20:57:03

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T tq
p he European Union has arguably
been the global leader in biodiesel
production and use, with overall
biodiesel production increasing from 1.9
PETROLEtonnes
million UM TECinHN2004 Y Qnearly
OLOGto UARTE10.3
RLY million
tonnes in 2007. Biodiesel production in the
Peak oil?
What peak oil?
US has also increased dramatically in the
past fewNo
Vol 16 years
1 from 2 million gallons in
2000 to approximately 450 million gallons
Q1 (Jan, Feb, Mar) 2011
in 2007. According to the National Biodiesel
I
Board, 171 companies own biodiesel t is that forward-looking time of year. At PTQ, we like to think that our Q1
manufacturing
Editor plants and are actively edition’s Outlook section is a key contributor to strategic thinking in the
marketing biodiesel.1. The global biodiesel
Chris Cunningham coming months. We are delighted, as ever, that leading executives from the
market is estimated to reach 37 billion
editor@petroleumtechnology.com world of refining and refining technology have taken the time to share their
gallons by 2016, with an average annual insights, in this issue, into the many challenges facing the industry in the year
Production
growth rateEditor
of 42%. Europe will continue to ahead and beyond.
Rachel Zamorski
be the major biodiesel market for the next Talking of “beyond”, the leading energy agencies have been sharing their
production@petroleumtechnology.com
decade, followed closely by the US market. long-range views of the world’s energy supply. As usual, the International
Although
Graphics Editors high energy prices, Energy Agency’s own World Energy Outlook gives pause for deep thought.
increasing
Rob Fris global demand, drought The good news from the IEA is that we can all stop worrying about when
and other Samiuddin
Mohammed factors are the primary peak oil will arrive. The world apparently passed that point about four years
drivers for higher food prices, food
graphics@petroleumtechnology.com ago. Or, to look at things another way, there will never be a peak. According
competitive feedstocks have long to the IEA’s calculations to 2035, global demand for conventional supplies
Editorial
been and will continue to be a major of crude oil reached a plateau and will stay there, more or less, for the next
tel +44 844 5888 773
concern for5888
fax +44 844 the 667
development of biofu- 25 years.
els. To compete, the industry has Total demand will rise by around 12%, according to the IEA, the rising por-
responded by developing
Advertising Sales Manager methods to tion of the crude made up by LNG and “unconventional” sources of oil,
increase
Paul Masonprocess efficiency, utilise or including biofuels. The portion of the supply graph worth special attention is
upgrade by-products and operate
sales@petroleumtechnology.com the flat-lining trend for conventional petroleum. The official estimate sees the
with lower quality lipids as portion of undiscovered or undeveloped fields contributing to the complete
Advertising Sales
feedstocks. picture of petroleum supply increasing from zero now (obviously) to three-
Bob Aldridge
sales@petroleumtechnology.com quarters of the total over the coming quarter century.
Feedstocks What does this mean? Well, taking the crude view, petroleum refining
Biodiesel
Advertisingrefers to a diesel-equivalent
Sales Office capacity hardly needs to increase over the period under review. At the same
fuel consisting
tel +44 844 5888 771of short-chain alkyl time, supplies of heavy, sulphurous raw material, currently an increasingly
(methyl or 5888
fax +44 844 ethyl)
662esters, made by the important feature of raw material supply, will become the dominant feature
transesterification of triglycerides, of the refining industry. If pressure to develop deep refining techniques,
Publisher
commonly known as vegetable oils or emissions control technology and increasingly advanced catalysis feels high
Nic Allen
animal fats. The most common form
publisher@petroleumtechnology.com at the moment, it appears as little compared with the challenges to come.
uses methanol, the cheapest alcohol In the shorter term, the US is the only developed nation projected to show
available,
Circulation to produce methyl esters. any significant growth in oil consumption in 2011, demand rising by about
The molecules in biodiesel are pri-
Jacki Watts 200 000 b/d to 19.26 million b/d, according to the Energy Information
marily fatty acid methyl esters
circulation@petroleumtechnology.com Administration in its own end-of-year report.
(FAME), usually created by trans- Like the IEA, the US government agency forecasts world growth in oil
Crambeth Allen Publishing Ltd
esterification between fats and metha- demand in 2011 as virtually zero. The EIA says that it expects world oil con-
Hopesay, Craven Arms SY7 8HD, UK
nol.
tel +44 Currently,
844 5888 776 biodiesel is produced sumption to rise 1.43 million b/d in 2011, down 10 000 b/d from the 1.44
from
fax +44 various
844 5888 vegetable
667 and plant oils. million b/d increase it had projected earlier.
First-generation food-based feedstocks World oil demand is expected to reach 87.78 million b/d in 2011, compared
are
ISSN straight
1362-363Xvegetable oils such as with 86.35 million b/d in 2010, the EIA says. Global oil use in 2011 will con-
soybean oil and animal fats such as tinue to be driven by developing areas such as China, the Middle East and
tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat
Petroleum Technology Quarterly (USPS 0014-781)
Brazil. On the supply side, non-OPEC crude oil is projected to grow by more
and the by-products
is published ofCatalysis
quarterly plus annual the production
edition than 1 million b/d to an average of 51.5 million b/d, the largest yearly
of Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil.
by Crambeth Allen Publishing Ltd and is distributed
in the USA by SPP, 75 Aberdeen Rd, Emigsville, PA
increase since 2002. The increase is the result of higher output from the US,
Soybean oil and
17318. Periodicals postagerapeseeds oilPA.are the
paid at Emigsville Brazil, China and Russia.
Postmaster: send address changes to Petroleum
common source
Technology Quarterly c/o for
PO biodiesel produc- Non-OPEC supply in 2011 is expected to fall by 280 000 b/d, only the third
tion
Box 437,inEmigsville,
the US and Europe in quanti-
PA 17318-0437 time in the last 15 years that non-OPEC output has declined year-on-year.
Back numbers available from the Publisher
ties
at $25that can
per copy produce enough biodie-
inc postage. Gradual tightening in global oil markets continues to support world oil
sel to be used in a commercial market prices, according to the EIA.
with currently applicable
chris cunningham
PTQ Q1 2011 3
contents/ed com copy 9.indt 2 9/12/10 20:55:34

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criterion.indd 1 8/12/10 14:40:30

Outlook for 2011
What are the important trends affecting the downstream processing industry this year?
Executives and experts forecast challenges and prospects that could affect profitability
Rajeev Gautam North America occurring over the next few years.
President & CEO Refiners will need to convert high-sulphur bunker fuel
UOP LLC, A Honeywell Company to fuels that comply with these emissions control area
requirements.
Additionally, the continued increase in global
O
ur industry is poised petrochemical demand, particularly in regions such as
to enter a new phase of China and India, is driving rapid expansion in this
growth and technology sector. This demand also has refiners looking for new
evolution, but there continue to ways to improve the value of their existing product
be problems we must solve. The slate with petrochemicals production. The latest FCC
shift in product demand, tighter technology enhancements can achieve more than
fuel specification regulations, the 20 wt% propylene yield, but new ways to upgrade
need to maximise the products we other FCC products to higher value petrochemical
get from a barrel of oil and the products can bring more profitability.
emergence of new alternative feedstocks will present Of course, there continues to be a great deal of
challenges to refiners around the globe and ultimately interest and many global drivers for renewable fuels.
drive new solutions. Technology improvements in the last several years and
We are experiencing a shift in the mix of fuels advancements in feedstock availability and processing
consumed. The demand from emerging regions such as are bringing efficient, cost-effective drop-in biofuels
India, China and the Middle East, along with ethanol closer to commercial reality. We have successfully
substitution for gasoline and enhancements in engine demonstrated technologies that maximise existing
technology, are driving higher demand for diesel infrastructure, meet fuel specifications and address
relative to gasoline. For our industry, this results in concerns around growing greenhouse gas emissions.
increased emphasis on hydrocracking technology and These fuels have an enormous potential to contribute
catalysts. For UOP specifically, it means continued to our fuel supply.
enhancement to our Unicracking process technology There is a great deal of change happening in the
and new catalyst solutions that will maximise distillate refining industry today. The real key for all players will
yields. be to maximise the yield of valuable finished products
Many refiners will look to shift fuels production from from every single barrel of oil processed. This will
gasoline to diesel or remain flexible to shift between include new processing solutions and optimisation
the two as needed. The economic solutions to address projects that deliver strong returns.
these requirements are often not straightforward, but
continued advancements in both process and catalyst
technology will allow refiners to respond intelligently
to changes in the market while maximising Umberto della Sala
profitability. CEO, President and Chief Operating Officer
This shift to diesel also drives an emphasis on Foster Wheeler
bottom-of-the-barrel processing. Technology advances
and improved configurations for heavy oil processing
W
will drive higher distillate yields and give refiners a e are certainly seeing
significant advantage when competing in a global increased activity in all of
market. the hydrocarbon-related
The tightening of fuel quality regulations around the business sectors in which Foster
world, including reductions in benzene, olefins and Wheeler’s Global Engineering
aromatics in gasoline and the global movement and Construction Group operates:
towards ultra-low sulphur fuels, will continue to be a onshore and offshore upstream oil
driver for our industry. The recent implementation of and gas, midstream/LNG, refining
MARPOL regulations has led to the creation of and chemicals. The global economy
emissions control areas restricting SOx emissions in the continues to recover, broadly in line with expectations.
North and Baltic Seas, with future implementation in Product demand is also recovering, and is helping
www.eptq.com PTQ Q1 2011 5
outlook copy.indd 1 9/12/10 14:10:22

to bolster client confidence in progressing their relationships with local or regional contractors to
investment plans. enable us to deliver the Foster Wheeler product
Certainly, we have a good prospects pipeline, locally and competitively to our clients, in line
although it is true that clients are in some cases taking with local content requirements and our clients’
longer to reach final investment decision or are preferences.
releasing projects in phases. We have a number of The third theme relates to the size and complexity of
projects that are going through the final investment projects. Large projects are getting even larger and
decision-making process and for which we believe we more complex; for example, the planned Saudi
are well positioned. And we are seeing new Aramco/Dow petrochemicals complex in Saudi Arabia,
opportunities continuing to emerge, particularly in the scope and scale of some of the planned investments
Asia, the Middle East and South America. in Iraq, and the planned investments in both upstream
Looking forward into 2011, we see three key themes. and downstream in Brazil. Size and complexity play to
First, client confidence in pursuing upstream oil our strength.
exploration and development opportunities has As we have said before, competition remains strong
returned. The offshore and onshore upstream sector everywhere. We are focusing on those opportunities
remains a strategically important market for us and where we believe we have differentiators, such as our
one in which we are further developing our skills and technologies, our know-how, our client relationships,
service portfolio. The award of the pre-FEED and FEED our global presence and our ability to work with clients
for the Cardon IV Perla Field Development, an offshore from the very earliest phases of projects to help them
development by ENI and Repsol in the Gulf of shape their investment, and our proven track record
Venezuela late in 2010, is a good example of our of safely delivering technically complex and very
success in leveraging the offshore skills and expertise large projects.
we have brought on board through acquisition. Based on our discussions with our clients regarding
Second, we are seeing increased emphasis on local their investment plans, and the underlying supply and
service delivery. This has always been important to demand fundamentals, the outlook for the industries
us and is becoming an even stronger area of focus we serve is improving.
for us and for our clients. We have made further
strides forward this year, for example in Saudi Arabia,
by developing our own resources and by building
George Bright
Chief Executive
KBC Advanced Technologies
4.-0.0#1130#
W
ith global refining
capacity far in excess of
.0-!#11,*78#0 current demand and still
more capacity under construction,
a key question for the downstream
-).)6!0/N LINE energy industry in the next several
years is: how will global markets
¾5/NEF@RNKHMD BQTCDNHK@MC+/&
find balance between this surplus
¾ 23,#
$- (/ refining capacity and post-recession
¾'HFGDRS@BBTQ@BXENQADRS demand recovery?
ONRRHAKDAKDMCHMFSNNEEHBH@KKHLHSR The dichotomy between regions is quite striking:
¾4OSNR@LOKDRSQD@LR lower demand, ageing assets and declining operating
¾ TSNL@SHBB@KHAQ@SHNM rates in Europe, North America and Japan vs GDP
¾%@RS@MCD@RXL@HMSDM@MBD growth and increased demand in China, the Middle
¾ TSNL@SHBKTAQHB@SHNM -$6Ü East and Latin America. With explicit national energy
security and job creation objectives, growth markets
are adding refining capacity despite an existing global
glut. Like the collisional boundaries of two tectonic
plates, the geographic shift in the supply-demand
curve will have volatile consequences. KBC has just
released its first Global Energy Perspectives, discussing
our views on the global refining sector over the next
several years, and the factors influencing returns on
energy investment and economics.
While there are numerous factors determining the
&Q@AMDQ(MRSQTLDMSR,DRRSDBGMHJ&LA' 5HDMM@ TRSQH@#Q.SSN-DTQ@SG&@RRD
/GNMD%@WHMENFQ@AMDQHMRSQTLDMSR@LDSDJ@S
overall global balance, there are three trends we have
identified that are particularly noteworthy:
www.ptqenquiry.com
570002.indd 1
6 PTQ Q1 2011 for further information
12/7/2010 10:30:28 AM
www.eptq.com

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kbr.indd 1 9/12/10 12:14:59
• Traditional rules of free market economics do not planned projects in Brazil and the Middle East, both
completely apply in the energy sector, yet they are not regions will become product powerhouses that can
completely ignored either. Despite overcapacity, certain create significant shifts in the traditional industry
large-scale projects will likely progress. It is no longer dynamics. Furthermore, depending on future strategic
solely about economic returns; decisions have also actions, Russia has the potential to significantly
been made based on local job creation and “corporate influence both the European and Asian refining
social responsibility”. Only certain national oil markets.
companies and a very few, select independent oil
companies can bear the financial burden of such
projects alone, irrespective of economic returns. Third-
party financing, however, does follow free market Bharat Srinivasan
economics and to an extent certain projects progress, Co-Managing Director
others may be delayed or cancelled until rates of return Chevron Lummus Global
are adequate to justify their investment
• Capacity in mature markets is clearly at risk of
F
closure or idling. Traditionally, the view has been that or refining and the
the bulk of this closure would occur in the Americas. technology providers
However, while no geography is immune, KBC’s that support refining,
alternate view of the market as three vertical segments the outlook for 2011 appears
(vs the traditional Pacific-Atlantic Basin view) hazy with a chance of clearing. Bharat Srin
illustrates key issues that would suggest European After the 2008+ downturn, 2010 Co-Managi
capacity is at the greatest risk. The announced closure did show some signs of life
of two French refineries in recent months is an example which varied regionally and Chevron Lu
of this within regions, locally. The
• Much focus has been placed on India and China. It Europe/Middle East region demonstrates this.
is true that refined product demand in these Russia and other Eastern European countries
geographies will drive overall growth for the next 20 continued with projects that had beenFor sanctioned
refining and the techn
years. However, less often discussed are the global chance pace,
prior to the downturn but at a measured of clearing.
After
impacts that Brazil, the Middle East and Russia will as companies struggled with costs and within regions, locally
and ownership
also have on world markets. With the completion of issues.
The Europe/Middle East r

continued with projects th
To keep pace with the demanding quality requirements of
modern fuels, advanced, precise and easy to companies
use analytical struggled with
technology is required. With a complete range (CLG)of XRF andhad designed in R
Elemental Analysis ICP spectrometers, SPECTRO’s unique solutions for at-line
with changes and some d
and laboratory elemental analysis are capable of meeting
the most demanding product specification testing approaching mechanical
requirements. region are advancing at v
of Fuels Measure your fuels Rijeka refinery went into c
- at sub 10-15 ppm levels of sulfur to ensure federal
government agency compliance into EPC. Heading towar
- at trace ppm levels for metal elements such aswhile others were commis
Cu, Ca, Mg,
Na, K, and P, to ensure low engine emissions as well as
trouble-free motoring commissioned. GALP in
2011.
- with reliability, speed and accuracy for any particular
- manually or fully automatically
The Saudi projects
application
hydroprocessing complex
Conoco-Phillips pulled ou
of the New Refinery Proje
Discover more exciting details,
visit SPECTRO’s e-Learning center The Asia-Pacific region d
or contact us for additional companies actually cance
information about the SPECTRO
solutions for fuels analysis at towards mechanical comp
www.spectro.com/fuels
spectro.info@ametek.com and
of 2010. Both the RDS p
Determination of Sulfur and other elements Tel +49.2821.892-2102. Government is attempting
at-line and in the laboratory will be the result. China s
year, the projects remain
in joint-ventures with upst
8 PTQ Q1 2011
www.ptqenquiry.com
for further information configurations,
www.eptq.com
product ob
with environmental cleara
PetroChina, Sinopec, CN
schedules although none
outlook copy.indd 3 to be filling9/12/10
some of the v
14:16:33
Thus, projects that Chevron Lummus Global (CLG) commissioning its first refinery in the middle of the
had designed in Russia at multiple locations went into country at Bina this year to address local product
detailed design and construction, but with changes and shortfalls. The rest of Asia-Pacific has projects under
some delays. The Kirishi plant that had been designed evaluation phase. A major decision will be made
over a decade ago is gradually approaching mechanical next year on Vietnam’s third refinery project (NSRP),
completion. Meanwhile, several new plants designed a joint venture between PetroVietnam and Kuwaiti
by CLG in the same region are advancing at varied and Japanese partners.
pace. For example, the new hydrocracking complex in The Americas continue the storyline. Some small
Croatia at INA’s Rijeka refinery went into refinery shutdowns have been announced as well as
commissioning mode and a similar complex at NIS
Pancevo in Serbia moved into EPC.
Heading towards southern Europe, some projects For refining and the technology
contemplated by ENI in Italy were deferred, while
others were commissioned successfully. Similarly, the
providers that support refining,
Samir hydrocracker plant in Morocco
commissioned. GALP in Portugal continued the
was the outlook for 2011 appears
construction of its hydrocracker in Sines for a start-up hazy with a chance of clearing
in 2011. The Saudi projects progressed, with the Saudi
Aramco-Total Jubail venture and its huge
hydroprocessing complex on schedule, and the Yanbu refineries for sale. PBF Energy is picking up assets
project suffering a schedule setback when Conoco- from Valero at Delaware and Paulsboro. Slow signs of
Phillips pulled out, only to have Saudi Aramco decide revival in the Tar Sands of Canada are evident as
to proceed on its own. deferred projects such as North West Upgrading and
In contrast, the fate of the New Refinery Project Nexen/OptiCanada look set to restart. Although Shell
(NRP) and Clean Fuels Projects (CFP) in Kuwait remain Canada announced cancellation of its Upgrader-2
unclear. The Asia-Pacific region does show more project, it also opted to increase processing capacity
vitality, but some of the same trends can be seen. gradually through a series of paced expansions at its
Korean companies actually cancelled or deferred existing facilities.
projects, although Hyundai advanced its RDS/RFCC South of the US border, there is more action, as
project towards mechanical completion in 2010 and GS- countries such as Bolivia, Costa Rica and Mexico
Caltex plans to commission its HOU-3 project by the
end of 2010. Both the RDS plant at Hyundai and the
LC-Fining unit at GSC are CLG licensed. Japan’s
government is attempting to impose upgrading/ )DVWUHOLDEOHPRLVWXUHDQDO\VLVIRU
distillation ratio controls and some capacity KD]DUGRXVDUHDV
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China started out 2010 full of promise for more than
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crude slates has been difficult. In other cases, there

have been issues with environmental clearances and
competing projects, but generally the major state-
owned companies — PetroChina, Sinopec, CNOOC and
Sinochem — appear to have slowed down their project
execution schedules, although none of the projects has
been cancelled. In the meantime, private companies
seem to be filling some of the void. Fuel demand
continues to grow at an impressive rate and, while
supply at the moment appears to balance, over the next
five years the projects will need to be executed to
maintain this balance, which seems to be
China’s intent.
India appears for the time being to be in an overall
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expansions in existing refineries. BORL (a joint ZZZPLFKHOOFRPXN
venture between BPCL and Oman Oil Co) is
www.ptqenquiry.com
www.eptq.com for further information
374B[LQGG
PTQ Q1 2011 9

revive plans to rectify their local product imbalances energy challenges that some consider insurmountable.
and product quality deficits, while Brazil’s intention to Instead of focusing on picking winners and losers,
refine its own growing crude production could lead to governments should encourage “all of the above”
increased refining capacity. solutions to the climate and energy challenges the
world faces, utilising technology and a broad range of
energy choices.
The world’s energy and climate future should be
Charles T Drevna built on a strong foundation of incentivising innovation
President and excellence. If nations around the world do this —
National Petrochemical & Refiners Association focusing on creating a new prosperity with the creative
power of our minds — there is no limit to what we can
accomplish.
P
resident Barack Obama and
congressional leaders in both
parties agree that cap-and-
trade schemes designed to reduce Suleyman Ozmen
greenhouse gas emissions face too Vice President, Refining and Chemical Licensing
much opposition in Congress to Shell Global Solutions
become law in 2011 or 2012.
The cap-and-trade bill passed by
R
the House of Representatives in efiners globally will
2009, and similar proposals that never even came to a continue to face numerous
vote in the Senate, would have been both economically challenges in the coming
prohibitive and highly ineffective in reducing global year, and principal among them
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions. is “the sulphur paradox” or the
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the US or any increasing need to manage sulphur
other developed nation will accomplish nothing if the to help increase margins, while
emissions are just moved to developing countries in simultaneously meeting legislative
Asia and elsewhere, where they do not have strict requirements. As the global
emission controls. This is exactly what is happening as population rises, we can expect limits on sulphur
a result of the cap-and-trade restrictions being imposed in retail and transportation fuels to become more
in some developed nations. stringent as the demand for these resources increases.
As a result, the International Energy Agency says At a time when the economy is lagging and many
that more than 80% of the expected worldwide increase refiners are short of cash, the need to meet or exceed
in greenhouse gas emissions between 2005 and 2050 changing product specifications will be an undoubted
will come from developing countries. These are concern for refinery managers. For example, the
primarily China, India and nations in Southeast Asia. economy in Russia remains extremely tight and,
The only thing a US cap-and-trade plan would have despite financial constraints, refiners must be in a
created if it had become law would have been a position to meet the Euro III transportation fuel
complex and confusing trading system similar to a regulations beginning in January 2011 and prepared for
giant casino. Speculators would have wagered huge Euro V by 2015. Also, while local product specifications
sums of money on the ups and downs of a new carbon need to be taken into account, export markets can
market, benefitting no-one except those who made the bring different demands. With the Middle East now
right bets. providing significant product to Europe, refiners must
Where does America — and the world — go from comply with 10 wppm sulphur product specifications
here? Can the divide between environmentalists who even when it is not required for their own domestic
rail against any energy source-emitting carbon and the market. In developing markets, tighter specifications
petroleum refining and petrochemical industries ever for motor gasoline (mogas) or gas oil will also be
be bridged? If we focus more on ideas and less on imposed increasingly.
ideology, we can make important progress. To confound the issue, with insufficient “easy” oil
Nations around the globe can best deal with climate and gas to meet demand on a global scale, refineries
change and build a successful energy future by relying will have to process heavier, sourer crudes. As such,
on three things that turned the US and most other during the next five years and beyond, refiners must
industrialised nations into the productive, prosperous look forward to find more viable solutions. Sour
and advanced countries they are today: science, crudes have a greater sulphur content that after
technology and the free market system. conversion comes out as more hydrogen sulphide
The same creativity, inventiveness and (H2S) and sulphur oxide (SO2). Additionally, nitrogen
entrepreneurial spirit that drove Alexander Graham oxide (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are emitted
Bell, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and, more recently, during the refining processes. One solution to this
Bill Gates and the pioneers of the internet to transform challenge can be found in the advanced
our world should be unleashed again to solve hydroprocessing technologies that process heavier,
10 PTQ Q1 2011 www.eptq.com

fueling
her
future
Producing energy from alternative fuel sources will help to protect our world and
our children’s future.
Albemarle’s success has always depended on anticipating the challenges and

www.albemarle.com opportunities that lie ahead. That’s why we’re working on sustainable solutions
such as developing catalysts that convert renewable biomass materials, like
algae, leaves and wood chippings, into transportation biofuels.
No one has all the answers, but through our research and development
programs and the partnerships we’ve formed, we’re unlocking the
potential of renewable energy sources.
Lara’s mother works for Albemarle.

www.ptqenquiry.com
© 2010 Albemarle Corporation. All rights reserved worldwide. for further information
Lara_Aug.2010.indd 1 3/9/10 09:49:19

albemarle.indd 1 8/12/10 14:13:07
more sour crudes into high-value transportation fuels.
Additionally, depending on country emissions
requirements, minimum amounts of SOx and NOx may
be released via the stack. These hydroprocessing
technologies can be combined with gas treating/
absorption solutions to help cap these emissions.
In response to the sulphur management issues that
are arising within the industry, Shell Global Solutions,
Criterion Catalysts & Technologies and other alliances
introduced The Sulphur Technology Platform, a
comprehensive, customisable and integrated sulphur
solution to meet emissions and product requirements
and facilitate the processing of heavier, more sour
crudes. This sulphur technology platform uses deep
flash technology that cuts deeper into the bottom of
the barrel, resulting in higher vacuum distillate yields
The Process TDL Solution compared to conventional vacuum units. These
integrated solutions also include effective revamps,
such as hydrocracking units converted to process resid
feedstocks, optimised hydroprocessing of gasoline,
kerosene and diesel components to low-sulphur
products and gas treating technologies to remove
TruePeak Tuneable Diode refinery emissions.
Laser (TDL) Analyser Ultimately, innovative process and catalyst technology
solutions are required for processing heavier, more sour
crudes while meeting emission and clean transportation
Our TruePeak Process Laser Analyzer uses fuels specifications, specifically in relation to sulphur
a tunable diode laser and measures across (although benefits in relation to other emissions are
an infrared absorbance region. This means often achieved at the same time). The key is managing
sulphur levels by employing hydroprocessing,
you can make measurements in the most
conversion and sulphur recovery technologies. By using
demanding applications. integrated technology solutions to optimise sulphur
management strategies, we can face today’s refining
Features: challenges head on.
■ Rapid measurement (as fast as 1 second)
■ Process temperature up to 1500º Celsius
■ Optical measurement – no sensor contact Eric Benazzi
with process Marketing Director
■ Aggressive applications – high particulate, Axens
corrosives, and more
■
T
Flexible installation options he European refining industry
■ TruePeak measurement is coping with declining
■ In situ analysis domestic demand for fuels,
■ Interference free while the imbalance between
product supply and market demand
persists. This especially applies
with regard to a deficit in diesel
supply and an excess in gasoline
production. The European gasoline
surplus in 2009 exceeded 0.75 Mbdoe (million barrels
per day of oil equivalent), while the diesel deficit
reached about 0.5 Mbdoe.
The US market presents a recurring gasoline deficit of
about 0.7 Mbdoe and, since 2008, the refining industry
has been exporting diesel.
please visit us at www.yokogawa.com/eu What are the main causes of such a situation?
Although there is no fundamental shortfall between
the structure of US production compared with the local
demand structure when expressed as percentages, the
www.ptqenquiry.com

main problem currently stems from insufficient gasoline 54%, gasoline cars at 36% and hybrid-gasoline cars at
throughput compared to US demand. As a result, the 10%. In such a scenario, on-road diesel demand will
US is importing gasoline. represent just above 70% of on-road fuels consumed in
In Europe, meanwhile, the imbalance is structural. the EU in 2020. Our analysis shows that even a drastic
European refineries do not produce enough diesel but change in new passenger car sales trends will not
they do produce too much gasoline. As a result, Europe rebalance the on-road-fuel demand before 2020, mainly
is importing diesel and exporting gasoline to the US. because about 55% of the on-road diesel demand in
How will the situation evolve? the EU is for commercial vehicles (freight and light
Our studies take into account product demand trucks plus buses).
forecasts, including the potential impact of changes in As a result, the European gasoline surplus will be
the balance of on-road fuel demand. It is also necessary inflated by the incorporation of ethanol in the gasoline
to study the effects of incorporation of biofuels and the
reduction in refining capacity that will occur in the
coming years. Technology and catalysts will
Axens’ 2020 Reference Scenario makes certain
assumptions about the incorporation of biofuels and play a major role on both sides of
reduction in refining capacity. Our assumption is that
regulatory levels of biofuels will be reached later than the Atlantic in adapting refinery
the expected schedule. By 2020, we estimate that
biofuels content will reach 8% (energy basis) in Europe,
production to market demand
well below the regulatory level of 10%, and for the US
our assumption is 9.5% instead of 10.7% corresponding pool and a declining demand. Strong cuts in refining
to the 30 billion gallons of renewable fuels by 2020 capacity will not be able to suppress the gasoline
according to the RFS2 rule. surplus; meanwhile, they will deteriorate the diesel
In addition, our Reference Scenario incorporates balance.
refining capacity reduction both in Europe and in the The US market presents a better fit between supply
US. and demand, in which a gasoline deficit will be
The US demand forecast is based on passenger mechanically flattened by falling demand and further
car sales of mainly gasoline models, with the incorporation of ethanol.
implementation of new programmes aimed at reducing At Axens, we are convinced that technology and
fuel consumption. catalysts will play a major role on both sides of the
For Europe, our forecast is based on the following Atlantic in adapting refinery production to market
passenger car sales breakdown in 2020: diesel cars at demand.
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fields:
x refining/petrochemicals process specialty chemicals sales
x refining/petrochemicals process technology, operations, maintenance, turnaround
and should be ZLOOLQJWRWUDYHOQDWLRQZLGHDQGZRUOGZLGHDORQJZLWKEHLQJSURQHWRKDUGZRUNLQJDQGVDOHV
Having a technical degree and good market knowledge is also required.
The available positions will cover: technical sales, implementation of ITW technologies on the field,
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Interesting compensation plans will be given along with serious career possibilities. Please contact:
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www.ptqenquiry.com
www.eptq.com for further information PTQ Q1 2011 13

pcs1.indd 1 12/10/10 10:34:32
Processing Trends
Functional safety management related system satisfactorily performing the required

Jeff Beijk, Functional Safety Expert, Yokogawa Europe safety functions under all the stated conditions within
jeff.beijk@nl.yokogawa.com a stated period of time.” Safety integrity covers both
The IEC 61508 and IEC 61511 international safety stan- hardware safety integrity, which is the result of the
dards define the requirements for guaranteeing the random failures in the hardware used and hence
safety integrity of equipment used to safeguard poten- cannot be avoided once the design is fixed, and system-
tially hazardous processes in the process industry. These atic safety integrity, which is the result of work
standards, however, are not restricted to the equipment methods and other procedures.
itself, but cover the complete safety life cycle for the
design, realisation, operation and maintenance of the Hardware safety integrity
safety systems. This implies developing the concept for Hardware safety integrity has to do with random hard-
risk reduction measures from the initiation up to and ware failures within safeguarding equipment. Depending
including the decommissioning or disposal of the on the required risk reduction for a potential hazardous
process equipment. process, the equipment needs to achieve a certain Safety
Functional safety management (FSM) is a method — Integrity Level (SIL) as defined in the IEC standards.
as well as an aid — for going through all the phases of The Safety Integrity Level — a standard reference
the safety life cycle (see Figure 1) in the way defined item in process safety management — varies from SIL1
by the two standards. The standards require those to SIL4, with a higher number implying that there are
involved in activities during the safety lifecycle to have greater risks in the loop. They are described in the IEC
an FSM system in place and to use it. safety standards, and can be interpreted as follows:
In order to obtain a better understanding of what • SIL0 (risk lower than SIL1) implies tolerable risk and
FSM means, it is first important to understand the term no safety measures are required
safety integrity. The definition of safety integrity in the • For SIL1 to SIL4, the need for appropriate counter-
IEC 61508 standard reads: “The probability of a safety- measures increases with the level, and thus a different
1 Hazard and risk assessment
2 Allocation of safety functions to

protection layers
and functional safety assessment and auditing
Safety lifecycle structure and planning

Management of functional safety,
3 Safety requirements specification for

the safety instrumented system
Design and development
of other means of risk
reduction
Verification
4 Design and engineering of the

safety instrumented system
5 Installation, commissioning
and validation
6 Operation and maintenance
7 Modification
10 11 8 Decommissioning 9
Figure 1 The safety life cycle
proc trends copy 6.indd 1 9/12/10 21:12:18

degree of risk reduction is required for each level: for
Average probability of failure on demand and risk reduction factor
SIL1 the risk reduction must be at least a factor of 10;
for SIL2 at least a factor of 100; for SIL3 at least a factor
Safety Average probability of Risk reduction factor, of 1000; and finally for SIL4 risk reduction must be at
integrity level failure, on demand PFDAVG 1 / PFD AVG
4 10-5 to <10-4 >10 000
least a factor of 10 000.
3 10-4 to <10-3 >1 000 to ≤10 000 This interpretation is not sufficient to explain what
2 10-3 to <10-2 >100 to ≤1000 the SIL in the IEC standards exactly defines quantita-
1 10-2 to <10-1 >10 to ≤100 tively. It is still important to understand what the SIL
0 No safety requirements
means in terms of the safety loop and the selection of
Source: IEC 61508-1, Table 2 appropriate sensors, logic solvers and final elements
to meet the classified safety level, and thereby to
Table 1 realise a safety system that complies with the
targeted SIL.
Today, industrial sensors are available that provide
Hardware safety integrity: architectural constraints on type A highly capable self-diagnostic functions as a standard
safety-related subsystems feature, and many of them are certified for use in
Safety Instrumented Functions (SIF), many times for
Safe failure fraction Hardware fault tolerance use in SIFs up to SIL2 when used as single instruments
0 1 2 and up to SIL3 in redundant use. Similarly, today’s
<60% SIL1 SIL2 SIL3 safety systems include logic solvers certified for use in
60–<90% SIL2 SIL3 SIL4
90–<99% SIL3 SIL4 SIL4 SIFs classified as SIL3 or SIL4.
>99% SIL3 SIL4 SIL4 Together, the two IEC standards require that the
achieved SIL of a complete safety instrumented func-
Table 2 tion be proven. There are two aspects involved in
demonstrating that the required SIL will be achieved:
• The safety architectures of sensors, logic solvers and
Hardware safety integrity: architectural constraints on type B final elements (see Tables 2–5) have to comply with the
safety-related subsystems relevant tables for fault tolerance: IEC 61508-2
• The achieved compound PFDAVG (probability of a
Safe failure fraction Hardware fault tolerance failure on demand averaged over the lifetime of the
0 1 2 safety instrumented system) of all hardware elements
<60% Not allowed SIL1 SIL2
60-<90% SIL1 SIL2 SIL3
that are part of the safety instrumented function has to
90-<99% SIL2 SIL3 SIL4 be calculated and has to comply with the required SIL.
>99% SIL3 SIL4 SIL4 The risk reduction of the SIF now computes as the
inverse of the PFDAVG; for example, when PFDAVG =
Table 3 0.01, risk reduction = 100 (see Table 1).
Architectural constraints have to do with the fault
tolerance of devices: depending on the complexity of
Minimum hardware fault tolerance of PE logic solvers devices and on their so-called safe failure fraction (see
Table 2), end users (and successively engineering
SIL Minimum hardware fault tolerance contractors) have to apply single, dual redundant or
SFF <60% SFF 60-90% SFF >90% even multiple redundant systems. It is also a system
1 1 0 0 integrator’s responsibility to check whether the safety
2 2 1 0
requirements comply with these regulations, not only
3 3 2 1
4 Special requirements apply - See IEC 61508 at acceptance of a project but also during early involve-
ment in front-end engineering design (FEED) studies
and in bid phases.
Table 4 Vendors of safety-related elements have to provide
relevant failure data for their products to make it
possible for system integrators and/or end users to
Minimum hardware fault tolerance of sensors and final determine the safety architecture and to calculate the
elements and non-PE logic solvers PFDAVG.
Systematic safety integrity

SIL Minimum hardware fault tolerance The fewer the number of systematic failures, the higher
1 0
the systematic safety integrity of safety-related devices
2 1
3 2 and systems. In general, systematic failures occur as a
4 Special requirements apply - See IEC 61508 result of work methods — for example, if designs are
not well checked, if (sub) systems and application
programs are not well tested, or if document control is
Table 5 a mess. In other words, aspects such as hardware and

Functional safety management and safety lifecycle
Functional safety assessment and validation
Validation against customer specification
FAT SAT
cert. cert.
Sales Project Basic Detailed Implementation/ Internal Acceptance Commissioning/ Close

start-up design design assembling test test SAT out
Verify Verify Verify Verify Verify Verify Verify Verify
Modification? “Back to the appropriate phase”
Safety
Safety
deliverables FDS TS/TR TR TR TR certificate
SVP IOM
Calos PSMT
TEP
Figure 2 Yokogawa’s implementation of functional safety management
software design, application engineering and program- assembling, testing, commissioning and maintaining of
ming, verification and validation, testing and safety systems. Moreover, these staff must know and
configuration management all have to be carried out in understand the safety regulations
a structured manner and well documented in such a • The execution of functional safety assessment and
way that there is an auditable trail. validation must take place on every safety project
To guarantee this structured way of working, the IEC and must be carried out by functional safety experts
standards require users to have a functional safety who operate independently from the project execution
management system in place and to apply it. Adequate team
procedures, templates and tools need to be in place -— • Periodic functional safety audits must be executed —
and to be used — to ensure the integrity of project again by independent functional safety experts
execution. All staff involved in the realisation of safety- • All these activities have to be well documented to
related systems have to be safety competent. As part of provide an auditable trail. The
(all) safety-related projects, a safety validation exercise These principles are summarised in Figure 2.
has to be carried out — either by an independent func- It is not just suppliers and system integrators of
safe
tional safety expert within the company or by a
third-party expert.
safety instrumented systems who have to comply with
the requirements of the safety standards for functional
mus
safety management. All those parties who are involved proj
The route to FSM in one or more phases of the safety life cycle have to
To summarise, management of functional safety means have a FSM system in place if they aim to comply with func
that: the standards.
• Functional safety-related procedures, work instruc- To assist users in implementing this approach,
tions, tools and templates need to be in place and, even safety consultancy services based on the expertise
more importantly, it can be shown that they are all of companies such as Yokogawa are now being
used during project execution offered to external parties, including end users and
• Project engineers are employed who are fully trained engineering contractors. In addition to providing
(and retrained) in safety and thus totally understand support to users setting up an FSM system, these
the basic requirements of safety as well as those of services cover more phases of the safety life cycle,
safety systems including advice on the preparation of hazard and risk
• It is not only the engineers and maintenance staff assessments, safety requirements specifications, safety
who need to be trained, but also the project managers site validation, and the operation and maintenance of
and line managers in aspects of engineering, designing, safety applications.

Two months ago, we had a process redesign.
Last month? The I/O schedule changed…again.
Today, skids showed up and didn’t match spec.
And yet, our start-up isn’t changing.
Next time, design flexibility and adaptability into your project right from the start.
Now, instead of a design freeze, you can make your I/O and marshalling decisions when
you need to, right through construction and commissioning, with Emerson’s new I/O on
Demand technology. So not only are last-second changes not a problem, there’s no need
to build in the extra slack time that pushes out your project’s start-up. Less engineering.
Fewer change orders. Shorter project cycles. With Emerson’s I/O on Demand technology,
it’s possible. www.EmersonProcess.com/IOonDemand
www.ptqenquiry.com
The Emerson logo is a trademark and a service mark of Emerson Electric Co. © 2011 Emerson Electric Co.
115298 ins9 PossibleS PTQ.indd 1 26/11/2010 09:16

emerson.indd 1 8/12/10 14:45:12
Clean diesel project
A process review, including the improvement of atmospheric and vacuum

distillation columns, for the reformulation of the diesel pool
LUIGI VALAGUSSA
Koch-Glitsch Italia
T
he reformulation of diesel oil distillation unit (CDU) and vacuum draw up a cost estimate for the
fuel was introduced by the distillation unit (VDU), may revamp of the refinery’s HDT unit
European Union in 2009. The improve total diesel production and to achieve the specified clean diesel
aim of the Fuel Directive is to minimise the impact on existing oil requirements.
reduce pollution from vehicle emis- units of the refinery. This analysis No consideration was given and
sions. One feature of this directive, has the benefit of lower capital cost no modification was proposed to
discussed in this article, is the for the project; furthermore, the produce in-specification, straight-run
specification that the maximum improvements can no longer be diesel from the existing CDU.
distillation final point of the diesel postponed in view of the market Therefore, the design basis for the
oil is set at 360°C for 95% of regulation of diesel oil. HDT revamp was a diesel stream
distilled volume measured accord- with D86T95=360°C at the HDT
ing to the ASTM D86 analysis Study approach battery limit. The HDT does not
(D86T95). Additionally, the Fuel The scope of this work was to significantly change the diesel distil-
Directive requires a reduction of analyse and compare different ways lation endpoint. The HDT feasibility
sulphur content to a maximum 10 to achieve the required diesel distil- study investigated whether this
ppm. Both the specifications affect lation end point from the CDU/VDU diesel stream property can be
refinery operations. More specifi- as specified by the shorter diesel oil achieved by mixing the present
cally, catalytic processes such cut (D86T95=360°C), while mini- straight-run diesel from the CDU
as hydrocracking (HDC) and mising the impact on the HDC and with an additional light stream to
hydrotreating (HDT) are used to HDT downstream units and opti- reach the maximum distillation
improve the diesel yield and to mising the total diesel production point. The evaluation showed that if
limit the sulphur content respec- yield. a D86T95=325°C blending stream is
tively. A more extensive analysis, A refinery requested a licensor to mixed with the present straight-run
which looks at the atmospheric conduct a feasibility study and to diesel stream at D86T95=382°C, the
LPG + Naphtha: (18.6)
Crude: 100 Kero: (13.3) (27.9)

D86T95=382°C
(15.8)
LDO
D86T95=324°C
(29)
HDO D86T95=391°C Cat. crack. Hydrotreater No spec. for
(12.1) HDC HDT
CDU clean diesel oil
Internal OVF: (6.33) (27.9 + 29Y)

AR (4.8) D86T95=375°C
(40.2) LVGO
SW recycle HVGO (24.2) (% vol on crude)

Y=HDC diesel vol yield
VDU
Heavy ends recycle: (6.7)
VR: (17.9)
Figure 1 Present scheme
koch.indd 1 9/12/10 21:17:15

Crude: 100 Kero: (13.3)
(15.8)
D86T95= LDO
324°C
HDO Cat. crack. Hydrotreater
(3) HDC HDT
CDU
D86T95= Clean
391°C Internal OVF: (6.33) diesel oil
AR (36.1)
(18.8) (1.9)
(40.2) D86T95=365°C LVGO
(27) (20.7 + 36.1Y)
HVGO D86T95=360°C
SW recycle
VDU
Heavy ends
recycle: (6.7)
VR: (17.9) (9.1) (% vol on crude)
(9.1) Y=HDC diesel vol yield
(20.7)
Figure 2 HDO splitting and vacuum revamp
light blending should be about 1.7 • Light diesel oil (LDO) and heavy HDT unit (to reduce sulphur
times (by volume) the total atmos- diesel oil (HDO) are produced in content), which will be approached
pheric diesel produced. This solution the atmospheric column. These and solved by a catalyst licensor;
does not look very attractive because streams are mixed together and fed and, second, the distillation point
it requires an increase in treatment to the HDT unit. The analysis of specification of the diesel stream.
capacity, which can affect the this straight-run diesel oil is
revamp of the existing HDT unit D86T95=382°C, and this does not Alternative scheme to produce clean
substantially and the size of a new change significantly after HDT diesel oil
unit as well. It also omits any treatment. The present HDT unit is The first step was to evaluate
consideration of the availability of a not able to reduce the sulphur whether the CDU and VDU
light blending stream and the total content to the required level for columns can reach the target
cost. clean diesel oil through enhanced performance. It
Two main points to consider from • The atmospheric residue (AR) is is clear from Figure 1 that the deep
this example are: fed to the vacuum column, which is cut of HDO greatly affects the
• The clean diesel project must take equipped with three beds of grid diesel quality. In addition, no sensi-
the overall refinery process scheme packing (old style). One bed at the ble benefit is achieved by modifying
and production capacity into top of the column for top pumpa- the internals of the existing
account round service produces a light atmospheric column to produce in-
• Alternatives are available to vacuum gas oil (LVGO), a second specification, straight-run diesel oil
improve clean diesel production bed at the middle of the column for and by minimising the loss of HDO
and to limit the impact on the new/ mid pumparound service produces yield. The main reasons are:
existing equipment and facilities. a heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO), • There is a low margin for improv-
and a third bed at the bottom of the ing the HDO final distillation points
Present scheme column is a wash bed. The two gas because the present column inter-
The main features of the existing oils are mixed together and fed to nals are already designed according
refinery (see Figure 1) are listed the HDC unit to the most advanced and efficient
below. The refinery is presently • The diesel stream from the HDC technology
producing non-clean diesel oil: unit is mixed with the HDT • Any attempt to maximise the
• The crude oil-handling capacity straight-run diesel and a final diesel straight-run diesel oil, including
is 125 000 b/d. To increase the stream with D86T95=375°C (value different splitting of LDO/HDO,
handling capacity, the atmospheric from refinery), which is above the affects existing equipment and
column was revamped some years distillation endpoint requirement operations (for instance, pumpa-
ago by Koch-Glitsch with Superfrac for clean diesel oil, is produced. round and heat recovery). The total
trays and Flexipac HC structured The refinery has to consider two diesel oil yield must be reduced
packing; it thus contains the main modifications in order to and the heavy ends that are not
most advanced column internals comply with the clean diesel speci- recoverable into the HDO stream
technology fication: first, the revamp of the must be left in the atmospheric
koch.indd 2 9/12/10 21:17:28

PTQ_Ad_CBI-Sept.pdf 1 8/19/2010 11:27:02 AM
CM
MY
CY
CMY
www.ptqenquiry.com
cbi.indd 1 13/9/10 10:32:33

residue fed to the vacuum column. HDO splitting and vacuum revamp increase of 24.5% for HDC. The
An increase in atmospheric residue scheme (HDO splitting scheme), to increased HDC capacity requires a
could affect the existing vacuum produce clean diesel oil without deeper investigation into the suita-
heater performance, which is reducing the HDO yield, can be bility of running the existing unit
already limiting the present utilised (see Figure 2): under the new conditions, and the
operations. • The HDO from the atmospheric expected conclusion is that the
On the other hand, a total revamp column is split into a stream that HDC unit itself has to be revamped.
of the vacuum column internals can be mixed with the LDO stream Additionally, we have to note that
(from the old grid packing to new and then with the LVGO stream diesel production from HDC
structured packing beds) can produced by the vacuum column depends on the conversion yield,
produce the LVGO stream in speci- in a ratio suitable to obtain and this may result in a decrease in
fication for clean diesel oil and D86T95=360°C in the resulting overall diesel production.
therefore be suitable for blending stream (LDO + HDO partially +
with the atmospheric straight-run LVGO). This stream can be sent to New scheme for maximising clean
diesel oil. This avoids additional HDT for the final treatment diesel oil
processing of this stream through • As discussed already, the vacuum The main feature of the new scheme
HDC. The vacuum column revamp column is revamped from the exist- proposal involves the atmospheric
calls for four new structured packing three beds to four beds. The over-flash (OVF). As Figure 3
ing beds, instead of the three produced LVGO is suitable for the shows, this stream is drawn off
existing beds, with the additional diesel oil pool, and the HVGO is from the atmospheric column,
bed located below the top pumpa- sent to the HDC together with the bypasses the vacuum heater and is
round bed for fractionation service. excess HDO stream. Even if the fed to the VDU above the wash
This is necessary to produce the in- vacuum column revamp reduces section. In this case, the vacuum
specification LVGO product. the total vacuum gas oil (VGO) to column is also revamped with
Currently, this arrangement is HDC, the total feed to HDC must four beds.
one of our recommended options, account for the extra feed coming The benefit of the new scheme
because there is extensive experi- from the HDO stream not conveyed can be quantified by comparing the
ence that it provides a stream to HDT. values reported in Figure 1 (present
suitable for a diesel oil pool without Comparing the HDO splitting scheme), Figure 2 (HDO splitting
further processing. In our study, we scheme to the present scheme, it and vacuum revamp scheme) and
determined that the recoverable can be seen that the total feed to Figure 3 (new scheme). The benefits
LVGO with the revamped vacuum HDT decreases from 27.9 vol% are:
column is about 2 vol% on a crude based on crude to 20.7 vol%; • The new scheme gives better
feed basis. however, the HDC feed increases overall clean diesel oil recovery
On the basis of the above consid- from 29 vol% based on crude to compared to the HDO splitting
erations, an alternative scheme, the 36.1 vol%, resulting in a capacity solution
Crude: 100 Kero: (13.3)
(15.8)
LDO
D86T95=324°C
(7.3) HDO Cat. crack. Hydrotreater
D86T95=372°C HDC HDT
CDU
Internal OVF: (10.3)
AR
(3.2) LVGO
D86T95=365°C Clean diesel oil
SW recycle HVGO (30.8)
VDU
Heavy ends (26.3)
(34.7)
recycle: (6.7)
VR: (17.9) (% vol on crude)
Y=HDC diesel vol yield
(26.3)
D86T95=360°C
Figure 3 New scheme
koch.indd 3 9/12/10 21:17:44

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ad copy 2.indt 1 9/6/10 14:56:38

• In the new scheme, the feed to reduced to produce a HDO stream nals, providing four beds equipped
HDC decreases by approximately that can be mixed with LDO (same with new structured packing from
14.7% compared to the HDO split- yield as the present scheme and the Koch-Glitsch.
ting scheme and therefore the HDO splitting scheme) and with The additional bed is located
required treatment capacity of HDC LVGO from the VDU to produce a between the HVGO and LVGO
results in an approximate increase straight-run, in-specification diesel pumparound beds, providing a
of only 6.2% in comparison to the oil (D86T95=360°C) that is fed to fractionation section for the LVGO
present arrangement. We can expect HDT. This stream results in 26.3 product. In this way, the LVGO
no, or only minor, modifications to vol% based on crude, which is product, drawn off below the
the existing HDC unit lower than the not-in-specification LVGO pumparound bed, is made
• In the new scheme, the feed to present feed, but definitely higher available in specification for mixing
HDT increases approximately 27% than the feed computed for the with the atmospheric diesel oil and
compared to the HDO splitting HDO splitting scheme. The crude avoiding further processing in
scheme; however, it is less than the heater duty is the same for all the HDC, as in the present scheme. The
present capacity and it is actually schemes and, because of the arrangement shown is not necessar-
about 5.7% less than the capacity of reduced yield of HDO in the new ily required to realise the clean
the present scheme. The existing scheme, the extra distillate is recov- diesel project, but it has been
HDT could need some modifica- ered in the over-flash stream, which applied in many projects (practi-
tions due to the ultra-low sulphur increases to 10.3 vol% based on cally since the introduction of
level required by the clean fuel crude, compared with 6.33 vol% in structured packing in the market)
regulation. On the contrary, the the earlier schemes. Different rates to improve the performance of
decreased feed rate can provide for the over-flash stream or splitting vacuum columns worldwide with
additional benefit by allowing thereof (partially drawn off and significant results. It is clear that the
improved performances with the partially conveyed into atmospheric clean diesel regulation pushes heav-
same arrangement or with minor residue) can be investigated more ily towards any investment that can
modifications compared with the deeply according to needs and improve the recovery of diesel oil
HDO splitting scheme constraints, while taking the recov- while limiting the penalty of paying
• The new scheme saves on erable yield of HDO and the impact for the production of the required
vacuum heater duty demand, which on crude and vacuum heater duties shorter cut.
generally is a bottleneck in revamp- into account. Figure 3 shows that the recovery
ing projects. In the new scheme, we used all of of in-specification LVGO is 3.2 vol%
The new scheme is unusual in the crude heater duty available based on crude, compared with 1.9
existing plants where the atmos- from the present scheme. Since vol% according to the HDO split-
pheric over-flash is typically the over-flash stream is totally ting scheme. Furthermore, the
combined with the atmospheric resi- conveyed to the vacuum column recovery of HVGO (with a slightly
due. Recent atmospheric column rather than being sent to atmos- higher endpoint compared with the
revamps have mostly been carried pheric residue as in the other previous cases) is 30.8 vol% based
out to increase not only capacity but schemes, the resulting atmospheric on crude, compared with 24.2 vol%
also the distillates yield (including residue product decreases to 34.7 according to the present scheme
diesel oil yields), therefore reducing vol% based on crude, compared and 27 vol% according to the HDO
gas oil losses in the atmospheric with 40.2 vol% in the earlier splitting scheme.
residue. This approach was accepta- schemes. In this specific case, a few The new scheme (with the atmos-
ble because a longer diesel oil cut mechanical modifications to the pheric over-flash fed to the vacuum
was allowed, enabling the atmos- existing unit are needed to be able column) enables better recovery of
pheric residue to dry up. Practically to apply the new processing in-specification LVGO and also
all of the straight-run diesel product scheme: increases the HVGO yield, resulting
was recovered in the atmospheric • A new draw-off nozzle is in a maximisation of the total
column, and the vacuum column installed in the atmospheric column distillates yield (LVGO + HVGO)
was arranged to produce a long gas vessel for over-flash service compared with the other schemes.
oil cut from the mixing of LVGO • A new circuit complete with In conclusion, this looks to be the
and HVGO (see Figure 1) containing pumps, piping, control and instru- most efficient way to improve gas
heavy ends to be converted into mentation is installed to feed the oil recovery.
lighter products in HDC. over-flash product to the vacuum In the reported comparisons, the
The new scheme (see Figure 3) column. slop wax (SW) recycle to the
shows how a review of conditions vacuum heater, the external feed
in the CDU and VDU allows for VDU operations (heavy ends recycle) and the yield
major benefits with minor impact. The existing vacuum column is still of vacuum residue (VR) product
arranged with an old-style design have been set at the same values for
CDU operations consisting of three beds with low- all of the schemes.
In Figure 3, it can be seen that the efficiency grid packing. We propose Since the over-flash is drawn off
HDO yield from the CDU has been a total revamp of the column inter- totally from the atmospheric
koch.indd 4 9/12/10 21:17:56

New vacuum
column internals Naphtha – gas Kerosene Diesel oil Gas HVGO
New circuit for OVF

by-pass to VDU LVGO
Atmospheric
distillation unit
Vacuum
distillation unit
KERO
LDO
Steam
HDO Heavy ends

recycle
Steam
Steam Steam
Vacuum
residue
Crude
oil Steam
Heating
Figure 4 New process flow diagram
column, rather than being conveyed approximately 6°C compared with requires a relatively large nozzle. In
into the atmospheric residue the previous schemes because a the case of a revamp, the necessary
according to the new scheme, the heavier cut of atmospheric residue room has to be evaluated carefully
atmospheric residue feed decreases is fed to the heater. This point to provide sufficient room for the
to 34.7 vol% based on crude, should be evaluated more deeply nozzle, the disengagement space
compared with 40.2 vol% for the during the engineering phase, as above the wash bed and a feed
other schemes; as a result, the well as the fact that the lower inlet device.
vacuum heater will be affected. vapour rate will cause a reduction Cooling of the over-flash stream,
For the same vacuum residue, the in the pressure drop along the before feeding it to the wash section
vapourisation rate to the furnace transfer line, which results in a of the vacuum column, reduces the
according to the new scheme is thus lower heater outlet temperature. flashing rate but increases the
less than that required for the other Some final consideration must be heater duty demand. In this case, a
schemes, both as quantity of vapour given to the conditions and location critical piece of equipment, such as
flow and as percentage of total feed of the over-flash stream entering the vacuum heater, can cause a
to the heater. As a result, the heater the vacuum column. In the new bottleneck because of the increase
duty demand in the new scheme is scheme, the atmospheric over-flash in the vapourisation rate and the
12.7 MMKcal/h with a vapourisa- is fed above the wash bed of the heater outlet temperature.
tion of 22 wt% of total feed, vacuum column at the draw-off An alternative was evaluated;
compared with 14.8 MMKcal/h and conditions from the atmospheric namely, cooling down the over-
a vapourisation of 24.8 wt% in the column. This means that this stream flash stream to the temperature of
other schemes. These figures are is fed at about 363°C, a very high the bottom pumparound (150°C)
very attractive when evaluating the temperature, into a column under and moving the feed location to
performance of an existing furnace vacuum. This will cause high flash- above the bottom pumparound
at the new conditions, even with ing rates at the inlet of the vacuum bed. The results are in line with the
the increased temperature at the column or, more specifically, down- new scheme in terms of recovery,
heater outlet. In fact, this tempera- stream of the valve controlling the product characteristics and heater
ture increases in the new scheme by over-flash flow rate. This condition duty, but the bottom pumparound
koch.indd 5 13/12/10 10:03:37

Total clean diesel production summary revamp projects. The vacuum
column internals play an especially
important role in improving prod-
vol% on crude (% difference vs present) ucts separation and gas oil recovery.
Case Present scheme HDO splitting scheme New scheme
LDO to HDT (hydrotreating) 15.80 15.80 15.80 Two main modifications to the
HDO to HDT 12.10 3.00 7.30 vacuum column are proposed: first,
LVGO to HDT 0.00 1.90 3.20 the installation of the latest genera-
Total to HDT 27.90 20.70 26.30 tion of structured packing; and
LVGO to HDC (hydrocracking) 4.80 0.00 0.00
HVGO to HDC 24.20 27.00 30.80 second, the introduction of a new
HDO to HDC 0.00 9.10 0.00 LVGO fractionation bed below the
Total to HDC 29.00 36.10 30.80 top pumparound (not shown in the
Total diesel D86 95%v, °C 375 360 360 present arrangement). These modi-
HDC diesel conversion yield %v 30 36.60 31.53 (-5.07) 35.54 (-1.06)
50 42.40 38.75 (-3.65) 41.70 (-0.70) fications will improve the product
70 48.20 45.97 (-2.23) 47.86 (-0.34) quality and yields as described.
90 54.00 53.19 (-0.81) 54.02 (0.00) Important issues to resolve while
developing a revamp project
Table 1 according to the new scheme are
the increased temperature at the
duty decreases substantially scheme is compared with the vacuum heater outlet and the feed
(approximately half that of the new present scheme (reproducing the location of the atmospheric over-
scheme). However, flashing of the actual operations/ arrangement) flash stream to the vacuum column.
over-flash stream is practically nil, and with the HDO splitting scheme. In the reported new scheme, the
and this solves the space problems The new scheme, representing an over-flash has been fed hot above
described earlier. alternative for clean diesel produc- the wash section, but an alternative
On the other side, feeding the tion based on a traditional route, is with a cold feed above the bottom
over-flash between the bottom shown and discussed. pumparound bed could be
pumparound bed and the LVGO A new process route where the considered.
fractionation bed increases the risk atmospheric over-flash is fed to the In Table 1, the production rates
of contamination with unwanted vacuum column bypassing the referred to are reported in terms of
material that can be entrained into vacuum heater has been suggested. vol% based on crude feed. Total
the distillates products. The risk is With this scheme, the recovery of diesel production depends on the
higher than in the case where the gas oil in the vacuum column can conversion yield of the HDC unit;
over-flash is fed above the wash be enhanced, partially as in- therefore, we reported several cases
bed. This matter should be evalu- specification LVGO for the diesel at various values of conversion
ated in more detail, while taking yield. The new scheme, in compari-
the quality and characteristics of son with the alternative HDO
the over-flash stream into account. The diesel oil pool splitting scheme, enables better
The simplified process flow splitting of the treatment capacity
diagram shown in Figure 4 indi- is now subject between HDT and HDC, which is
cates the new over-flash circuit and closer to the existing capacities.
the new beds of the vacuum
to more stringent Total clean diesel production is
column. better in the new scheme, in
specifications comparison with the HDO splitting
Summary and conclusion according to the scheme, for all the assumed conver-
The diesel oil pool is now subject sion yields in HDC. We conclude
to more stringent specifications EU’s Fuel Directive that the new scheme can achieve
according to the EU’s Fuel Directive the recovery of clean diesel while
for the utilisation of clean diesel oil. minimising the penalty in clean
The reformulation of the diesel oil pool (3.2 vol% based on crude) and diesel production, which is an
pool can be achieved by a review of partially as HVGO feedstock to expected result of the stricter speci-
operations and improvement of the HDC, resulting in an increase in fication for market diesel oil.
performances of the atmospheric total gas oil recovery (LVGO +
and vacuum distillation columns. HVGO) of about 17 vol% in FLEXIPAC, HC and SUPERFRAC are marks of
A new processing scheme, comparison to the present opera- Koch-Glitsch, LP.
applied to an existing refinery, has tions. Under the stated conditions,
been presented and the attainable the vacuum heater duty demand Luigi Valagussa is Refining Process Manager
benefits have been discussed. These decreases by approximately 14% in with Koch-Glitsch in Italy. He has more than
benefits include increased overall comparison to the present opera- 30 years’ experience in oil refining and process
clean diesel recovery with minor tions. This adds a solid benefit design, and graduated in chemical engineering
impact on the existing downstream because the vacuum heater, a criti- from Politecnico of Milan, Italy.
HDC and HDT units. The new cal item, is often a bottleneck in Email: luigi.valagussa@kochglitsch.com
koch.indd 6 9/12/10 21:18:18

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basf.indd 1 13/9/10 12:20:24

PROCESS INSIGHT
Comparing Physical Solvents for Acid Gas Removal
Physical solvents such as DEPG, NMP, Methanol, and Propylene Carbonate PC (Propylene Carbonate)
are often used to treat sour gas. These physical solvents differ from chemical The Fluor Solvent process uses JEFFSOL® PC and is by Fluor
solvents such as ethanolamines and hot potassium carbonate in a number of Daniel, Inc. The light hydrocarbons in natural gas and hydrogen in synthesis
ways. The regeneration of chemical solvents is achieved by the application gas are less soluble in PC than in the other solvents. PC cannot be used for
of heat whereas physical solvents can often be stripped of impurities by selective H2S treating because it is unstable at the high temperature required
simply reducing the pressure. Physical solvents tend to be favored over to completely strip H2S from the rich solvent. The FLUOR Solvent process
chemical solvents when the concentration of acid gases or other impurities is generally limited to treating feed gases containing less than 20 ppmv;
is very high and the operating pressure is high. Unlike chemical solvents, however, improved stripping with medium pressure flash gas in a vacuum
physical solvents are non-corrosive, requiring only carbon steel construction. stripper allows treatment to 4 ppmv for gases containing up to 200 ppmv H2S.
A physical solvent’s capacity for absorbing acid gases increases significantly The operating temperature for PC is limited to a minimum of 0°F (-18°C) and
as the temperature decreases, resulting in reduced circulation rate and a maximum of 149°F (65°C).
associated operating costs.
Gas Solubilities in Physical Solvents
Typical Physical Solvent Process All of these physical solvents are more selective for acid gas than
for the main constituent of the gas. Relative solubilities of some selected
gases in solvents relative to carbon dioxide are presented in the following
table.
The solubility of hydrocarbons in physical solvents increases with
the molecular weight of the hydrocarbon. Since heavy hydrocarbons tend
to accumulate in the solvent, physical solvent processes are generally not
economical for the treatment of hydrocarbon streams that contain a substantial
amount of pentane-plus unless a stripping column with a reboiler is used.
DEPG PC NMP MeOH

Gas Component
at 25°C at 25°C at 25°C at -25°C
DEPG (Dimethyl Ether of Polyethylene Glycol) H2 0.013 0.0078 0.0064 0.0054
DEPG is a mixture of dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol. Methane 0.066 0.038 0.072 0.051
Solvents containing DEPG are marketed by several companies including Ethane 0.42 0.17 0.38 0.42
Coastal Chemical Company (as Coastal AGR®), Dow (Selexol™), and
CO2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
UOP (Selexol). DEPG can be used for selective H2S removal and can be
configured to yield both a rich H2S feed to the Claus unit as well as bulk CO2 Propane 1.01 0.51 1.07 2.35
removal. DEPG is suitable for operation at temperatures up to 347°F (175°C). n-Butane 2.37 1.75 3.48 -
The minimum operating temperature is usually 0°F (-18°C). COS 2.30 1.88 2.72 3.92
MeOH (Methanol) H2S 8.82 3.29 10.2 7.06
The most common Methanol processes for acid gas removal are n-Hexane 11.0 13.5 42.7 -
the Rectisol process (by Lurgi AG) and Ifpexol® process (by Prosernat). The Methyl Mercaptan 22.4 27.2 34.0 -
main application for the Rectisol process is purification of synthesis gases
derived from the gasification of heavy oil and coal rather than natural gas
treating applications. The two-stage Ifpexol process can be used for natural
gas applications. Methanol has a relatively high vapor pressure at normal
Choosing the Best Alternative
A detailed analysis must be performed to determine the most
process conditions, so deep refrigeration or special recovery methods
economical choice of solvent based on the product requirements. Feed gas
are required to prevent high solvent losses. The process usually operates
composition, minor components present, and limitations of the individual
between -40°F and -80°F (-40°C and -62°C).
physical solvent processes are all important factors in the selection process.
NMP (N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone) Engineers can easily investigate the available alternatives using a verified
The Purisol Process uses NMP® and is marketed by Lurgi AG. process simulator such as ProMax® which has been verified with plant
The flow schemes used for this solvent are similar to those for DEPG. The operating data.
process can be operated either at ambient temperature or with refrigeration For additional information about this topic, view the technical
down to about 5°F (-15°C). The Purisol process is particularly well suited article “A Comparison of Physical Solvents for Acid Gas Removal” at
to the purification of high-pressure, high CO2 synthesis gas for gas turbine http://www.bre.com/tabid/147/Default.aspx. For more information about
integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) systems because of the high ProMax, contact Bryan Research & Engineering or visit www.bre.com.
selectivity for H2S.
www.ptqenquiry.com
Bryan Research & Engineering, Inc.
P.O. Box 4747 • Bryan, Texas USA • 77805
979-776-5220 • www.bre.com • sales@bre.com
ProcessInsight 2008APR11.a4.rev2.indd 1 4/21/2008 9:00:47 AM

BRE 1 9/3/09 11:23:53
Simulation model increases
visbreaker conversion
Introduction of advanced analytical monitoring, chemical treatment and process
optimisation has raised the profitability of a visbreaker unit
Ernesto Agorreta, Carlos Angulo and Aleixandre Soriano Repsol Tarragona

Cristina Font and Marco Respini Baker Hughes
I
n today’s refining climate, the feeding different residues to the Visbreaker monitoring
economics of a visbreaking unit visbreaker unit. The first step of The main purpose of a visbreaker
are mainly related to the conver- this project was the implementation unit is to reduce feed viscosity up
sion levels achieved. Conversion is of Baker Hughes’ advanced analyti- to the vistar stability limit, as well
limited by the impact of cracking cal VisTec technologies for the as to achieve high distillate yields;
reactions on the progressive desta- rapid and reliable assessment of in other words, to achieve
bilisation of the asphaltenes present visbreaker tar (vistar) and heavy maximum conversion value, which,
in the unit feed. This destabilisation fuel oil stability, and to evaluate in turn, has a strong dependence on
causes fouling phenomena, due to fouling tendencies in the unit. This feed quality.
precipitation of the asphaltenes step enabled the refinery to run the Increasing conversion means
and conversion of some of the unit close to its operating limits and operating the unit at higher severi-
asphaltenes to generate coke parti- maximise conversion, while rapidly ties, either by increasing the heater
cles at cracking temperatures above adapting process conditions to outlet temperature or by decreasing
400°C (752°F), and these phenom- changes in processed feed quality the velocity steam and thus
ena limit unit run lengths. On the or flow rate. increasing residence time. Thermal
other hand, destabilised asphaltenes A second step for increasing unit cracking results in a decrease in the
can easily aggregate over time and, profitability was based on a new asphaltene fraction’s solubility and
since produced visbreaker resid is development using a proprietary dispersibility. When extreme crack-
often a base stock for the produc- simulation model of flow regimes ing occurs, asphaltene molecules
tion of heavy fuel oils, this can lead and liquid-phase velocities across can no longer stay in a dispersed
to problems with hot filtration test the visbreaker heater coils as a phase and start to aggregate as a
(HFT) results. function of flow rates, operating separate phase.
Visbreaker severity is monitored temperatures and velocity steam. Aggregation of asphaltenes at
to maximise conversion, taking into The results of the model were thermal cracking temperatures
account excessive coke generation validated in the unit by Repsol above 400°C (752°F) leads to cross-
and the tendency of asphaltenes to process and operation engineers linking and dehydration, and yields
precipitate, either inside process with Baker Hughes service engi- coke particles with a radius of typi-
equipment or as sediments in neers and its technical service cally 1–5 microns. Aggregation of
the heavy fuel oil produced. As foul- group. Operational changes were asphaltenes at lower temperatures
ing increases exponentially at higher implemented based on the results results in fouling of heat exchangers
conversions, process control becomes from the simulation work, while and columns downstream of the
more and more important to prevent the impact on fouling and sedi- process furnace. High generation of
drastic negative outcomes. ments formation, which could coke particles causes rapid heater
Severity is a function of operating potentially affect produced fuel oil coking and shortens unit run length.
temperatures and velocity steam. quality, was continuously moni- In addition, aggregated asphaltenes
This article presents a case of opti- tored. At the same time, furnace tend to precipitate with time, leading
misation of these two variables at skin temperature trends were to sediment problems. The heavy
the Repsol Tarragona visbreaker, continuously tracked and normal- fuel oil fails the HFT when vistar
resulting in major improvements to ised to achieve targeted unit run is blended with cutter stocks.
visbreaker conversion. length. Both heater coking and vistar stabil-
The implementation of all the ity limit maximum conversion.
Repsol Tarragona steps described in this article Therefore, severity must be opti-
The Repsol Tarragona refinery is resulted in further valuable mised regularly to achieve the best
a state-of-the-art 200 000 b/d refin- increases in conversion without compromise between maximum
ery that has broad experience negative effects on unit run length conversion and acceptable unit
processing opportunity crudes and and fuel oil specifications. run length.
baker hughes.indd 1 9/12/10 21:27:25

The tendency for asphaltenes to very high at typical additive injec- the unit, such as the change in the
aggregate is measured as stability tion rates. In such cases, higher velocity steam levels.
reserve, or simply stability; the injection rates may be required.
higher the stability, the lower the Given the sensitivity of the fouling Simulation of coil flow regime
tendency to produce fouling prob- rate to severity, constant monitor- Most visbreakers inject steam or
lems and/or development of ing is essential. The VisTec boiler feed water in the heater
sediments. Stability is normally chemical treatment programme is passes, which helps increase turbu-
defined as the maximum amount of based on the following control lence and improves heat transfer
aliphatic solvent (usually heptane mechanisms: from the coil surface to the cracking
or hexadecane) that can be added • Preventing asphaltene aggregation residuum. As a result, with constant
per gram of resid/vistar or heavy • Reducing foulant deposition rate feed quality and heater outlet
fuel oil before asphaltene precipita- • Reducing asphaltene destabilisation temperature, the heat flux provided
tion occurs. The higher this ratio, • Reducing coke particle size is constant. Increasing turbulence
the higher the stability reserve. • Suppressing coke formation by and overall heat transfer by steam
Controlling visbreaking severity reducing the catalytic effects of tube injection enables the unit to operate
to maintain visbreaker tar stability metal surfaces. with lower skin temperatures. In
minimises serious fouling problems Use of different product combina- addition, increasing turbulence
and the formation of sediments. tions, dosing rates and injection decreases coke formation and has a
Whenever severity is pushed exces- locations are customised, depend- positive effect on increases in skin
sively and vistar stability drops ing on each unit’s problems and temperature during the run.
below the minimum control limit, targets. At Repsol Tarragona, four However, velocity steam reduces
fouling and sediments tend to of these five mechanisms were the residence time, hence cracking
increase exponentially compared to identified as significant contributors and conversion are reduced. This
the increase in conversion. Even to problems. A VisTec additive decrease must be compensated for
when using antifoulants and/or treatment programme was designed with higher cracking temperatures,
asphaltene stabilisers, the extent of to address those four primary which may easily lead to an expo-
fouling and asphaltene precipitation mechanisms to control fouling and nential increase in coking reaction
to produce heavy fuel sediments coking. rates. When it is used excessively,
tends to be so extensive that it is the positive effects of steam are
difficult to control. Optimal visbreaker operating limits then completely offset.
Visbreaker severity is usually In the first phase of the Another aspect to be considered
controlled in refineries with p-value programme’s implementation at is the flow regime in the cracking
and HFT sediments tests. Both tech- Repsol Tarragona, limits for vistar section of the coils. Two different
niques are not fully reliable and stability and coke generation control phases are present: vapourised light
accurate. Details of the VisTec parameters were optimised. These products generated by cracking
methods and improvements over parameters are monitored on a reactions and liquid resid. Steam
traditional techniques are given in daily basis using the VisTec increases the velocity of both
reference 1. Stability Index (VSI) and VisTec phases, until gas slip occurs. In this
Coking Index (VCI) respectively.1 phenomenon, the vapour-phase
Visbreaker fouling control These measurements are essential velocity increase is higher than that
Optimal results in visbreaker foul- for the control of fouling, the of the liquid phase.
ing control are achieved using control of sediment generation and Since the liquid-phase velocity
VisTec additives. These additives setting of the proper unit severity. controls coking phenomena, opti-
produce increased visbreaker feed Operating the unit outside the mal velocity steam rates can be
stability, thus allowing the unit to appropriate limits results in either defined as those where a marked
be operated at increased severity. too conservative a unit severity and increase in vapour-phase velocity
Additives also help control fouling subsequent lost conversion or, has only a minor effect on the
phenomena within critical loca- conversely, severe fouling and HFT liquid-phase velocity. At high gas
tions of the process (charge/resid sediments issues. velocities, after gas slip has
preheat exchangers and column) In the early implementation stage occurred, the gas phase tends to
and improve the stability of of the programme, general and segregate from the bulk liquid, and
heavy fuel oil made from vistar. conservative limits are applied. in the extreme case, annular-type
Visbreakers have achieved optimal Then, optimisation work is under- flow patterns occur. In this regime,
performance when using a combi- taken to reach more specific limits gas flows at high speed in the
nation of additives and monitoring. for the particular unit. Optimal centre of the coil, while liquid
The VisTec additives enable the limits were obtained by comparison segregates and circulates over the
unit to reach higher severities and with the desired unit run length coil walls, thus tending to overheat.
thus higher conversions, while and with sediment specifications. In this situation, any further
monitoring helps to determine and This optimisation involves key increase in steam rates has an effect
control the unit limits. If the limits parameters for controlling changes only on gas-phase velocity.
are exceeded, fouling rates can be in operations and management of Experience in visbreaker operations
30 Q1 2011 www.eptq.com

has shown that this kind of flow
regime causes an increase in coking Pure vapour
phenomena, thus accelerating
increases in tube skin temperature.
Mist (drop) flow Mist evaporation
Figure 1 shows these different flow
regimes schematically.2
The optimal steam injection rate
is a function of several parameters,
Annular flow
including feedstock quality, coil
size and geometry (vertical vs hori- Film evaporation
zontal tube arrangement), operating
conditions and feed flow rate. A
Flow
wide range of operating guidelines
is used by refiners with steam ratios
varying from 0.1–1 wt%, based on
the feed flow rate.
Churn flow
Since this is an important aspect
for maximising conversion while Saturate nucleate
effectively controlling coke deposi- boiling
tion on the coil surface, Baker
Hughes developed a proprietary Slug flow
simulation method that predicts
flow regime and velocities in the
visbreaker coils. This method is
based on commercially available Bubbly flow
simulation packages and correla-
tions. Since various thermodynamic Subcooled nucleate
models and flow regime correla- boiling
tions are available, the Baker Subcooled pure liquid
Petrolite modelling procedure has
been refined over time using field
data. The output of the simulation Figure 1 Different flow regimes
is a determination of optimal flow
regimes and liquid-phase velocities,
Flow regime and velocities at 90 t/h (198 416 lb/h)
which result in a decreased genera-
tion of coke particles and heater
fouling at a given conversion level Steam, Velocity, Reynolds Flow regime Flow regime Velocity liquid phase,
wt% mt/sec, out no •105 in out mt/sec
for a constant processed feed qual-
0.00 0.95 1.10 Single phase Single phase 0.95
ity and flow rate. These data are 0.10 0.95 1.15 Single phase Single phase 0.95
available for field monitoring activi- 0.20 1.13 1.27 Single phase Single phase 0.96
ties on visbreakers and serve as a 0.22 1.14 1.27 Bubble Intermittent 0.97
0.23 1.14 1.28 Intermittent Intermittent 0.97
basis for optimising operating
0.30 1.20 1.31 Annular Annular 1.00
procedures. This method has been 0.50 1.28 1.64 Annular Annular 1.33
applied to several visbreakers in 1.00 1.99 2.48 Annular Annular 2.06
Europe and Asia, resulting in
improved best practices for velocity Table 1
steam management.
The optimal steam levels have rates. As a result, steam injection revealed that at this location an
often been found to be lower than rates were pushed up on a regular annular-type flow regime was likely
expected. In some visbreakers, basis. In addition, analysis of the to develop above moderate steam
steam injection can even be Repsol unit identified an unusual levels of 0.20–0.30 wt%, and this
completely cut at maximum unit phenomenon: a rapid increase in flow regime would contribute to
capacity. Baker Hughes discussed skin temperatures in one particular faster heater coking. This determi-
these experiences with Repsol refin- location at a relatively cold portion nation is interesting, as it
ery operations and technology of the radiant section. demonstrates how poor flow
engineers, and the velocity steam While several parameters can regimes can be developed even at
injection rates for Tarragona were affect tube skin temperatures, moderate steam injection rates in
found to be quite high compared to including the distribution of heat or the case of vertical furnace tubes.
other visbreakers. In the past, flame patterns in the radiant section Calculations at 90 t/h (198 416
asphaltenic feeds had produced that can create higher temperatures lb/h) flow rate show the different
severe problems due to high coking on coil skin locally, the simulation transitions in this tube, with the

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development of annular flow
regimes (see Table 1).
Most of the modelling effort was
Increasing velocity, m/sec

0.0% steam
directed to the hottest part of the 0.1% steam
radiant section. This is the most 0.2% steam
critical part of the furnace in terms 0.3% steam
of unit run length because it is 0.5% steam
where the rates of skin temperature 1.0% steam
increase are highest. Calculations
were performed at different flow
rates and temperatures. Table 2
shows the example output at 120 t/
h (264 554 lb/h) and 450°C (842°F)
heater outlet temperatures. Increasing flow rate, ton/h
The ideal flow regime was identi-
fied as a zone between bubble type Figure 2 Simulation results of liquid-phase velocities at critical radiant sections
and annular/slug flow. Optimal
steam injection ratios at 120 t/h
(264 554 lb/h) are then in the range
between 0.10 wt% and 0.25–0.30
&URNACEOUTLETTEMPERATURE²#

wt%. Under these conditions, flow 6ELOCITYSTEAMFEEDRATE

regime and liquid-phase velocities
were in the ideal range.
Graphs have been created for

different simulations. Figure 2

shows simulation results for liquid-
phase velocity at 450°C (842°F)

heater outlet temperature as a func-
tion of flow rate and steam injection

ratios.
From this graph, optimal levels of

steam as a function of unit feed rate
can be determined. The simulation
has been extended to other operat- Figure 3 Test run: steps in steam percentage and heater outlet temperatures
ing heater outlet temperatures.
The simulation results revealed for definition of the targets and for temperature was set close to the
the relationship between flow its achievement within a test run of normal limit of VSI stability to
regime and liquid-phase velocity at the Tarragona visbreaker. The 442ºC (828°F), starting from a lower
decreasing steam ratios. Based on temperature was changed during than usual operating heater outlet
these results, a test run was the test run according to the temperature of 440ºC (824°F), while
programmed at the Repsol programme. VisTec monitoring the VCI was being controlled in the
Tarragona refinery. The effect of techniques were used to measure normal range, below a control limit
process changes on the fouling the fouling and stability limits of of 350 000. Steam was set at normal
tendency of the visbreaker heater the vistar and fluxed vistar (heavy adopted levels, about 0.85 wt%.
and main fractionator column, as fuel oil) and coke particle Then, keeping a constant tempera-
well as existing or potential sedi- concentrations. ture of 442°C (828°F), an initial
ments in the produced heavy fuel In the first phase, the heater outlet decrease of velocity steam was
oil (fluxed vistar), was monitored
using VisTec analytical techniques. Hottest tube in radiant section: simulation results
Test run for velocity and heater

Steam, Velocity mixed Reynolds Flow regime Flow regime Velocity liquid
outlet temperatures optimal range wt% phase, mt/sec, no •105 tube inlet tube outlet phase, mt/sec
Based on the simulation results, a tube outlet
detailed programme for the test run 0.00 1.89 5.68 Bubble Bubble 1.72
was designed by the refinery’s 0.10 2.37 6.87 Intermittent Intermittent 2.23
0.20 2.78 7.83 Intermittent Intermittent 2.50
process and operations engineers, 0.30 3.15 8.68 Intermittent Intermittent 2.67
with programmed step-down of 0.50 3.84 1.02 Annular Annular 2.97
velocity steam at a constant flow 1.00 5.38 1.50 Annular Annular 3.66
rate and resid feed quality. Repsol’s 1.25 6.10 1.64 Annular Annular 3.80
technical staff, in co-operation with
Baker Hughes, provided support Table 2

the amount of distillates within the
produced vistar, whose distillation
0% 00% 00% 00% .00% 00% 00% 0%

Furnace outlet temperature, °C
would yield a resid with the same
.0
18 20 22 24 26
0 Isoconversion
9. 9.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
viscosity as the visbreaker feed, and
43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44
.
0
represents the real conversion

achieved in the process.
0
.
Isoconversion is shown in Figures 4
0
and 5 as a function of changes in

0
temperatures and steam ratios.
.
The reduction in the steam-to-
0
.
14 16
feed ratio clearly has a positive
0
impact on severity. The decrease in
.
0
steam ratio from 0.85–0.25 wt% at
.0
12
0
440°C (824°F) heater outlet temper-
0%
.0
ature resulted in a very marked
10
00
3/8 4/8 4/8 5/8 5/8 6/8 6/8 7/8 7/8 8/8
increase in isoconversion, from 20%
to about 22%. Even when the
Figure 4 Isoconversion and heater outlet temperature during test run temperature was decreased to
440°C (824°F), the corresponding
cut from 0.40–0.25 wt% of steam

resulted in a further increase of 1%
in isoconversion. These data clearly
show how steam rate optimisation

can be an effective way to increase

conversion without raising heater
outlet temperatures.
Figure 6 shows the effect of veloc-
ity steam reduction on vistar

stability (VSI) and also on the coke
particles (VCI). Vistar stability
6ELOCITYSTEAMFEEDRATE

)SOCONVERSION decreased from a VSI average of
0.85–0.70 when steam was reduced
from 0.85–0.40 wt%, while further
reduction from 0.40–0.25 wt%
Figure 5 Isoconversion and velocity steam percentage during test run showed no further impact on VSI.
With a VSI control value of 0.60,
performed, setting it down to 0.40 resulted in a higher residence time vistar stability was well above the
wt%. Finally, the temperature was with a very positive effect on limit. Optimised flow regime and
set back to the value used before conversion. The conversion of resid optimal liquid-phase velocities
the start of the test, 440°C (824°F), feed to distillates is reported as achieved at reduced steam resulted
while steam was cut to 0.25 wt%. isoconversion, as is typically used in decreased generation of coke
Changes in steam percentage and by the refinery to monitor the particles.
heater outlet temperatures are visbreaking unit’s performance, The generation of coke particles
shown in Figure 3. instead of raw conversion. decreased from VCI values of
A marked decrease in steam Isoconversion takes into account 250 000 to less than 100 000. Both
VSI and VCI at final conditions
indicated room for further increase.
Following the steam reduction (for
St e am, kg/ h pe r pass
1BSUJDMFT 7$*

4UFBNEJMVUJPO 74*WJTUBS the same furnace outlet tempera-
ture), the increase in the highest skin

temperatures was relatively small
& VCI/ 1 0 0
VS I/ vi st ar

(2–3ºC [3.6–5.4ºF], see Figure 7).

The decrease in steam from 0.85–
0.40 wt% resulted in a skin

temperature increase of about 3°C

(5.4ºF), while at a constant 440°C

(824°F) heater outlet temperature

the final test period at 0.25 wt%

produced an increase of about 2°C

(3.6ºF) in skin temperature

Figure 6 Velocity steam reduction vs VSI and VCI compared to the start-up condition,

at 0.85 wt% steam. Based on these
results, new guidelines were

adopted and steam injection was
kept at lower rates, with continuous
optimisation, after the test run.
Table 3 shows a comparison of
average values for two similar
crude blends, within a period of
two weeks before the test and two

weeks after the test. The positive

effect of reducing steam can be

seen, as well as an increase in 6ELOCITYSTEAMFEEDRATE
conversion and a decrease in coke
(IGHESTSKINTEMPERATURE

particles generated.

Increase in conversion after the

test run Figure 7 Variation of critical skin temperature as a function of steam changes
As a result of the simulation and
test run, new guidelines for optimal 2 Delil A A M, Tutorial on Single- and Two- experience in monitoring, troubleshooting
steam injection were adopted and Component Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transfer: and simulation in refining processes, including
continuously optimised by the Commonality and Difference, National crude and vacuum distillation, visbreaking
refinery’s personnel using VisTec Aerospace Laboratory NLR, The Netherlands. and isomerization units. He holds a degree in
monitoring information and corre- chemical engineering from the Polytechnic
lations of process data, engineering University of Valencia, Spain.
Ernesto Agorreta is a Distillation Plant Manager Email: asorianod@repsol.com
know-how and fouling rate data.
at Repsol Tarragona refinery. He has 20 years’ Cristina Font is the Baker Hughes Account
A decrease in steam resulted in Manager at Repsol Tarragona refinery. She
experience in process troubleshooting and
an increase in conversion, in the refinery plant operations supervision, including has seven years’ refining experience in crude,
same run, from an average of 20.0% crude and vacuum distillation, visbreaking, vacuum distillation, visbreaking and olefins
to 22.1% after optimisation. The HDS, and hydrocracking units, and holds a plant, and holds a degree in chemistry and
following run, after optimisation of bachelor’s degree in chemistry and a master’s biochemistry from the Universitat Rovira I
steam injection, yielded an average in chemical engineering from the University of Virgili, Tarragona, Spain, and a MS degree in
isoconversion of 22.7%. This was Zaragoza, Spain. Health, Safety and Environment.
obtained without affecting heavy Email: eagorretaf@repsol.com Email: cristina.font@bakerhughes.com
fuel oil sediments or unit run Carlos Angulo is a Process Engineer at Repsol Marco Respini is a Technology Development
length. Trends in skin temperature Tarragona refinery, Spain. He has nine years’ Specialist in the Baker Petrolite Industrial
experience in monitoring, troubleshooting, Technology Group of Baker Hughes in Europe,
increase were comparable.
simulation and revamping projects in refining specialising in refinery process fouling
processes, including crude and vacuum control. He has 12 years’ experience in asph
Conclusions distillation, visbreaking and hydrocracking, and altene-related problems in refining, and holds
This article illustrates how optimis- has a degree in chemical engineering from the a degree in industrial chemistry from Milan
ing velocity steam can result in a University of Tarragona, Spain. University, Italy. He is a registered professional
remarkable increase in conversion Email: cangulon@repsol.com chemist in Italy and an inventor of two US
without negative impacts on unit Aleixandre Soriano is a Process Engineer at patents.
run length. It also demonstrates Repsol Tarragona refinery. He has five years’ Email: marco.respini@bakerhughes.com
how specific analytical information,
stability and particles generation, Average values for similar crude blends, before and after steam optimisation
provided by the Baker Petrolite
VisTec programme, was used by
Before steam optimisation After steam optimisation
Repsol’s process and operation Feed rate, t/h (lb/h) 175 (385 808) 176 (388 013)
engineers to identify and apply best Heater outlet temperature, ºC (ºF) 441(826) 438 (820)
practices specific to their visbreaker Highest TSK, ºC (ºF) 498 (928) 502 (936)
unit while critically controlling Raw conversion, wt% 10.84 12.61
Isoconversion, wt% 16.71 22.32
fouling rates. Velocity steam ratio, wt% 0.80 0.24
Vistar VSI 0.77 0.58
VisTec is a trademark of Baker Hughes Vistar BPI 6620 16 472
Incorporated. Vistar VCI 263 814 211 930
Crude blend, vol% 68% Basrah 58% Basrah
15% Sirtica 9% Sirtica
8% Maya 3% Maya
References 15% Azeri
9% Others 15% Others
1 Spanu U, Sesselego A, Respini M, Jones G J,
Avoiding foul play, Hydrocarbon Engineering,
Nov 2006. Table 3

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Drivers for zero discharge in refineries
Wastewater treatment utilising zero-discharge techniques has reduced the

impact of effluent discharges
Gary Howard
Foster Wheeler
R
ecent years have seen an treatment systems. Table 2 is a
increasing focus on the envi- Typical plant water usage summary of various discharge
ronmental impacts of consent criteria and the typical
refineries and petrochemical plants, capability of a basic wastewater
Type of plant Utility water usage
not only on reducing concentrations treatment process using a conven-
(m3)/tonne product
of contaminants in effluent Refinery: tional activated sludge plant
discharges but also on overall pollu- Seawater cooling 1 without tertiary treatments.
tion load and discharge volumes. Evaporative cooling 2.5
Ethylene plant:
Increasing demands on water Consents and limits
Seawater cooling 3.5
consumption around the globe Evaporative cooling 25 It is important to understand the
mean that existing facilities need to With water recovery 16 implication of the compliance level
reduce water use. New facilities required. A maximum allowable
have to be designed to minimise concentration (MAC) needs to be
water use and some to even achieve Table 1 met at all times. A 95 percentile
zero effluent discharge. This article basis allows one failure in every 20
looks at common drivers for Many industrial developments have samples. Often a 95 percentile basis
reduced water usage. It reviews the to rely on water supplies from will also have an upper tier require-
technologies that are typically used remote locations, or desalination of ment that is a MAC. In rough
and key challenges that have to be seawater, to provide reliable terms, the MAC equates to about
addressed if this strategy is to be supplies. The increasing level of four times the average, while a 95
successful. It will also look at two investment required to maintain percentile is about double the aver-
recent examples of how designs reliable supplies is promoting a age. In Table 2, this means that the
utilising zero discharge techniques serious review of water usage in an IFC and Saudi standards can be
have minimised the impact of efflu- attempt to reduce the relative cost reasonably met by a conventional
ent discharges. of recovery. plant, while the Russian standards
At the same time as water scar- would need significant tertiary
Drivers city increases, best practice with treatment or even zero discharge.
Refineries and petrochemical facili- regards to environmental discharges
ties use a considerable amount of is becoming more onerous. In some Uses of recovered water
water. Table 1 shows some typical instances, political rather than Across an industrial site there are
values for a refinery and an ethyl- sound environmental science can many operations and processes that
ene cracker. result in consents that are difficult require water. Good waste minimi-
to achieve with conventional sation techniques look at elimination
Typical plant water usage
Whole life costs are currently
favouring evaporative cooling over Consents and limits
seawater usage, increasing the typi-
cal demand of potable water. Parameter International Finance Russian Saudi Typical plant
Corporation (IFC)
However, recovering water for
Compliance 95%ile MAC 30-day average Average
reuse is an expensive undertaking, pH 6-9 7-8 6-9 6-9
and this is driving the increased BOD 30 6 25 10
adoption of a range of site-specific COD 150 35 150 60
SS 30 10 15 (MAC) 15
water-recovery techniques.
Total N 40 20 5 (TKN) 20
The petrochemical industry is Total P 2 0.2 1 1
only one of many users competing
for the existing water supplies. Table 2
foster wheeler.indd 1 9/12/10 21:37:14

Following secondary treatment,
the TDS need to be removed and
BFW
Boilers
Evaporator
Slurry this is usually achieved by either
treatment crystalliser
reverse osmosis (RO) or multiple
effect distillation (MED). This step
Raw CT Cooling Water Evaporative
results in a concentrate that can be
water treatment towers upgrade losses further concentrated by solar evap-
oration in arid climates, or by using
evaporator/crystalliser systems.
Balance Effluent
Effluent Cooling
tank treatment
Both of these processes produce a
slurry or solid that should be suita-
ble for controlled landfill.
Plant oily FOG Sludge
Sludge
water treatment treatment Challenges
The challenges with a zero or
partial-zero-discharge system are
Oily storm Storm
water water essentially operational issues.
The contaminated streams will
become more concentrated as good-
quality water is recovered. If we
Figure 1 Typical zero-discharge scheme take a typical industrial effluent with
a refractory chemical oxygen
or direct reuse of water as the first usually employed after the majority demand (COD) of around 50 mg/l,
step. An example of direct reuse in of the contaminants have been this is concentrated to an average
a refinery is the now common use removed. A water upgrade step is 250 mg/l in a RO system recovering
of stripped sour water in the used, which recovers high-quality 80% of the feed. At this concentra-
desalters. Once the water has water that is then reused in the tion, the effluent is no longer
undergone conventional treatment, cooling towers or to feed into the compliant with any of the discharge
it can be used in washing down boiler system. The remaining fluid standards shown in Table 2. This
dirty areas and for dust suppres- is reduced to slurry suitable for means the concentrated reject stream
sion in partially paved sites. Use for landfilling after further, more needs further treatment.
irrigation is possible if the sodium intense water recovery. A well-designed zero-discharge
absorption ratio is low enough, When recovery to high-grade plant requires the wastewater treat-
although chloride is also an issue water is required, the conventional ment and recovery plants to have
for some plants. If the total high reliability. In addition, a realis-
dissolved solids (TDS) level is low tic approach needs to be taken to
enough, use as cooling water feed
A well-designed managing out of specification events
is another option. Typically, these and agreeing with the regulators on
low-grade uses are insufficient to
zero-discharge how to deal with these infrequent
use up all of the wastewater plant requires events. This might require large
produced on site and further treat- buffering storage ponds around the
ment is then required. Once at a the wastewater site or an agreement for temporary
higher purity, use in the demineral- discharge during such events.
isation system and unlimited use in treatment and The quality issues require a care-
cooling towers is common. One ful assessment of the detailed
novel use that is being applied recovery plants to chemistry and recycle loops. The
in Australia is irrigation of primary concern is always that the
salt-resistant Eucalyptus. This salt-
have high reliability water that is recovered is now
controlling plant uses brackish being used in the process, and the
water and directs the salt to below treatment scheme is often enhanced plant process engineers need to
the root system. to remove more contaminants. The decide what is the worst quality
processes that might be considered water they can receive, rather than
Technologies used are: the best. Things like trace elements,
The processes used in water recov- • Nutrient removal (eg, AO particularly soluble ones, become
ery up to a full zero-discharge plant process) more important, and often new
are now established processes. A • Tertiary treatment (eg, DAF, sand analysis is required for existing
typical plant scheme is shown in filtration) systems. For instance, most opera-
Figure 1. This shows a typical • MBR (membrane bioreactor) tors know what they can expect
industrial plant with pretreatment • MBBR (moving bed bireactor) from a well-operating activated
to protect a conventional effluent • PACT (powdered activated sludge (AS) plant in terms of COD,
treatment plant. Water recovery is carbon treatment). but what is a typical silt density

ptq_q1_ad.v3 8/12/10 10:24 AM Page 1
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updated on and discuss the environmental issues surrounding
our industry and will focus on the latest technologies, issues,
trends, regulations and strategies for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
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Tel: +44 (0)20 7357 8394 · Email: conferences@europetro.com
epc.indd 1 8/12/10 13:48:35

various processes deal with each
component.
BFW
Boilers
Hard COD
To sea The real trick to accurate mapping
treatment removal
for water recovery against demand
is the ability to feed back flow and
Raw CT Cooling Water Evaporative then recalculate the load and result-
water treatment towers upgrade losses ing flow to the recovery system.
From extensive work with effluent
systems, the ability to add a new
Balance Effluent
Effluents
tank treatment component to any mapping is also
necessary. A typical example of such
problems is a licensor identifying a
Plant oily FOG Sludge heavy metal in the final months of a
Sludge
water treatment treatment
front-end engineering design
(FEED). This needs to be mapped to
ensure that the sludge disposal
Oily storm Storm
water water routes are not compromised. In
working with partial and full zero
discharge systems, Foster Wheeler
has developed a spreadsheet-based
Figure 2 Refinery: Asia program called WM-SET (water
management — system evaluation
index (SDI) for the same system? a zero discharge system that relia- tool), which enables design engi-
SDI is a typical constraint in the ble disposal of the salt-rich slurry neers to provide realistic mapping.
design and reliability of RO plants. from the crystallisers is secured.
The issue of buffering capacity has The final challenge is how to Examples
been discussed already, but if the produce a realistic map or mass Not all facilities are going to require
effluent or intermediates are off- balance of the water system. Any a full zero-discharge system. The
specification they need to be calculation or software needs to drivers, demands and constraints
reprocessed and the quality of this have the ability to map multiple for water recovery are very site-
effluent also needs to be treated, components individually. In addi- specific. The following two
albeit at a slow or even trickle tion to typical wastewater system examples of recent projects show
rate. design concerns (COD, suspended that zero-discharge system method-
The disposal of sludge becomes solids, and so on), the salts and ology is now being applied at the
increasingly problematic when TDS need careful tracking. With a design stage and then constructed
undertaking zero discharge, as conventional wastewater mass for the installed plant.
more contaminants end up in the balance, the flow and pollution load
sludge and will be at higher concen- can be calculated from knowledge Refinery: Asia
trations. It is critical in considering of the contaminants and how the At the FEED stage of a new green
field refinery in Asia, it was realised
that some water recovery would be
required. Figure 2 is a block flow
BFW Evaporation
diagram of the final system adopted
Boilers
treatment pond at the engineering, procurement
and construction (EPC) stage.
With this plant, the conventional
Raw
water
CT
treatment
Cooling
towers
Water
upgrade
Evaporative
losses
AS treatment plant is expected to
meet IFC and local standards.
During development of the refinery,
Balance Effluent it doubled in size, but the regulator
Effluents
tank treatment imposed the volumetric consent for
the original smaller refinery. This
meant that water recovery was
Plant oily FOG Sludge
water treatment treatment
Sludge needed to reliably reduce the
normal total combined flow from
the plant to less than the volumetric
Oily storm Storm consent. By using RO (for water
water water
recovery), the resulting COD of the
reject stream is above the IFC and
local standards. In this instance, the
Figure 3 Petrochemical plant: Asia EPC contractor elected to remove

the hard COD down to the required study was undertaken looking at the manufacturing process and
standard by using PAC, settling the the costs of no recovery, partial increases the cost of the final
carbon-rich solids in a clarifier and recovery and zero discharge. The product. A higher production cost
returning it to the AS plant. This preferred option on a net present may drive companies to consider
will in turn increase the removal of value (NPV) basis was to recover the countries into which new
COD in the AS plant. the wastewater with RO and use it investment is best targeted. If the
in the cooling towers. This resulted driver is due to the regulator
Petrochemical plant: Asia in an 80% reduction in the required attempting to reduce the environ-
A company based in a remote, gas- size of evaporation ponds, which mental impact, is the increase in
rich area was developing a meant overall that the cost of energy usage worth the reduction
polyethylene facility. The remote buying and operating the RO plant in effluent entering the aqueous
location and water scarcity indi- was less than for building large phase? In future, it is anticipated, a
cated that water recovery would be evaporation ponds. The option of a pragmatic regulator will review the
essential. Figure 3 is a block zero-discharge system was more whole lifecycle impact of zero-
diagram of the selected process. expensive in NPV terms. This discharge schemes.
In this country, the discharge means that for this site, evaporator
standards are extremely tight. The crystallisers cost more to build and This article is based on a presentation at the
location has environmental operate than the evaporation Green Refining & Petrochemicals Forum,
extremes with bitter winters and ponds. London, October 2010 (org. Europe Petroleum
scorching summers. The typical Consultants).
approach driven by the local regu- Conclusions
lator was to treat the effluent to IFC There are some projects where zero Gary Howard is a Principal Process Engineer
standards and then place it in an discharge is the preferred option. In with Foster Wheeler, Reading, UK. He is a
registered European Engineer, Chartered
evaporation pond for final disposal. an increasing number of projects,
Chemical Engineer, Fellow of the Institution
The resulting ponds are large, as there is a driver for some water
of Chemical Engineers and a Chartered Water
evaporation mostly occurs in the recovery. Is zero discharge a good & Environmental Manager, with over 20
six-month warm season. environmental solution? The extra years’ experience in environmental, water
The remote location and arid site energy expended in effectively and wastewater engineering, and holds a BSc
conditions required water supply distilling effluent to recover water (Eng) degree in biochemical engineering from
via a long pipeline. For this site, a increases the carbon footprint of University College London.
Flow Measurement up
to 400 °C. Non-Intrusive.
No clogging, no risk of leaks,
no pressure loss.
refinery-solutions.com
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itw.indd 1 10/12/09 12:46:08

Rental strategies counter seasonal
performance problems
Engineered solutions can reverse the adverse effects of high temperatures
and humidity
Umesh Mathur
Aggreko Process Services
P
etrochemical and refinery engineered solutions to solve emer- temporary projects relying on rental
processes rely on efficient heat gencies and production shortfalls in equipment could successfully meet
transfer to maximise efficien- such instances. Additionally, the such requirements. This is simply
cies and ensure safe operations. benefits of employing rented equip- because most players in the equip-
While most plant operators manage ment, best practices and results that ment rental industry either have
a utilities system sufficient to supply have been achieved are presented in not emphasised such aspects or face
a small city, many are not aware of several examples. difficulties in adhering to stringent
proven rental strategies to better The chief merit of the rental industry requirements, thereby
manage risks, limit losses and seize model for solving seasonal cooling precluding their participation in the
unexpected market opportunities. problems is that solutions can be development of systematic, sound
In particular, ambient air temper- deployed at short notice, often solutions.
ature and humidity rise significantly within a month or less. The main It is useful to think of temporary
during the peak summer months, requirements are: solutions for problems in three
relative to winter conditions, which • Engineering services to develop categories:
adversely affect major heat all feasible alternatives and the • Emergencies These are situations
exchange equipment throughout where the failure of crucial equip-
the plant. Often quite significant ment must be rectified immediately.
deterioration in performance forces
Monthly economic Replacement by a suitable equivalent
plant operators to make some losses caused by is the best alternative in such cases
unpleasant choices, chief among • Planned outages Here, major parts
which is a reduction in unit production cutback of a unit (or the entire process unit)
throughput. Owing to the inte- are scheduled to be taken out of
grated nature of major refinery and can easily equate to service for routine maintenance.
petrochemical processes, such prob- The degree of the challenge faced is
lems at any unit usually force both millions of dollars directly related to the impact such
upstream and downstream units to outages have on the rest of the facil-
also cut production. benefit-to-cost ratio in each case ity. One solution can be to cool and
Market demands often peak • Ready availability of process divert the unit feed to temporary
during the summer. For example, equipment that has been fabricated storage while the unit is out of
gasoline sales are highest when and maintained in a manner fully service, thus allowing upstream
ambient conditions force produc- consistent with industry best units to stay online. Otherwise, it is
tion bottlenecks throughout the practices imperative to take all possible
refinery. These scarcities drive • Transportation and field assem- measures to minimise the duration
refining margins up significantly, bly, with full cognisance of of the outage by expediting unit
thereby creating huge economic applicable safety and environmen- depressuring, cooldown, degassing
incentives to restore unit capacities. tal standards and comfort cooling to enable expe-
The magnitude of monthly • Full documentation of process ditious repairs
economic losses caused by produc- and equipment design details; • Process enhancements Often, unit
tion cutback can easily equate to emergency, startup and shutdown performance (capacity or quality)
millions of dollars. procedures; operator training mate- degrades seasonally during summer-
rials; and all pertinent details to time, when ambient air and cooling
Temporary seasonal strategies help ensure conformance with water temperatures are at their peak.
This article examines seasonal cool- management of change and process Systematic elimination of the result-
ing problems and issues that safety review criteria. ant cooling bottlenecks can help
commonly occur every year, and In the past, many operators have restore unit performance to levels
how owners have justified acquiring not expected that seasonal or seen only during the winter months.
aggreko.indd 1 9/12/10 21:55:23

To better understand the impor- quickly to volatile market condi- profitability, mature plants and
tance and impact of these tions, and operate within strict refineries must work at capacity
operational issues, one must first safety and environmental limits. round the clock, seven days a week.
understand the larger economic and They must meet all of these expec- This requires limiting downtime
regulatory factors driving these tations under the watchful eye of and mitigating outages within
operational issues. citizens in their communities who, safety and environmental
while they have easy access to news constraints. While many of the
Challenges addressed by rental and information, often lack the corrective actions needed in these
strategies technical knowledge to understand ageing facilities are temporary,
In spite of an ageing infrastructure, the issues and implications of many others require longer-term, and
the petrochemical and refining of the decisions plant managers sometimes permanent, changes.
industries must meet increased must make. Rental strategies, often viewed as
consumer demand, adhere to strin- To meet increased demand for temporary-only, are being designed
gent regulatory oversight, respond commodities, and to maximise by engineering teams and deployed
routinely for a few months each
year, for many years.
In a commodity-driven business,
Some things are meant to go round and round… the ability to respond quickly to
market fluctuations often means the
ferris wheels, merry-go-rounds and MPR Services difference between profit and loss.
Prices fluctuate during peak usage
new Rotating Valve Multi Bed (RVMB™). periods, weather events, extreme
seasonal climate changes, variances
in regional demands and unex-
pected economic downturns.
Operators must have an arsenal of
just-in-time tools to adjust the
plant’s operation — all within
accessible maintenance budgets.
Refineries and plants located in
regions susceptible to events such
as hurricanes, tornadoes and earth-
quakes may also need to combat
emergency situations. Tools often
When your amine cleaning solution requires an environmentally friendly, deployed in such situations include
cost effective reclaiming process that significantly reduces the amount of generators, compressors, air dryers
waste discharged to your waste water plant, the RVMB is the technology and dehumidifiers.
to use! Regulatory changes and current
environmental standards also
Based on the latest technology from MPR Services Inc’s Research and require plants and refineries to be
Development Department, the RVMB provides: more efficient, which is often chal-
t$POUJOVPVTQSPDFTTWFSTVTBCBUDIQSPDFTT lenging to an industry operating
t3FEVDFEXBTUFXBUFSQSPEVDFE with decades-old equipment. It is
t3FEVDFE$BVTUJDGFFE also worth noting that the design
t-FTTBNJOFJOXBTUF basis for many of these older plants
t8BUFSTBWJOHT was set at considerably lower plant
capacities than might currently be
t$IFNJDBMTBWJOHT
in effect. The systematic push to
When amine cleaning efficiency and cost is the driver, contact MPR Services debottleneck existing plants, to take
and ask about their RVMB service, permanent or mobile availability. advantage of all available capacity,
has resulted in significantly
For more information, call 281-377-7424 increased loads on plant utility
systems, especially for cooling
or visit our website at www.mprservices.com
water. Often, owing to their
.134FSWJDFT *OD "5FTTFOEFSMP,FSMFZ *OD$PNQBOZ complexity, the utility systems in
place cannot easily be debottle-
1201 FM 646, Dickinson, TX 77539-3014 U.S.A. necked. The excess utility loads
5FMFQIPOFt'"9 result in permanent increases in
E-mail: info-mprservices@tkinet.com
available cooling water tempera-
NQSFVSPQF!ULJOFUDPNtNQSNJEEMFFBTU!ULJOFUDPN
©2010 Tessenderlo Kerley, Inc. tures, so that equipment
performance, especially in the
www.ptqenquiry.com
44 PTQ Q1 2011 for further information www.eptq.com
aggreko.indd 2 9/12/10 21:55:36

summer, becomes sub-par when aromatics recovery and achieving or reconstructed facilities without
compared to the original design lower temperatures in distillation increasing the risk of failure. They
basis. column overheads — increase the also respond to disasters, such as in
Other significant changes arise complexity level. Even then, acting the example of a US Gulf Coast
from the systematic tightening of on a window of opportunity often chemical plant.
regulatory standards and product generates attractive paybacks (bene- Some years ago, a catastrophic
quality specifications across the fit-to-cost ratios ranging from 3:1 hurricane that hit the Gulf of
entire spectrum of the process up to 30:1). This approach helps Mexico coast destroyed the main
industries. These changes require manage risk, minimises loss of cooling tower at an ethylene plant,
installation of additional equipment production and restores revenue in resulting in a 100% loss of produc-
or processes and further increase a matter of days or weeks. tion. Rebuilding the cooling tower
the strain on plant utility systems, Additionally, seasonal rental solu- would require several months. The
often with highly undesirable tions are useful to test and prove situation required a two-fold reso-
consequences. the viability of more capital- lution: resume operations as quickly
Flaring, for example, is a visible intensive, permanent solutions. as possible and restore production
operation that has garnered much They enable operators to test the for the duration of the rebuild.
attention of late and increasingly is viability of permanent solutions in Time was of the essence, and
becoming the focus of stricter regu- the field, and to verify equipment Aggreko provided a temporary
latory limits. The need to reduce capacities and configurations before solution within 10 days.
flaring to decrease emissions is making a business case for capital Restoring full production meant
paramount. Lack of adequate cool- budget allocations. providing 300 000 litres per minute
ing in critical process equipment is of cooling water, requiring 27 000
the most common contributor to Seasonal strategies require process tons of cooling capacity. Over two
this problem. Operators are forced knowledge and expertise dozen cooling towers with 10 cells
to allow operating pressures to rise, Deploying rental solutions to each were deployed. Aggreko’s
sometimes to levels uncomfortably address seasonal operating chal- process engineers also scrutinised
close to vessel relief valve settings. lenges requires deep knowledge in the water chemistry to determine
In amine treating (tail gas) units, process technology, equipment the proper blowdown rate.
H2S emissions to fuel gas can design and operation, and project Additional considerations included
become excessive as a result of a management. Operators require setup space and pumping
high-circulating lean amine temper- industry partners who understand requirements.
ature. A rental strategy utilising the processing complexities, the Project success was assured by a
in-process cooling can diminish ramifications of any changes and combination of ready equipment
these emissions dramatically. For the cost-benefit analysis required availability, engineering design
example, strategic deployment of for ensuring success. capability, and project planning and
heat exchangers for in-process cool- Best operating practices require execution. The plant achieved 100%
ing has proven to be hugely operators to minimise the risk of an operating capacity in the 10-day
successful when high ambient unplanned shutdown with regular period. The rental approach signifi-
temperatures and humidities force maintenance. Therefore, those cantly limited downtime and
cooling water temperatures to be providing equipment and services enabled reconstruction of the
significantly above design specifica- should be obligated to observe permanent cooling tower on a
tions. Installing heat exchangers these high standards. Equipment normal schedule.
and cooling towers, or refrigerated provided even for short-term or Cooling in the summer is gener-
mechanical chillers, provides seasonal projects in no way dimin- ally a systematic problem that is
temporary yet critically needed ishes the provider’s responsibility compounded by the fact that
relief. Cooling the process to reduce to ensure full conformance with production demand is also at its
H2S emissions is often far more safety regulations. Additionally, it peak. For this ethylene plant, which
effective than increasing the circula- is essential that suppliers evaluate produces 1361 t/d of ethylene, the
tion rate in an attempt to limit the impact of their equipment or ability to resume production
violations and avoid air quality solutions on the client’s facilities. quickly was crucial to retaining its
compliance issues. Such analyses are non-trivial and market position and profitability.
While equipment replacement in require up-to-date software and
an emergency may take only a few expert process design and engineer- Turnaround planning
days to rectify, more lead time is ing skills. A delayed coker unit at a US refin-
required to design and commission ery was scheduled for a major
equipment for applications such Emergency restoration puts plant six-week turnaround. The refinery
as reactor cooling, vessel back on track converts more than 300 000 b/d of
drying, dehumidification and cata- Despite ever more stringent safety crude oil into motor gasoline, jet
lyst regeneration. Longer-term and environmental limits, operators fuel and diesel fuel, among other
projects — such as increasing prod- are achieving increased capacity products. The refinery approached
uct rundown rates, improving and performance for new, modified Aggreko to explore ways to keep
aggreko.indd 3 13/12/10 13:17:25

the crude and vacuum units realised with rental equipment has in carbon burn-off and thus in
running despite the shutdown of prompted the refinery to use this unit throughput (see Figure 1). This
the coker, which takes vacuum service rather than capital invest- strategy is repeated every year and
tower bottoms (VTB) as its primary ment for future coker outages. represents a valuable contribution
feedstock. This was a valuable to refinery profit at a time when
proposition, as major sections of the Seasonal strategies minimise losses gasoline demand is at its peak.
refinery would remain operational. Regardless of the locale, process The equipment configuration
The solution entailed cooling the plant operating efficiency and consisted of mechanical chillers,
600°F (315°C) VTB stream to a safe throughput are markedly affected refrigerated coils and coolant circu-
temperature for storage in tanks. As by ambient temperatures and lating pumps. The solution was
the tanks were filled, they could be humidity during the summer designed to minimise entrainment
unloaded to ships for export, ensur- months. In the following examples, of moisture into the air supplied to
ing that adequate tankage was operators overcame throughput the regenerator.
always available. limitations by deploying rental After the summer, the equipment
The VTB was very viscous at engineered solutions. was decommissioned. Since this
storage temperature. Aggreko temporary solution is reapplied
provided several refinery-grade Maximising oxygen supply to the annually when conditions dictate, it
shell and tube heat exchangers, catalyst cracker regenerator is unnecessary to incur capital
cooling towers and cooling water During the height of the summer, a expenditures for equipment that
pumps to cool the VTB to 150°F US refinery wished to create winter- might sit idle for six months each
(65°C). Diesel was used as a cutter like conditions to help restore air year.
Rental strategies seize market

opportunities
Seasonal strategies enable petro-
chemical operators to capitalise on
market opportunities. With a
# M P X F S J O M F U U F N Q F S B U V S F '
commodities market in constant

flux, what may be profitable today
could be a money-losing venture
next year. Small changes in price
can create significant short-term

opportunities, as the following
examples show.
Maximising LPG recovery in refinery

gas plants
In the summer, as refinery cooling
water temperature rises by 20°F
(11°C) or more, absorber lean oil
temperatures rise markedly, often
Figure 1 Operators maximise summertime FCCU profits with temporary chillers to by more than 20°F when compared
increase regenerator air supply 6–8% to winter conditions. This results in
a considerable increase in the loss
stock to reduce the VTB’s viscosity density and thus maximise oxygen of propane to fuel gas, sometimes
and ensure good heat transfer and supply to the catalytic cracker regen- to a point where the refinery
pumping capability. The cooled erator, where coke is burned in a becomes long on fuel gas and must
VTB product was immediately fluidised bed to regenerate catalyst even contemplate flaring excess fuel
shipped for export via barges, for recycling to the main reactor. A gas. A Gulf Coast refinery wanted
and the refinery had enough tank- seasonal solution was optimal, since to recover as much of the propane
age to maintain upstream unit the oxygen deficit occurs during the as possible, for sale as LPG product,
production. summer months only. by minimising losses to fuel gas.
After the turnaround, during star- The operator set a regenerator air Aggreko designed a cooling solu-
tup of the coker, the same supply target of 50°F (10°C). tion for the absorber column using
exchangers were again deployed to Aggreko’s cooling system design auxiliary mechanical chillers and
preheat coker feed from storage, considered ambient temperature, heat exchangers. The project
this time using condensing steam, humidity and the required air rate. enabled the plant to restore
to ensure coker feed rates were Cooling humid air at 90°F down to summertime propane recovery to
maximised. The temporary equip- 50ºF increased the mass flow rate of winter levels, delivering a produc-
ment was decommissioned once the oxygen by 6–8%, which translated tion increase of several hundred
coker was back online. The value into an equal percentage increase barrels per day of propane. This
aggreko.indd 4 9/12/10 21:56:05

translated into an economic benefit of over $25 000
per day.
Very low temperature cooling of a petrochemical plant Diagnostics

A Gulf Coast chemical plant making polyurethane
precursors requires a circulating coolant kerosine included
stream at -20°F (-29°C) using two large refrigeration
machines. When one of these machines failed, the oper-
ator estimated that the outage would last three months
for repairs. A 50% loss of capacity was unacceptable,
especially since the market was in a sold-out condition.
The operator needed urgently to resume production at
full capacity to meet demand, and also to build up
inventory to meet customer demand during a forth-
coming scheduled maintenance shutdown.
Supplying enough refrigeration tonnage for such low-
temperature applications required several large process
chillers and condenser water circulating pumps,
powered by temporary generators. The plant was able
to achieve full production within a matter of three
weeks from project initiation. Moreover, production
was restored fully and inventory build-up was achieved
as planned.
Conclusions
The examples described demonstrate that field-proven,
engineered solutions are available for reversing the
adverse effects of summertime heat and humidity, and
other common issues, in a systematic and reliable way.
Taking advantage of these capabilities using rental
solutions creates economic benefits in the short term.
Such projects are implemented without incurring
capital expenditures and the often lengthy delays
encountered if more permanent solutions were to be
considered.
Attempting to justify a permanent solution for solv-
ing seasonal operating problems often runs into the
issue of economic risk assessment. In the face of vola- Forget about paying extra for optional
tile feed, utility and product prices, and considering valve diagnostics. It‘s all inclusive from
that the equipment would lie idle during the winter now on: SAMSON‘s Series 3730 and
months, it becomes hard to make projections with 3731 Positioners include EXPERTplus
much certainty. Also, the project execution cycle for valve diagnostics as standard.
Benefit from the full range of valve di-
longer-term, capital-intensive projects is of the order of
agnostics at no extra charge, from at-
18 months to three years. Selecting several vendors and tachment check to cycle counting. These
factoring in the risk of cost escalations in hardware can features allow you to perform predictive
result in additional delays. Even the internal project maintenance on your valves and reduce
justification and review cycle can sometimes thwart plant shutdown to a minimum. A partial
achieving temporary market-driven opportunities. stroke test also monitors on/off valves to
confirm their functioning in case of emer-
Temporary seasonal solutions, on the other hand,
gency.
eliminate most, if not all, such traditional roadblocks
because of the speed with which they can be imple- All the extras at no additional charge.
mented. Since no capital expenditures are required,
project approval can be accomplished far more quickly,
especially considering the favourable benefit-to-cost
ratios for such projects. SAMSON AG  MESS- UND REGELTECHNIK
Umesh Mathur is a Principal Process Engineer with Aggreko. He holds Weismüllerstraße 3
a BTech degree in chemical engineering from the Indian Institute of 60314 Frankfurt am Main  Germany
Phone: +49 69 4009-0  Fax: +49 69 4009-1507
Technology, Delhi, a post-graduate diploma in petroleum refining and
E-mail: samson@samson.de  www.samson.de
A01073EN
petrochemicals from the Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun, an MS

in chemical engineering from the University of Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA,
and is a licensed professional engineer in Oklahoma.
www.ptqenquiry.com
A01073_100x272.indd 1 30.09.2010 12:27:24
aggreko.indd 5 9/12/10 21:56:17

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ohl.indd 1 9/12/10 12:19:19

Independent verification of refineries
Independent verification should focus on areas of greatest risk and so contribute

to risk reduction measures
Donald Payne
DNV Vietnam
W
e live in a world where
risk is a bad word. We
are living in probably the Asset Environmental
safest time in human existence and damage impact
are probably the most risk-averse
generation there has ever been. We
are under more scrutiny from stake-
holders than ever before: from
governments, lenders, NGOs, Personnel Production
Risk
press and the general population. fatality/injury loss
This scrutiny is not going to
decrease, so we must be prepared
to manage the risks associated with
our activities.
Risk, in the hydrocarbon process- Loss of Social/political
Timing
reputation impact
ing business, takes many forms (see
Figure 1). Some risks are obvious
and are the ones we think of most
often, such as fatality or injury and Figure 1 Types of risk
asset damage.
Often, we do not pay as much building of a refinery from one of developed, and with overlapping
attention to production losses, but the international turnkey contrac- decision gates.
these can be considerable and many tors, but have insufficient experience Therefore, in managing these
times the cost of asset damage. themselves and are not well quali- challenges, the use of an independ-
DNV is aware of one offshore fied to query cost and schedule ent party with wide experience is
installation, producing 50 000 b/d estimates. beneficial, and independent verifi-
of condensate that was shut down cation will lead to a reduction in
for 14 months due to a pipeline fail- Independent verification design, supply, construction and
ure. At $70/bbl, production losses Refinery and petrochemical projects commissioning errors.
were approximately $1.5 billion are complex, with many interac- Independent verification is a
and, with a rate of return on reve- tions between the various units and valuable tool for the refinery or
nue of 10%, lost profits amounted project phases. Decisions taken in petrochemical facility owner to
to $150 million. one phase may have adverse impli- obtain assurance of the contractors’
Other losses are even less at the cations for another phase. It can be work or to show partners, finan-
forefront of our minds; for instance, difficult in a project, when involved ciers, insurers and the public that
production delays that may affect in day-to-day work, to identify all the refinery or petrochemical facil-
our ability to start paying back of these interactions. ity has sufficient integrity to fulfil
loans. Recent events in the Gulf of In addition, we develop projects its specified purpose, and that the
Mexico have illustrated further today in a truly global market, with risks to personnel associated with
risks in relation to environmental many of the components, systems the facility are reduced as much as
impact, loss of reputation and polit- and design processes developed in is reasonably practicable.
ical impact, with their consequential locations remote from the facility. Additionally, it is good business
financial liabilities. A particular challenge are fast- practice to subject critical work to
A further politically related risk track projects that often start many an independent check; this mini-
affects governments and national phases in parallel with a preceding mises the possibility of errors
oil companies that commission the one, without all aspects being fully remaining undetected.
dnv.indd 1 9/12/10 22:08:49

Independent verification will • Cost savings with the main focus • Link between design, construction
ensure that the verifier has an on critical areas and commissioning The link between
unbiased view and perspective • Management of supply chain design, construction and commis-
when performing this activity. risks sioning frequently is not fully
Furthermore, it will avoid the situa- • A transparent, traceable and well- understood. Activities in each phase
tion where errors could be documented verification system. often are carried out in isolation,
overlooked by engineers because of As verification work is focused with no link between phases. For
their closeness to work within on the identified critical areas rather example, critical design issues are
the facility. than on a scatter-gun approach, it almost never given additional focus
Verification can also be used as a can result in the apparent, but during construction. Often this is
part of the project risk management beneficial, anomaly of spending less the case because the construction
process. The failure of any part of money for improved safety. personnel do not know that these
the facility may expose the owner Traditional verification activities, issues exist.
to: for a variety of industrial facilities,
• Safety risks as practised all over the world for Verification: cost or benefit?
• Environmental risks many years, include: The use of independent verification
• Economic risks • Design review frequently is seen by projects
• Political risks. • Inspection during equipment simply as a cost that has to be
Since verification increases confi- procurement borne. Therefore, the argument is
dence levels that the refinery or • Inspection during construction often made that verification must
petrochemical facility complies with and installation of equipment be as cheap as possible. Frequently,
the requirements placed on it by the verification contract is with the
national authorities, the owner or contractor, not the owner, and
the lenders, it follows that the risk Since verification therefore the successful verification
of failure of the facility decreases as body has tendered the lowest price
a result of independent verification. increases confidence by proposing the minimum verifi-
Thus, independent verification cation scope.
contributes to project risk manage-
levels..., it follows Verification rarely is seen as a
ment and reduction. benefit, because often there is no
that the risk of evidence that it is. However, it must
Verification and risk failure of the facility be said that this situation is more to
Risk is the likelihood of an accident do with the inability of third parties
or unplanned event occurring, decreases as a result to demonstrate the benefits of their
considered in conjunction with the involvement than in the inability of
potential consequences of such a of independent owners and contractors to under-
failure. In quantitative terms, risk is stand those benefits. As a result, the
proportional to the probability of verification knowledge of the third party is not
failure multiplied by the conse- used actively in the project, as it is
quence of such failure. • Witnessing of hydrotests and an expense only.
Measures usually taken to reduce commissioning activities Frequently, the verification body
the risks to the operation of the • Review of documentation is often involved late in the project
refinery and process facility, and to • Issue of certificate of compliance. when there is limited opportunity
protect the health and safety of We should challenge this tradi- to use its expertise. The use of the
personnel associated with it or in tion, as it is unclear how effective third party’s expertise is more effec-
its vicinity, are through reduction the approach is in reducing the tive the earlier it is involved in the
in the probability of failure, and/or risks to the refinery or petrochemi- project, when changes to the design
mitigation of the consequences of cal facility. To illustrate this point: concept can be made at minimal
failure. expense. Such early-phase involve-
Independent verification of refin- • Level of involvement of the third ment should include verification of
eries and petrochemical facilities party The level of involvement of the feasibility and conceptual stud-
has a key part to play in both the third party is not defined and it ies, with early identification of
aspects of risk reduction. Once the cannot be deduced from the certifi- critical aspects. This approach
risks to the facility have been iden- cate. This involvement could be would focus on the risks to the
tified, as well as the measures to be very detailed, including a compre- facility, with comprehensive
taken to reduce these risks, verifica- hensive review of the design and involvement during all critical
tion work can be focused on these construction, independent analysis phases with independent risk
critical areas. and audits or surveillance on site. assessment and validation.
The benefits of this risk-based Conversely, it could be much less Such early and comprehensive
approach are: comprehensive, with only a brief involvement could be termed active
• Improved safety and financial review of documents and no site verification, where the third party
performance by optimisation attendance. has active participation in the
dnv.indd 2 9/12/10 22:10:16

design and construction processes
rather than passive verification,
where the third party merely reacts
to what has already been decided.
Certificates and other statements
from the third party are often valu-
able for finance and insurance. Risk
However, these documents would ranking
be more valuable if the level of
independent involvement was
clearly defined and understood for
all phases of the project and stated
clearly in documents.
This should minimise a source of
Verification
conflict in some projects where the
effort
service the owner or contractor
thought they were purchasing was
not the service the third party
thought they were contracted to
provide. Figure 2 Risk-based verification
Risk-differentiated verification • The lower the risk, the less On the other hand, with a lower
The concept behind this approach to involvement level of risk, the consequences of
the verification of refineries and • The higher the risk, the more this failure are lower.
petrochemical plants is that the level involvement.
of verification involvement can be It is true to say that with a lower Selection of verification level
differentiated according to the risks level of involvement there is a The selection of the level of verifi-
to the facility. Figure 2 illustrates greater possibility of failing to cation depends on the criticality of
this concept and shows that: discover things that are not correct. each of the elements that have an
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dnv.indd 3 9/12/10 22:10:31

impact on the management of risks • Hazard identification experienced, but not in a particular
to a hydrocarbon facility. • Frequency estimation material or installation method. The
Verification directs the greatest • Consequence criteria refinery business is characterised by
effort at those elements of the plant • Consequence analysis examples of well-known and well-
where the risk is highest and whose • Domino effect analysis respected design or construction
failure, or reduced performance, • Risk summation and evaluation contractors who have run into diffi-
will have the most significant • Sensitivity analysis culties when trying something new.
impact on the safety and integrity • Assessment of inherent safety, It is worth emphasising that risks
of the facility. Other risks, such as detection, prevention, control, miti- during one phase may be different
environmental and economic risks, gation and emergency response to those in another phase. For
may be considered if this is required measures. example, an experienced design
by the owner. Only in the simplest of hydrocar- contractor and an inexperienced
Due to the diversity of various bon facilities, with consequently construction contractor may be
refining and petrochemical facili- lower levels of risk, would we involved, or vice versa. Therefore,
ties, their contents, their degree of consider that simplified qualitative because the risk varies from one
innovation, geographic location and verification planning without using project phase to another, it is impor-
so on, it is not possible to give a QRA is justifiable. tant to vary the verification level in
precise guidelines on how to decide Factors to be taken into account a similar manner.
what level of verification is appro- in this simplified method for identi- Virtually all contractors have
priate for each particular facility. fying the risks and selecting the quality systems certified as comply-
In view of the complexity of most level of verification involvement ing with ISO 9001. But, if contractors
hydrocarbon facilities, we recom- are: take on many new staff, usually on
mend strongly that the verification • The overall safety objectives of short-term contract, at the start of a
level be derived from the results of the facility project, these new staff may not be
a quantitative risk assessment of • An assessment of the risks associ- completely familiar with the
the facility. ated with the facility and the contractor’s quality system and
The outcome of a quantitative risk measures taken to reduce these errors may occur.
analysis (QRA) should be a ranking risks Similar difficulties have been
of the risks associated with particu- • The degree of technical innova- encountered in trying to amalga-
lar parts of, or equipment in, the tion in the facility mate two or more quality
hydrocarbon facility. This ranking is • The experience of the contractors management systems in a joint
used to set the verification level for in carrying out similar work venture.
parts of the facility as well as for the • The quality management systems
facility as a whole (see Figure 2). of the owner and the contractors Risk-differentiated verification in
The scope of QRA should include involved. practice
tasks typically required to assess The first three of these factors are Risk-differentiated verification may
risks from hazards to human life, straightforward, but the last two be carried out at three levels of
equipment and the environment. It require some amplification. increasing complexity, known, for
includes: Contractors may be widely simplicity, as low, medium and
high (see Figure 3).
Low-level verification includes
activities such as:
Increasing • Review of general principles and
High risk production systems during design

and construction
High • Review of principal design docu-
ments, construction procedures and
Probability of failure
qualification reports
• Visit-based attendance during
Medium system testing and startup
activities.
Medium-level verification includes
activities such as:
• Review of general principles and
Low
production systems during design
Low
and construction
Low High • Detailed review of principal and
Consequence of failure other selected design documents

with support of simplified inde-
pendent analyses
Figure 3 Verification and risk – the levelled approach • Full-time attendance during
dnv.indd 4 9/12/10 22:10:44

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burkhardt.indd 1 20/9/10 10:10:44

qualification and review of the Section 2: Principles of risk-based
resulting reports verification
• Visit-based or intermittent pres- This provides an introduction to the
HAZID/HAZOP/QRA for asset
ence on site. principles of verification of refiner-
High-level verification includes ies and petrochemical facilities, an
activities such as: introduction to the principles of
• Review of general principles and risk-differentiated levels of verifica-
production systems during design Frequency of tion activity, and gives guidance on
Consequence
and construction occurrence the selection of levels of certifica-
• Detailed review of most design tion and verification.
documents with support of simpli-
fied and advanced independent Section 3: Service overview
analyses t Analytical assessment of risk This section is an overview of certi-
• Full-time attendance during qual- t Identification of relative risk levels fication and verification activities
ification and review of the resulting t Group into L, M or H
relating to facility systems, and
reports gives details of certification and
• Full-time presence on site for verification services in this area.
most activities.
Define acceptance criteria or Appendix A: Selection of
performance requirements in
Risk-differentiated verification in more detail
verification level
the supply chain This gives guidance on the selection
The risks associated with supply of verification level quantitatively
chain management can be reduced by means of a QRA (the preferred
by a combination of the quantita- Complete Verification Plan based method; see Figure 4) and, alterna-
on the assessed risk, risk drivers
tive and qualitative methods of and acceptance criteria
tively, qualitatively by means of a
selecting the verification level. series of trigger questions.
As was previously discussed, the
outcome of a quantitative risk anal- Figure 4 Detailed verification planning, Appendix B: Verification documents
ysis should be a ranking of the risks based on analytical risk assessment Gives example of documents
associated with particular parts or produced during various verifica-
equipment of the hydrocarbon • Establish a baseline for refinery tion and certification activities.
facility. This ranking should be and petrochemical facility verifica-
used to set the initial verification tion services throughout the world, Appendix C: Generic detailed scopes
level for verification of the supply irrespective of service provider. of work tables
chain. Service specification OSS-314: Provides detailed scopes of work
This initial verification level may • Describes DNV’s verification tables for activities during the inde-
be modified as a result of the services for refineries and petro- pendent verification of refineries
answers to the trigger questions in chemical facilities and petrochemical facilities The
the qualitative method, especially • Introduces and describes the titles of these tables are shown
those relating to contractors’ experi- levelled approach to verification below.
ence and effectiveness of their • Guides the selection of level of
quality management system. involvement by introducing risk- Appendix D: Major accident hazards
Verification activity, therefore, is differentiated verification vs safety-critical elements
concentrated on those items in the • Results in a predictable and This appendix shows typical refin-
supply chain that contribute most uniform verification service. ery hazards and the interface with
to the overall risk to the facility and The document is divided into safety-critical elements and risk
its successful completion. three sections and five appendices. mitigation measures.
DNV OSS-314 Section 1: Introduction to Appendix E: Guidance on the

Based on its experience in refineries risk-based verification development of verification plans
throughout the world, DNV This section describes verification Provides guidance on the develop-
recently published its Service services for refineries and petro- ment of verification plans tailored
Specification OSS-314: Verification of chemical facilities and provides to a specific hydrocarbon facility
Hydrocarbon Refineries and Petro- guidance for owners and other and its specific risks.
chemical Facilities. The objectives of parties for the selection of the level
this document are threefold, to: of involvement of those carrying Detailed scopes of work tables
• Ensure that the market knows out verification activities. In addi- DNV OSS-314 contains generic
what the company is offering tion, it provides a common detailed scopes of work descrip-
• Ensure commonality of service communication platform for tions for the verification of refineries
among the company’s various describing the extent of verification and petrochemical facilities for the
offices in this field activities. three levels of verification: low,
dnv.indd 5 9/12/10 22:10:57

medium and high. A specific scope • Jetties Conclusions
of work description, based on the • Loading and unloading arms Independent verification is needed
generic ones in DNV OSS-314, • Process system as part of a refinery’s or petrochem-
should be made for each particular • Relief valves and relief system ical facility’s risk management
project. • Structural integrity process. The extent of independent
Generic scopes of work tables • Above-ground storage tanks verification should be linked to the
given for project and operational • Control systems risks to the facility so that verifica-
phases include: • Control of ignition tion efforts may be focused on those
• Design • Dropped object and impact areas of greatest risk and so contrib-
• Construction (procurement) protection ute to risk-reduction measures.
• Commissioning • Hazard detection and control Thus, the extent of verification
• Operations measures. can be linked to the risks to the
• Upgrades. facility, and the activities for each
These scopes of work tables are Fire and gas detection of the project phases can be
divided mainly into systems, such • Emergency shutdown system increased or decreased, depending
as: • Blowdown header and flare on the risks.
General system DNV has developed its Service
• Overall project management • Control room Specification OSS-314 Verification:
• General design matters • Active fire-fighting systems of Hydrocarbon Refineries and
• Safety, environmental or other • Passive fire protection Petrochemical Facilities that describes
functional requirements. • Bunding and drainage. the company’s risk-based verifica-
tion services.
Inherent safety measures Hazard mitigation measures
• Layout • Emergency power and uninter-
• Hydrocarbon inventory and leak ruptible power supply Donald Payne is a Principal Engineer and a
source minimisation. • Communications and alarms Director of DNV Vietnam. He has experience in
• HVAC. verification and consultancy during the design,
Hazard prevention measures installation, commissioning and operation of
• Pressure vessels Emergency response measures offshore and onshore oil and gas installations,
• Offloading and loading facilities • Egress and evacuation system. pipelines and refineries.
www.ptqenquiry.com
dnv.indd 6 10/12/10 14:22:57

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Bottom of the barrel upgrading
The predicted and demonstrated role of additives in raising bottoms product yields
and properties from the FCC unit
Alan Kramer
Albemarle
O
ne thing is certain in the also on the configuration of the
ever-evolving world of Bottoms
refinery, especially the existence of
refining: refiners need to Delta coke a feed hydrotreater. Refiners charg-
capitalise upon opportunities that high ing resid to the FCC unit without
allow them to profitably crack the capability of feed hydrotreating
Distillate Gasoline
increasingly difficult feedstocks in may face a delta coke limitation.
the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) This limitation often manifests itself
unit. This is apparent in the sheer Delta coke as a metallurgical limit within the
quantity of new technologies low FCC unit regenerator or associated
appearing in the industry within downstream piping and hardware;
the past few years. Two decades Figure 1 The yield space of a FCC unit or as a reduction in the catalyst-to-
ago, Albemarle pioneered the tech- oil ratio, resulting in unacceptable
nology platform from which the away from optimising the gasoline yields from the FCC unit. Resid
original Bottoms Cracking Additives yield towards increasing diesel processors also suffer from
(BCA) were developed. Subsequent production instead. increased metals contamination on
improvement of these first BCAs, Figure 1 shows the concept of the the equilibrated catalyst, leading to
with enhanced zeolites and metals yield space of the FCC unit. The wet gas compressor constraints
trapping components, has resulted yield space defines, in a three- resulting from increased hydrogen
in today’s BCMT series of dimensional co-ordinate system, the and light gas production.
additives. primary factors to be considered At the other end of the feed spec-
Although market demands vary when optimising the FCC unit prof- trum, some refiners choose to
globally, refinery economics always itability. Economics always drive severely hydrotreat the feed sent to
present a considerable driving force the FCC unit. This improves conver-
towards reducing bottoms. sion and provides the opportunity
Traditionally in the European When utilising a for the FCC unit to generate prod-
marketplace, distillate yield is opti- ucts with specific properties, such
mised on the FCC unit. The demand BCMT additive, choice as 10 ppm ultra-low sulphur gaso-
for diesel fuels has been driven by line. Refiners processing deeply
aggressive automobile efficiency
depends not only on hydrotreated feeds can find them-
regulations and policies favouring
diesel-powered vehicles. Conversely,
the primary product selves in the situation where the
regenerator temperature is too cool
North American refiners have typi- slate, but also on the to maintain stable operation, but
cally operated the FCC unit to the wet gas compressor is operating
generate the optimal amount of configuration of the at its design limit. In this situation,
gasoline barrels. Recent regulations a coke-selective increase in delta
within the US, such as the refinery coke is required, but this change
Renewable Fuels Standard, have must occur in a manner by which
upset the traditional paradigm. bottoms minimisation (vertical the gas volume is not increased.
Now, North American refiners are axis), market factors determine the Regardless of whether or not a
finding themselves in long positions predominant yield (horizontal axis) feed hydrotreater is present in a
in both gasoline and octane. This and heat balance considerations refinery, the minimum bottoms
has resulted in the oversupply of determine the optimal delta coke yield will ultimately be defined by
high-octane gasoline and depressed target (orthogonal axis). the concentration of non-crackable,
gasoline margins. Coupled with When utilising a BCMT additive, multi-ringed aromatic cores present
increased global demand for diesel, additive choice depends not only in the FCC unit feed that boil above
many refiners have shifted focus on the primary product slate, but 340ºC. Besides feed, there are two
albermarle.indd 1 9/12/10 22:29:20

other main variables strongly influ- excellent hydrothermal stability,
encing bottoms cracking. Delta coke increased gasoline yield and lower
high
Accessibility, defined as the ability gas make
of the large feed molecule to diffuse BCMT-DC
• BCMT-MD utilises the raw
into the catalyst particle (without Distillate Gasoline bottoms cracking strength of ADM-
forming coke along the way) and BCMT-MD BCMT-500 20 matrix, the metals trapping of
subsequently crack upon the appro- ADM-60 and a combination of
priate active site, is absolutely critical Delta coke speciality zeolites designed to mini-
low
for profitable bottoms cracking. Just mise the overcracking of light cycle
as critical is metals tolerance. Nickel, oils into gasoline, while at the same
vanadium and iron increase coke, Figure 2 Within the FCC yield space, time ensuring a sufficient wet gas
hydrogen and dry gas yields. When three formulations of BCMT additives are yield to maintain volume expan-
not properly passivated, these metals required to meet the needs of refiners for sion. Together, the combination of
can lead to reductions in the improved bottoms cracking ADM-20 and the speciality zeolites
catalyst-to-oil ratio and increased result in a low delta coke and gas
bottoms yield. Vanadium and increase LCO yield and delta coke make, which can be leveraged to
sodium both destroy the zeolite in another unit. increase the catalyst-to-oil ratio or
crystal and neutralise acid sites, Necessity therefore dictates three increase the fraction of resid
reducing conversion. Iron is known distinct solutions for refiners charged to the FCC unit
to glaze the outer surface of catalyst employing BCMT additives to • BCMT-DC solves the problem
particles lacking sufficient metals maximise profitability within their faced by many refiners running
tolerance, significantly reducing yield space. Figure 2 overlays the severely hydrotreated feeds; that is,
accessibility. The presence of names of these different additives, how to increase the regenerator
calcium, vanadium and sodium each of which is especially formu- temperature (delta coke) and
further exacerbates accessibility loss. improve the operational stability of
Returning to the concept of the the FCC unit without increasing the
yield space (see Figure 1), refiners
BCMT additives dry gas yield. Since metals trapping
agree that minimising bottoms aim to improve is usually not a primary concern for
(moving downward in the yield heavily hydrotreated FCC units,
space) is a fundamental driver catalyst accessibility BCMT-DC combines different
behind profitable FCC unit optimi- ADMs, rare earths and zeolites
sation. However, feed, accessibility by enhancing focused solely on maximising
and contaminant metals commonly bottoms cracking activity at a
prevent them from moving towards the diffusional higher delta coke. It is important to
greater profitability in their yield stress that the higher delta coke
space. architecture of the with BCMT-DC is not achieved by
poorer coke selectivity; rather, the
Solving the bottoms cracking
catalyst system higher delta coke is achieved by
problem increasing the overall activity while
While improved profitability is lated to target specific regions of maintaining coke selectivity. Due to
found by moving downwards in the the yield space. Selection of the the inherent difficulty of squeezing
yield space, maximised profitability correct formulation depends on additional bottoms cracking activity
is realised by simultaneously moving each refiner’s requirements for out of hydrotreated feedstocks,
in the other two yield space dimen- primary product yield and heat BCMT-DC is bound by a proprie-
sions as well. The primary product balance. tary binding system, allowing a
yield (the horizontal axis in the yield The BCMT solutions available to large quantity of catalytically active
space) is defined by the local or refiners are as follows: components to be assembled into
regional product market. Delta coke • BCMT-500 minimises bottoms the catalyst particle while maintain-
considerations (the orthogonal axis yields through a combination of ing attrition resistance equal to
in the yield space) will vary from Albemarle Developed Matrices typical base cracking catalyst
refiner to refiner, depending on (ADM), specifically ADM-20 and formulations.
hardware and unit constraints. ADM-60, which in combination Regardless of the additive
Given the myriad of possibilities provide a robust bottoms cracking employed by the refiner, BCMT
present in these two dimensions of matrix with tailored mesoporosity additives aim to improve catalyst
the yield space, it is illogical for one and acid site distribution. The ADM- accessibility by enhancing the diffu-
single additive solution to meet 60 alumina also provides metals sional architecture of the catalyst
every refiner’s needs. Simply stated, trapping capabilities, allowing the system. This allows the feed mole-
the same additive cannot be additive to increase the metals toler- cule to pre-crack prior to entering
expected to provide maximum gaso- ance of the unit inventory.1 A rare the zeolite, whereupon it cracks
line barrels and a cooler regenerator earth stabilised zeolite is also incor- further into valuable products. All
temperature in one FCC unit, and porated into BCMT-500, bestowing three of the BCMT additives deliver

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usually does not result in improved
bottoms cracking. When a FCC unit
is constrained by a regenerator
Activity limited Delta coke limited
temperature or air blower limit,
increasing the catalyst activity in a
Unit conversion, wt%
non-coke selective manner may not

increase the conversion on the FCC
unit — the conversion could poten-
tially drop. This is because the
increased activity will cause the
regenerator temperature to rise,
forcing the refiner to lower the riser
temperature in response. The
catalyst-to-oil ratio is subsequently
lower, resulting in fewer catalyst
sites present for the feed to crack
Catalyst activity, wt% upon, lower conversion and an
undesired increase in bottoms.2 This
Figure 3 Simply increasing the catalyst activity will not improve bottoms cracking. concept is illustrated in Figure 3.
For delta coke-limited units, increasing activity can result in lower conversion due to a
reduced catalyst-to-oil ratio How BCMT additives work
The introduction of Y zeolite
large quantities of pre-cracking sites coke catalyst, increasing the cata- in catalysts was the major
while only making up a small frac- lyst-to-oil ratio and subsequently breakthrough in FCC in the latter
tion of the circulating inventory. increasing bottoms conversion. half of the twentieth century.3 This
Since these materials are designed While this non-selective approach technology enabled catalyst activity
as additives to the base catalyst, may reduce the bottoms yield to increase tremendously, paving
they can be added to the inventory slightly if no circulation constraint the way for the change from dense
to enable an improvement in the is encountered first, it comes at the bed to riser cracking. Subsequently,
profitability of the FCC unit by: cost of increased coke production. contact time between oil and the
• Decreasing the bottoms yield and Other times, refiners may think catalyst in the FCC unit decreased.4
increasing bottoms density they can increase the bottoms crack- The decrease in contact time has
• Increasing the liquid product ing activity of their FCC unit by caused many units to be ultimately
yield (LCO, gasoline, LPG) simply increasing the catalyst activ- limited by the ability of the matrix
• Increasing the processing of ity. Increasing the catalyst activity of the FCC catalyst to convert the
opportunity crude can be accomplished by reformulat- large feed molecules in a much
• Increasing the amount of resid ing the base catalyst or by adding shorter time, especially as increas-
feedstock. more catalyst per barrel of feed ing quantities of residual feedstocks
On occasion, refiners may think processed. However, experience has are routed to the FCC unit.
that they can lower the bottoms shown that simply increasing cata- The supercage in Y zeolite, where
yield by selecting a lower delta lyst activity by these methods most of the primary cracking reac-
tions take place, is shown in Figure
4. The diameter of the supercage is
14 Å. However the entrance diame-
ter is only 7.5 Å. Molecules with
boiling points of 480°C or higher
typically are too large to enter the
zeolite supercage, since these mole-
cules have kinetic diameters
ranging from 10 Å to as large as
Pore diameter 100 Å.
7.5 Å
The diffusional character of the
catalyst determines whether or not
molecules with kinetic diameters
greater than 7.5 Å are accessible to
Supercage the active sites that pre-crack these
large molecules into intermediate
products, thus allowing them to
enter the zeolite supercage and
continue cracking into the desired
Figure 4 Graphical representation of the Faujasite (Y-zeolite) supercage final products. Feed molecules that

cannot be admitted into the super-
cage are restricted to cracking only 4
on the outer shell and surface of the
Relative cracking activity

zeolite,5 which ultimately limits the
SiO2/Al2O3
conversion of the feed to product. 3
Previously published work show-
ing the relative cracking activity of
branched naphthenic compounds 2
over matrix and Y-zeolite6 is shown
in Figure 5. This further illustrates Y Zeolite
the need for a highly active, acces- 1
sible matrix component to pre-crack
large molecules so that they can be
0
admitted into the zeolite. 0 1 2 3 4
The accessibility of a catalyst can Naphthenic rings
be quantified by measuring the
dynamic diffusion of high molecu-
lar weight molecules into the FCC Figure 5 Relative cracking activities of model compounds over zeolite and matrix catalyst
unit catalyst particle. This number components
is commonly known as the AAI, or
Albemarle Accessibility Index.7 The such as nickel will be deposited on nate has been found in laboratory
AAI reflects the capability of the the surface of the catalyst, forming testing to be both stable and signifi-
catalyst to facilitate high molecular in situ dehydrogenation catalysts. cantly less reactive than nickel
weight, sterically hindered mole- These can be quite catalytically oxide for generating hydrogen.
cules to diffuse into a catalyst active, removing what little precious More importantly, catalysts that
particle, bind with active sites, crack hydrogen may be available from have the ability to passivate nickel
into product molecules, and then large, hydrogen-deficient molecules. into nickel aluminate exhibit supe-
diffuse back out of the catalyst These dehydrogenated molecules rior metals tolerance in the FCC
particle to be recovered as form a covering of coke on the unit.11
product.8,9 surface of the catalyst particle, In order to be successful, the
In all FCC units, especially those blocking other oil molecules from additive approach to improving
that are processing a high fraction the active sites. In addition, this accessibility must push past the
of residual feedstock, there exists a coke must be combusted in the bounds of existing catalyst technol-
critical AAI level, below which regenerator, which results in a ogies, because with additives the
catalyst performance (and unit improvements in accessibility and
yields) fall drastically.10 With the metals tolerance can stem only from
proper catalyst technology, it can The additive a small fraction of the circulating
be easy to maintain the AAI above inventory rather than the entire
the critical level. Small improve-
approach to catalyst load. BCMT additives,
ments in accessibility,
leveraged across the entire unit
when improving therefore, are uniquely designed to
meet the challenge of quickly
inventory, can return significant accessibility must increasing catalyst accessibility,
improvements in yield. since they are specially formulated
However, because of seasonal push past the bounds to provide extreme accessibility in a
demand, supply chain logistics and highly concentrated additive form.
FCC unit circulating inventory of existing catalyst BCMT additives utilise advanced
sizes, it can be difficult for refiners manufacturing technologies that
to improve the catalyst AAI in a technologies greatly increase molecular diffusion
timely enough fashion to meet and maximise AAI,12 while deliver-
product demands. In these situa- higher regenerator temperature and ing the proper balance of
tions, an accessible FCC additive lower catalyst-to-oil ratio. The pre-cracking matrix, selective zeolite
can be employed to boost the AAI covering of active sites and the sites and metals tolerance. BCMT-
above the critical level. This reduction of the catalyst-to-oil ratio 500 and BCMT-MD provide all of
provides the necessary pre-cracking both lower unit conversion. these benefits without increasing or
of the feed components so that the To combat the deleterious effects adversely affecting the delta coke
available zeolite can be more fully of contaminant metals in delta make on the FCC unit. BCMT-DC
utilised. coke-limited units, both BCMT-500 provides additional delta coke for
Contaminant metals that are typi- and BCMT-MD are formulated with FCC units with hydrotreated feed-
cally found in high concentrations ADM-60 alumina. ADM-60 alumina stocks, but does so without the dry
in resid feeds can quickly damage binds with nickel to form nickel gas penalties typically associated
overall unit performance. Metals aluminate, NiAl2O4. Nickel alumi- with increased delta coke.

employing BCMT additives have
seen significant bottoms reductions
High
past 1.11 g/ml, whereas in other
Additional bottoms cases the incremental performance
cracking potential benefits have waned by this
bottoms point. Densities greater
than 1.12 g/ml generally indicate
the base catalyst is sufficiently
cracking bottoms, and it is unlikely
that the addition of BCMT will
improve the bottoms cracking situ-
ation by a significant margin.
Low Laboratory analysis of the bottoms

0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15
High boiling-range feed molecules
Bottoms density, g/ml
typically found in the bottoms frac-
tion of the FCC yield slate are
Figure 6 Estimating the bottoms cracking potential based on the bottoms gravity usually too large to enter a Y-zeolite
supercage. Previously published
Identifying the potential described here for determining work indicates that large amounts
The key question that must be whether or not additional bottoms of zeolite will be effective in remov-
answered prior to using any BCMT cracking potential exists, is a quali- ing alkyl side chains from aromatic
additive is how much of the bottoms tative estimate based on the density cores (dealkylation).13 While this
is truly crackable? Some of the more of the bottoms (see Figure 6). reaction certainly occurs, the bulk
common methods of determining Generally speaking, the lighter of mass in the bottoms yield is not
how to answer this question are: the bottoms density, the higher the located in the side chains attached
• Estimation based on the commer- propensity that crackable material to aromatic or polynuclear-aromatic
cial bottoms gravity remains unconverted in the bottoms cores, but is rather in the cores
• Laboratory analysis of the fraction. Densities less than 1.07 g/ themselves. This is because the
commercial bottoms fraction ml usually indicate a good chance alkyl side chains attached to the
• Ecat benchmarking that BCMT additives will return a polynuclear-aromatic cores are
• Lab-scale testing. measurably positive, and often usually quite short in length.
lucrative, benefit to the refiner. Dealkylation generally results in an
Estimation based on bottoms gravity Between 1.07 and 1.11 g/ml, the increased LPG yield instead of
The simplest method, and perhaps probability of major success is increased transportation fuels,
also the least accurate of the options usually less certain. Some refiners which are typically desired from
the FCC unit. Therefore, quantify-
ing the degree of potential core
2.0
destruction is paramount when
gauging the bottoms crackability.
1.8
Ecat benchmarking
LCO/bottoms, wt%/wt%
Leaders Most major FCC catalyst suppliers

1.6
provide some degree of fluidised
bed lab-scale testing of Ecat samples
1.4 on a routine basis. This testing is
often performed on a fluidised
1.2 simulation test (FST) unit or an
advanced cracking evaluation
(ACE) unit. While the testing equip-
1.0 Laggards ment and conditions may vary from
supplier to supplier, the inherent
0.8 value to this type of testing is that
within each supplier’s labs, all of
0.6 the equilibrium catalyst testing is
55 60 65 70 75 80 performed over the same feed at
Conversion, wt% constant lab conditions. Therefore,
given adequate laboratory controls,
Figure 7 Comparison of the FST results for many refiners’ Ecat samples averaged over a the only variable that changes over
monthly time period indicates which refiners successfully beat their peers at maximising time is the equilibrium catalyst
LCO at constant conversion itself.

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refiner are shown in Figure 8. The
data points represented by squares
'45EBUB quantify the bottoms cracking abil-
LCO/ bot t oms, wt %/ wU %

#$.5TUBSU ity of the equilibrium catalyst in the
same manner shown in Figure 7 —
through the LCO-to-bottoms ratio.
The upswing in the LCO-to-bottoms
ratio towards the right side of the
plot is due to an Albemarle BCMT
additive being introduced to the

unit.
Lab-scale testing
For BCMT additives to provide a
meaningful shift in the bottoms
cracking and metals tolerance capa-
.BZ +VO +VM "VH 4FQ 0DU /PW %FD +BO bility of the entire FCC unit
inventory, their technology and
performance must be rather extreme
Figure 8 The trend of the FST results of one refiner’s Ecat indicates a dramatic (positive) when compared to normal cracking
change in the bottoms cracking ability of the catalyst. In this case, the change is due to catalysts. This can often pose a chal-
BCMT usage lenge when it comes to scaling up
lab-scale testing results to the
Benchmarking data is valuable to line/bottoms or (gasoline + commercial unit.
the refiner in two ways. Since the LCO)/bottoms could be plotted in Some refiners, especially those
feed and laboratory testing condi- a similar manner and provide with in-house testing capabilities,
tions are constant for all samples equally useful information. choose to rely on the outcome of
tested, accurate comparisons can be lab-scale testing to gauge the
made across different FCC units. performance potential of catalyst
One way to compare bottoms crack-
It is very important changes and some additive trials.
ing prowess across different FCC
units can be to analyse the LCO-to-
that the operational Just as no two FCC units are identi-
cal, testing equipment can vary
bottoms ratio (see Figure 7). parameters of the lab- considerably between laboratories.
In Figure 7, those units which, for Many employ small-scale reactors
a given conversion level, are scale unit match as such as ACE units, short contact
towards the upper-left side of the time — resid tests (SCT-RT) or
plot should be considered leaders closely as possible the microactivity tests (MAT). Some
relative to their peer group for larger oil companies and third-
maximising LCO at the expense of commercial conditions party testing labs have circulating
bottoms. Units desirous of convert- pilot riser capabilities in addition to
ing bottoms into LCO that are
at the refinery the smaller-scale test units listed
closer to the bottom-right side of above. Regardless of the equipment
the plot should consider using Second, Ecat benchmarking can employed, it is of utmost impor-
BCMT-MD to improve their LCO- show trends over time of the tance that the operational
to-bottoms ratio. If a unit were bottoms cracking ability of the base parameters of the lab-scale unit
focused on maximising gasoline or catalyst at constant feed and condi- match as closely as possible the
total transportation fuel yield, gaso- tions. Ecat FST data from a single commercial conditions present at
the refinery. This includes, but is
not limited to:
• Temperatures
Comparison of commercial yields to yields measured by routine Ecat FST
testing and laboratory deactivated catalyst and additive on a constant • Oil/catalyst contact time
conversion basis with 10% BCMT-500 • Feed composition and quality
• Catalyst properties.

Commercial Ecat FST Lab deactivated It is always recommended to
Coke No change +20%* +250%* perform lab-scale testing with the
Catalyst-to-oil Slight increase – -0.7 actual feed from the FCC unit. It
Delta coke -0.03 – – goes without saying that if a feed
Bottoms -1.3 -0.6 -0.9
is not representative of the actual
* indicates relative change vs BCMT-free base case commercial feed, one can drasti-
cally misestimate the performance
Table 1 of a BCMT additive. Even if the

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bulk properties of two feeds may
1.2 be similar, a difference in the
Zeolite degree of saturation of three-ringed
1.0 Matrix polynuclear core compounds in the
Z/M feed can lead to a mis-estimation
of the ability of BCMT’s ability to
0.8
Y-zeolite and matrix
decrease the bottoms yield. One

Relative activity of
should not rely such differences

0.6 presenting themselves in the boil-
ing point distribution, density or
0.4 other bulk feed properties.
Crackable naphthenic and naph-
theno-aromatic rings will break
0.2
easily in the presence of BCMT,
whereas a feed containing a high
0.0 concentration of polynuclear-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 aromatic cores, which are not
Time crackable by any catalyst or addi-
tives, will exhibit poor bottoms
Figure 9 Long and mild deactivation conditions are necessary to balance the relative cracking potential.
activity of the zeolite and matrix components of BCMT additives Many different methods exist
for attempting to deactivate fresh
catalyst to match the properties of
an equilibrated catalyst. Whenever
%SZHBT #$.5 o
XU o possible, it is recommended that
#$.5
actual equilibrium catalyst be
-1( used as the base case for testing
WPM
BCMT additives. Simply, this
(BTPMJOF eliminates any discrepancies that
-$0
WPM
deactivation method may create in
the lab-scale yields. These discrep-
#PUUPNT o
WPM o ancies are often due to the fact
that the base catalyst technology
%FMUBDPLF differs, in some cases greatly,
o
from the additive. If insufficient
o o o o time or conditions are present to
Yield shift deactivate the highly accessible
matrix components of the host
Figure 10 Yield shifts observed at a North American refinery utilising BCMT-500. CatOp catalyst or BCMT additive, the
modelling was used to normalise the data to a consistent basis balance between catalyst and
additive activities and selectivities
will not be accurate (see Figure 9).
Short and severe deactivations are
High
excellent for reducing zeolite activity
in a cracking catalyst, but the matrix
components in the BCMT additive
Additional bottoms
cracking potential
may not be sufficiently deactivated

by such methods. We have found
that long, mild (lower temperatures,
0% lower steam partial pressures) deac-
tivation conditions have proven
effective in deactivating both the
15%
matrix and zeolitic components of
20%
catalysts and BCMT additives.
An additional challenge that must
Low
0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 be rectified when utilising lab-deac-
Bottoms density, g/ml tivated catalysts in testing rather
than equilibrium catalysts is that
many of the current laboratory
Figure 11 Bottoms density measurements indicate little crackable material was left in deactivation methods result in
the bottoms with 20% BCMT-500 use considerably higher accessibilities

Bottoms
Delta coke %SZHBT $PNQFUJUPS
XU o
high #$.5
-1(
Distillate Gasoline
WPM
(BTPMJOF
-$0 o
Delta coke
low WPM
#PUUPNT o
WPM o
Figure 12 BCMT-500 moved this refiner
to a significantly more profitable position o o o o
within their yield space Yield shift
than would exist in the analogous Figure 13 Not all bottoms-cracking solutions provide the desired result, as is shown here.
equilibrium catalyst. Some proto- The use of a competitive catalyst enhanced dealkylation reactions, but did nothing to
cols, including the Mitchell method crack naphtheno-aromatic cores remaining in the bottoms fraction
followed by cyclic propylene steam-
ing (CPS), as well as several other benchmarking, and lab testing, sol catalyst employed. The FCC unit
cyclic deactivation (CD) methods, commercial performance is the ulti- is a UOP high-efficiency design with
result in higher accessibilities after mate proof of BCMT additives. a 360-tonne inventory and maxi-
deactivation than the original fresh, mum capacity of approximately 100
non-deactivated catalyst. The acces- North American refinery 000 b/d. Typical fresh catalyst addi-
sibility of deactivated catalysts must A nominal 200 000 bpd refinery in tion rates were in the range 9–11 t/d.
be quantified both before and after the US recently utilised BCMT-500. The feed was partially hydrotreated,
deactivation to ensure that the This refinery processed many oppor- but prevailing economics have
deactivation method has the desired tunity crudes and needed BCMT-500 increasingly favoured the introduc-
effect on accessibility. Otherwise, to improve the stability and bottoms tion of non-hydrotreated, high
the base catalyst can exhibit an cracking activity of the base alumina- metals feedstocks.
unrealistic level of bottoms cracking
activity in lab-scale testing, result-
ing in an incorrect predictor of BCMT-500’s benefits yield significant profitability improvements
BCMT performance.
Furthermore, it is important to 20% BCMT-500
decide whether or not the coke Yield shift Product value shift, $/bbl
effects measured in lab-scale testing Dry gas, wt% -0.2 -0.02
are truly reflective of commercial LPG, vol% +3.7 +1.66
Gasoline + LCO, vol% +1.6 +1.18
operations. In the case of the second Bottoms, vol% -3.3 -1.51
commercial example presented later Coke, wt% +0.1 +0.02
in this article, commercial perform- Incremental profit, $/bbl _ +1.33
ance at 10% BCMT-500 in inventory Annualised benefit, $/yr _ 34 000 000
was compared to FST test results
from an equilibrium catalyst sample Table 2
taken at the same time, and the
base fresh catalyst blended with
10% BCMT-500 and deactivated in 1800
Saturates
the laboratory. The results are 1600
summarised in Table 1. 1400
Intensity, mAU
These data show that laboratory 1200

deactivated catalyst blended with
1000
10% BCMT-500 resulted in an exag- Mono-aromatics Di-aromatic polar
gerated coke (and hence delta coke) 800
yield; however, no such delta coke 600
Di-aromatics
penalty was seen commercially — 400
illustrating the point that testing 200
with laboratory-deactivated catalysts
0
may lead to erroneous conclusions. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Residence time, min.
Commercial examples
Regardless of the conclusions Figure 14 HPLC results show saturates and mono-aromatic compounds exist at
drawn from bottoms analyses, significant enough levels in the bottoms fraction to suggest improvement with BCMT-500

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Strong diesel margins provided
the economic incentive for this %SZHBT
o
refiner to maximise transportation XU
fuel yield and quality. The potential
-1(
for BCMT to improve bottoms WPM
o
cracking was suggested by the
bottoms density, which indicated (BTPMJOF

that moderate opportunity existed WPM
for improvement. -$0
This unit added 20% of BCMT-
WPM
500 to the inventory and maintained
steady addition rates at or slightly #PUUPNT
o
WPM
above that level for approximately
one month. After this, the refinery %FMUBDPLF o
chose to allow the BCMT-500
concentration to decay to 15% in o o o o
inventory, with continued additions Yield shift
at the 15% level for a brief period
until the on-site additive supply
was exhausted. Figure 15 Yield shifts observed at a European refinery utilising BCMT-500
In this case, FCC unit operating
conditions were significantly differ- two reasons: first, the activity deliv- unit during the trial at the 15%
ent between the base and trial ered by the base catalyst is not level in inventory and after the
period. To correct the data to a solely designed to target bottoms; unit had returned to base condi-
consistent reference base, and second, adding more of a non- tions. The application of 15%
Albemarle’s CatOp FCC unit model Albemarle base catalyst has a small, BCMT-500 increased the overall
was employed, enabling the effects if any, effect on the accessibility of accessibility of the catalyst in the
of the BCMT-500 additive to be the catalyst inventory. To truly inventory by 50% over the base
readily apparent and not compli- destroy the bottoms, as in this case. This demonstrates the addi-
cated by simultaneous operational example, a bottoms cracking additive’s ability to deliver concentrated
changes. Figure 10 shows the yield tive with the proper active accessibility into the unit by
shifts realised with the use of 20% ingredients and high accessibility is boosting the accessibility above
and 15% BCMT-500. required. the critical level necessary to
Of greatest impact is the reduc- To quantify the increase in maintain satisfactory bottoms
tion in bottoms volume and gravity. accessibility, equilibrium catalyst conversion.
Figure 11 shows that with 20% samples were taken from the Figure 12 shows the change
BCMT-500 in inventory, the 3.3
vol% reduction in bottoms resulted
in little crackable material left in the

bottoms fraction. The increase in
#BTF
the LPG yield indicates that BCMT-
#$.5
500 was able significantly to
enhance dealkylation reactions
In de xe d bot t oms yi e l d, wt %
targeting the bottoms fraction. As a

result, the olefinicity of the LPG
increased by 1%. BCMT also

cracked naphtheno-aromatic cores
that were left in the bottoms by the
base cracking catalyst. The cracking
of these cores resulted in increased
LCO and gasoline yields of 1.6
vol%. This improvement was seen
without any delta coke penalty.
The ability of BCMT-500 to o
upgrade the bottoms fraction is
apparent from the large decrease in o
bottoms yield and density. Simply o o o o
increasing the unit activity by Indexed conversion, wt%
adding more of the base fresh cata-
lyst rarely decreases the bottoms Figure 16 Commercial observations show that BCMT-500 cracks bottoms at constant
yield by any appreciable extent for conversion

Bottoms
#BTF Delta coke
#$.5#$.5 high

Distillate Gasoline
D e l t a c ok e , w t %

Delta coke
low

Figure 19 Yield space diagram for a

European refiner. BCMT-500 decreased
bottoms yield, allowing higher
distillate make in return. A slight increase
in catalyst-to-oil ratio is reflected in lower
delta coke

o o o o
Indexed conversion, wt% European refinery
A European refinery structurally
Figure 17 BCMT-500 offered this refiner slightly lower delta coke with increased bottoms replaced 10% of its daily catalyst
cracking additions with BCMT-500 additive.
This refinery operates a nominal
80 000 b/d UOP SBS FCC unit in
partial burn. Feed consisted of resid
11
and mild hydrocracker bottoms.
Albemarle accessibility index
Contaminant metals on equilibrium

10 catalyst were 3300 ppm nickel, 800
ppm vanadium and 3100 ppm iron.
9
The refiner’s objectives were to
maximise LCO and gasoline while
(AAI)
minimising bottoms yield. The unit

8 is constrained by the combined
gasoline and LPG rundown capac-
7 ity, air blower capacity and
regenerator temperature. The
refinery used Albemarle’s Coral
6
Time resid catalyst.
A sample of this refiner’s bottoms
fraction was obtained and a high-
Figure 18 Replacing 10% of the already highly accessible Coral base catalyst with BCMT pressure liquid chromatography
still increased overall inventory accessibility by 25% (HPLC) analysis was performed.
The results of this analysis are
BCMT-500 made in this refiner’s success (see Figure 13). While some shown in Figure 14. A significant
yield space: significantly reduced bottoms reduction did occur at the amount of saturates and mono-
bottoms yield, increased distillate target concentration in inventory, aromatic compounds were found in
in the product slate and no change it was limited solely to dealkyla- the bottoms. These molecular types
in delta coke. tion reactions, since gas yields are crackable with the use of
Applying published US Gulf increased significantly but overall BCMT-500.15
Coast economics14 to the yield shifts transportation fuel precursors The shifts in commercial yields
realised with BCMT-500 during the declined by 0.1%. This is in attributable to BCMT-500 are
time period of the trial, Table 2 contrast to BCMT-500 performance, detailed in Figure 15, and clearly
shows how 20% BCMT-500 in where yields increased by 1.6 show a substantial decrease in
inventory was able to deliver $1.33 vol% due to higher accessibility bottoms yield and subsequent
additional profit per barrel through and the ability to crack naphtheno- increase in LCO and gasoline yield.
the FCC unit. On an annualised aromatic cores. Comparing the Further insight into improved
basis, these yield improvements net economics of these two additives, bottoms cracking is gained by plot-
an additional $34 million to the BCMT-500 delivered almost nine ting the bottoms yield vs
refinery. times more dollars per barrel — conversion. Figure 16 shows a
This refinery later attempted to $1.33 vs only 15 cents or, on an lower bottoms yield relative to the
use a competitive catalyst as a annual basis, over $30 million base, and that the performance
bottoms cracking additive without more in profit. benefit of BCMT-500 is achieved
albermarle.indd 10 10/12/10 13:42:58

Complete Solutions for
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Sulzer Chemtech is a world leader in the design and validate innovative solutions including CFD and Sulzer Chemtech, USA, Inc.
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Legal Notice: The information contained in this publication is believed to be accurate and reliable, but is not to be construed as implying any warranty www.ptqenquiry.com
or guarantee of performance. Sulzer Chemtech waives any liability and indemnity for effects resulting from its application. for further information
sulzer.indd 1 9/12/10 20:46:45

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260 Schilling Circle OT Greppin
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USA 06803 Bitterfeld-Wolfen
Phone: (410) 785 7900 Germany
Fax: (410) 785 7901 Phone: +49 3493 75910
Internet: www.tricatgroup.com Fax: +49 3493 75999
E-mail: sales@tricatgroup.com Internet: www.tricatgroup.de
E-mail: info@tricatgroup.de
tricat.indd 1 29/1/10 12:46:05

across a wide range of conversion.
BCMT-500’s benefits yield significant profitability improvements for this
The 1.3 wt% reduction in bottoms European refiner
volume corresponds with an
impressive 4 number API decrease.
210% BCMT-500
Figure 17 further demonstrates Yield shift Product value shift, €/MT
that the increased bottom conver- Dry gas, wt% - 0.1 -0.43
sion is achieved with no increase in LPG, wt% -0.6 -5.19
delta coke, highlighting the crack- Gasoline, wt% +0.4 +4.19
LCO, wt% +1.5 +8.52
ing chemistry occurring with Bottoms, wt% -1.3 -5.07
BCMT-500. The traditional para- Coke, wt% 0.0 0.00
digm that incremental bottoms Incremental profit, €/MT feed _ 2.02
cracking comes at the expense of a Annualised benefit, €/year _ 9 300 000
hotter regenerator (increased delta
coke) and additional dry gas make Table 3
is not true with BCMT-500.
LPG olefinicity is of interest to Conclusions 5 Cruz J M, Corma A, Fornes K, Applied
refiners operating alkylation units These two examples demonstrate Catalysis, 50, 1989, 287–293.
or those with a petrochemical oper- how refiners are able to leverage 6 Weekman Jr VW, Nace D M, AIChE Journal,
ation. BCMT-500 increased C3 BCMT additives to lower bottoms, 16, 3, 1970, 397–404.
olefinicity by 2.7% and C4 olefinic- customise their liquid product yield 7 Yung K Y, Jonker R J, Meijerink B, A Novel
ity by almost 1%. The increased selectivity and optimise their delta and Fast Method to Quantify FCC Catalyst
Accessibility, American Chemical Symposium,
LPG olefinicity is also a direct effect coke to maximise their profitability
Petroleum Chemistry Division Reprints 2002,
of the increased Ecat AAI and has within the yield space.
47, 3, 2002, 270–280.
been observed in many commercial Many different options exist for 8 Hakuli A, Bruno K, Imhof P, Fletcher F,
applications.16,17 identifying the performance poten- FCC Catalyst Selection in Diffusion Limited
Figure 18 shows the AAI increase tial of BCMT additives. These range Operating Regimes, NPRA AM-03-58, 2003.
apparent after adding 10% BCMT- from quite basic, in the case of 9 Fosket S J, Rautiainen E P H, Control iron
500 to the inventory. While in this simply making an estimate based contamination in resid FCC, Hydrocarbon
case the base catalyst’s accessibility on the bottoms gravity, to more Processing, Nov 2001, 71–77.
was high, BCMT-500 still added scientific molecular analysis of the 10 Hodgson M C J, Looi C K, Yanik S J, Catalysts
25% of additional accessibility with bottoms composition by HPLC (or Courier, 35, 1999, 2–5.
only 10% in inventory. other similar means), as was done 11 Woolery G L, Farnos M D, Quinones A R,
Chin A, Structure/Activity Correlations on Nickel
Returning once again to the in the case of the second commer-
Contaminated Fluid Cracking Catalysts, Mobil
concept of the yield space, this cial example. Lab-scale testing can
Oil Corporation, 1995.
refiner started with a fairly efficient provide further insight into the 12 Pouwels C, Springs J, Bruno K, Yung Y, Resid
and accessible bottoms cracking performance potential of BCMT, FCCU Operation Demands New Catalytic
catalyst, as shown by the low start- either when results are compared Solutions, NPRA AM-09-72, 2009.
ing point on the bottoms axis in vs a representative peer group in 13 Corma A, Miguel P, Orchill A, Koermer G,
Figure 19. the case of equilibrium catalyst Zeolite effects on the cracking of long chain
Table 3 shows the application of benchmarking, or when blended alkyl aromatics, Journal of Catalysis, 141, 1994,
regional product values from the with the individual unit’s equilib- 181.
time period of the trial applied to rium catalyst and tested at 14 Source: www.platts.com.
the refinery yields. Ten per cent conditions similar to those in the 15 Riks F, Moraca L, Improvement of FCC
bottoms cracking with BCMT-500 additive,
BCMT-500 provided this refiner commercial FCC unit.
Catalysts Courier, 72, 2008.
with an additional €25 000 per day
16 Pouwels C, Springs J, Bruno K, Yung Y, Resid
additional profit from the FCC unit. FCCU Operation Demands New Catalytic
This translates to an additional Solutions, NPRA AM-09-72, 2009.
€9 300 000 in product value 17 Pouwels C, Bruno K, Yung Y, Processing
annually. power, Hydrocarbon Engineering, Mar 2009.
Due to the high intrinsic activity
of BCMT-500, this refiner was able References
to replace 10% of the fresh catalyst 1 Scholz M, Skocpol B, Improving Conversion
of Resid to Lighter Products in the FCC, ERTC,
with BCMT-500. Bottoms decreased
2002.
by 1.3 wt%, LCO yield increased by
2 Pouwels C, Olthof F, Wijngaards H, A
1.5 wt%, C3 olefinicity increased by Review of FCC Catalyst Testing, Akzo Nobel
2.7% — all with no negative impact Australian Seminar, 1995.
on delta coke. On a tonne of feed 3 Leite L F, Schlosser C R, Ramos J G F, Yung
basis, these yield improvements K Y, Synergy affect of improved accessibility
netted an additional product value catalysts, PTQ, Spring 2000, 37. Alan Kramer is Global FCC Additives Specialist
of just over €2 per barrel, or €9.3 4 Venuto P B, Habib E T, Fluid Catalytic with Albemarle in Houston, Texas.
million on an annualised basis. Cracking with Zeolite Catalysts, 1979, 4–5. Email: alan.kramer@albemarle.com

Rely on Marsulex.
Looking Ahead to
the Refinery of Tomorrow.
As petroleum refineries extract more sulphur and produce more petcoke,

Marsulex adds value for its customers by providing outsourced services for
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Randy Hull Jim Quain

Senior Vice President, Sales & Marketing Regional Vice President, Business Development
Telephone: (409) 370-5530 Telephone: (248) 366-0833
rhull@marsulex.com jquain@marsulex.com
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marsulex.indd 1 9/12/10 20:49:29

Steps towards optimal refinery blending
A practitioner’s guide to optimising refinery blending systems by choosing

control options with the highest return on investment
David Seiver
Valero Energy Corporation
R
efinery blending typically are several permutations that span steps from the current to the
consists of gasoline and diesel the continuum from optimal to optimum, but rather the step(s)
product blending and can be undesirable. A pragmatic starting most relevant to the local situation.
considered the cash register of the point for optimisation of refinery
refinery. It is the last chance to blending would begin by locating a Cost of blend frequency
optimise composition and to get as profile matching your refinery’s As a general rule, shorter-in-time
close to product specification operations in the table. Throughout (smaller-in-volume) blends
as possible without excessive this article, we will work from the generally allow for more
giveaway. If there is specification optimal (green in Figure 1) starting commercial opportunities than
giveaway at blending, it is truly lost profile, stepping backwards towards longer blends. However, pragmatic
revenue. At a typical refinery, the least preferred profile, thereby limitations exist, such as minimum
optimised blending could represent illustrating some cost or benefit time to get the blend on-spec,
more than 50% of the total effects associated with each profile equipment stabilised and spot
advanced process control (APC) bifurcation. The intention is for samples taken and analysed. Less
savings, and may exceed $20 blending and APC engineers to than eight hours is generally
million/year in bottom-line savings. identify where they are in their regarded as risky, considering the Figure 1:
Bear in mind that a small reduction current product blending strategy, criteria mentioned earlier. However,
in giveaway yields impressive and then determine the next logical this usually would facilitate blends
results through scale-up. step(s) to a more optimal blending as small as 20 000 bbl (at reduced
Figure 1 shows five basic elements strategy. The examples in this rates of 2500 bbls/hr), which could
of refinery blending complexity that article should help when justifying lead to more niche or spot
define a refinery’s overall product a move in that direction. It is not commercial sales opportunities than
blending strategy. In practice, there necessary to implement all of the those refineries restricted to, say,
Control method Certification method Waiver methodology Blend flexibility Blend frequency Benefit impact
Short duration blends Optimal

Many grades and/or (small batches)
recipe types
On-line On-line In-line blending Long duration blends Commercial “small sales”
(direct to pipeline) (large batches) only opportunities penalty
Few grades and/or Short duration blends Same as above + limits markets/
recipe types Long duration blends only customers one can sell product to
Many grades and/or Short duration blends Same as above + must account for
recipe types primary method reproducibility
In-line blending Long duration blends only => automatic giveaway
Off-line
Few grades and/or Short duration blends Throughput penalty associated
recipe types with blend “fix-ups” & more
Tank blending Long duration blends only on-site tankage
Short duration blends
In-line blending Many grades and/or *Same as above + more
recipe types Long duration blends only spot samples needed meaning
more lab analysis / personnel &
*Off-line Off-line Few grades and/or Short duration blends limits minimum blend duration
Tank blending recipe types
Long duration blends only Least desirable
Figure 1 Refinery blending complexity/optimisation matrix
valero.indd 1 9/12/10 22:39:39

100 000 bbl minimum blends. The advantageous commercially yet recipe types can easily reach 50 or
main challenge to being able to more challenging from a standpoint more.
make smaller blends is ensuring a of blend execution, as reformulated If you utilise NIR or Raman
quality system around the blending and oxygenated blends are typically technology to control the blenders
controls/systems that will enable more challenging to produce than online, typically 12–15 (or more)
you to minimise specification conventional gasolines. properties can be determined for
giveaway with these short-duration Why might 50 unique recipe each product, including, but not
blends. A way to visualise the types be considered such a limited to, RON, MON, D86
added benefit of making smaller challenge? First of all, it is not hard properties (eight or so might be
product blends could be seen as to envision 50 recipes if you are typical, including IPB, T10, T20, T50,
follows: making both regular and premium T90, FBP, E200, E300), %benzene,
grades; producing conventional, %olefins, %aromatics and API and/
Smaller blends ⇒ More spot product sub-grade and reformulated or/and or specific gravity. The challenge
sales ⇒ Higher blender utilisation ⇒ oxygenated gasolines; have becomes clear when considering the
Higher refinery throughput ⇒ Higher modelling and organisational/
profitability co-ordination challenges associated
The blend with 50 possibly unique recipe types,
This relationship is somewhat
general and each refinery would
certification method each needing calibration models to
characterise 12–15 properties. One
have to determine its unique values can be the most could end up with several hundred
to ascertain the economic feasibility models to create and maintain.
of taking this next step forward in significant option In order to keep the calibration
refinery blending optimisation. models properly organised, a model
for optimisation catalogue should be considered to
Cost of blend flexibility spell out specifically which targeted
Some refineries are limited, or limit available to most calibration models for each recipe
themselves, to very few products. type are currently in use, and any
This simplifies blending to keep the
refineries relevant modelling data such as
number of recipe types or grades biases, “goodness-of-fit” of each
low, at a high opportunity cost with customers with unique RVP-class model, number of latent variables
regard to markets and/or specifications; sell VOC-limited used (if partial least squares, or
customers. These days, a typical, blends; and have targeted near- PLS, is used), number of spectra in
complex refinery can easily produce infrared (NIR) or Raman calibration the model and model range. It is
50% or more reformulated and/or models for various blending also good practice to match up final
oxygenated gasoline. Blend seasons, including summer, early/ blend recipe data associated with
flexibility leads to many more late winter and the blend-down and the NIR or Raman spectra and
recipe types; 50 unique recipe types blend-up intermediate seasons. The laboratory data. This is particularly
might be common. This is permutations of these different useful for detecting outliers.
Remember, targeted NIR or Raman
calibration models minimise

giveaway in various blending
seasons; for instance, winter

US conventional blending requires different blend
gasoline components and mixes compared

to summer blending. Therefore, the
0ER CENTOFREFORMULATEDOFTOTAL
NIR or Raman models should be

unique to capture these recipe-type
% of reformulated

specificities, without sacrificing the
-ILLIONSOFBBL
total US gasoline robustness of the models.

Another way to maximise blend

flexibility would be to increase the
number of blend components, in

essence increasing the degrees of
US reformulated
freedom the optimiser has at its
gasoline
disposal. If there is a way to

segregate a mixed or multi-

component stream further into
different blend components, say
Source: US Energy Information Administration (EIA) with similar octane values but
drastically different RVP values,
Figure 1 Reformulated gasoline supplied in the US this will be advantageous in
valero.indd 2 9/12/10 22:39:55

APC/NIR Evaluate
modelling Lab results Update NIR
from LIMS 12B 12A on-line NIR
engineer models performance
Validate new 13 12 Extract off-line

Commercial Commercial team models on only C NIR spectra
Send MFP to generates lifting
team commercial team 3 one NIR first for modelling
shipments by cycle
Redundant Single 11
2 Problems pair of off-line
Refinery Run Multi-Period Blend MONITOR Modify on-line NIR (lab) NIR Motor lab
clean Optimiser (MPBO) to 4 Component refinery analysers analyser analysis Note
fuels group generate monthly prod- production production AVI of blend 1
uction forecast (MPF) rates, quality,
inventories, Compare on-line vs
1
Blending Generate 10-day detailed product Use MPBO 1 off-line (lab) results –
engineer/ blending schedule & 5 economics 6 optimiser to send generate KPIs & steer
scheduler validate feasibility blend recipes 2 OC improvements
1 SBO
with MPBO
PC CONTROL 10
1
1 DCS Blend to
Blending Document blend
Problems 5B minimise
operators data & issue
Load gasoline giveaway and 9 product transfer
Ideal feedback loop blends into DCS 8 manage
to “tweak” LP documents
component
Refinery inventories
planning Run refinery
group LP model Gasoline Gasoline
blender #1 blender #3
Gasoline
blender #2
Improve BLEND VALUES using regression database (from on-line results)
BLEND VALUES are used by both the Multi-Period and Single-Blend Optimisers
to calculate how properties are affected by blend composition.
Note Monthly OC review meetings between APC NIR modeller/blending engineer/lab chemist & analyser group leader to review
1
on-line vs off-line statistics to determine if there are analyser, lab or NIR modelling issues that need to be addressed.
1 Blending software: 1 = Multi-Period Off-line Blend Optimiser (MPBO)

2 = Single-Blend On-line Optimiser (SBO)
1.... Main sequence
Figure 2 Refinery blending work process overview
optimising product blending. So, that specifies the refiner’s systems 5000 bbl/hr = 1 hour
for example, if your refinery has to produce on-spec products 23 hours
some mixed or multi-component directly into a pipeline. The obvious The outcome with tank blending
streams with low octane and high risk/reward proposition with in- is 15% additional time to move the
RVP, you might consider re-routing line blending is the lack of “buffer same barrels of product, or a
one of the streams that might be to fix-up” blends that tank blending reduction in throughput of 15%.
similarly low octane but low RVP allows, with the obvious benefit of
as a separate component that could less tankage and higher refinery Cost of certification method
be utilised in summer reformulated product throughput. The effect on The blend certification method can
blending, where the octane throughput can be illustrated in the be the most significant option for
specification is often easier to following example: optimisation available to most
achieve than the RVP value. This is refineries. The two blend
a common optimisation strategy certification methods are: traditional
used with mixed FCC naphtha Basis: 100 000 bbl blends both cases; 5000 off-line certification, where ASTM
streams, where the heavy naphtha bbl/hr (or other governing bodies’)
stream is segregated from the product pumps both cases primary testing methods are
lighter stream(s). Case 1: In-line blending applied to the blended products;
100 000 bbl pipeline blend @
and on-line certification — in the
5000 bbl/hr = 20 hours
Cost of waiver methodology US, this normally would apply only
Case 2: Tank blending
There are two general method- 95 000 bbl initial tank blend @ to non-EPA regulated properties
ologies associated with where 5000 bbl/hr = 19 hours such as octane, which is a
refiners blend their products: in-line Tank testing and analysis 2 hours performance specification — where
or pipeline blending, and tank Creation of “fix-up” blend based product properties are tested as the
blending. Typically, in-line blending on test results 1 hour blend is being produced and these
requires a regulatory blend waiver 5000 bbl “fix-up” tank blend @ properties are certified against; that
valero.indd 3 13/12/10 13:23:05

is, no additional laboratory testing critical, since this analyser system historical trends of these valuable
is required. Clearly, on-line will be replacing numerous on-line diagnostic tools should be
certification has advantages in analysers in the blending system. analysed in the routine quality
terms of product throughput by Care should be taken in the design control meetings that are part of a
eliminating the need to wait for of the on-line analysis system, robust on-line certification system.
additional testing at end-of-blend, including sample systems, so that
and in terms of laboratory personnel there are no single points of failure Cost of control method
because fewer testers are generally that could jeopardise the availability In common with certification
needed. But, most important of all, of blending operations. Also, methodology, control methodology
it enables the control system to success using NIR/Raman analysers for refinery blending also falls into
target more closely the actual for on-line certification requires a one of two general classifications:
product specifications without the commitment from the analyser on-line or off-line. As on-line
need for an on-line target bias to maintenance group as well as the control is the de facto standard in
ensure that the reproducibility of APC group that is often asked to refining, it is the methodology
off-line results is still on-spec. perform calibration or modelling. A discussed here. The control method
On-line certification requires a typical work process that could be is the mechanism by which the
greater commitment to maintenance used as a guideline is highlighted tender is created. This mechanism
and quality control for on-line in blue in Figure 2. includes the process control
analysers and instrumentation. On-line certification requires a hardware and software, and the
Some corporate cultures find the more focused approach to analyser interface with the refinery planning
concept of on-line certification diagnostics. NIR and Raman cycle.
uncomfortable. In order to capture analysers are equipped with The control method has a choice
the benefits associated with not powerful, and often ignored or of objectives. Most on-line single-
needing a bias between the on-line blend optimisers (SBO) have several
control system and the off-line optimisation objective functions to
testing results, consider choosing Analysis with an choose from, including minimum
an on-line system proxy for the cost, minimum giveaway, or
primary laboratory methods that NIR/Raman analyser minimum deviation from blend
has good reproducibility and recipe. Minimum blend recipe
repeatability. This is why most
is much faster and deviation should ideally be a
refiners choose NIR, Raman, or its
variants over on-line knock engines
significantly less refinery’s optimum strategy if
multi-period recipe planning is very
and on-line distillers. Both NIR and labour-intensive accurate and optimum over the
Raman analysers have markedly entire multi-period plan. In
better repeatability (basically very than with primary practice, this is rarely, if ever, the
few if any moving parts) and, case, or correct for a fleeting period
when properly calibrated, their methods such as of time and thus unrealisable, due
reproducibility can be better than to commercial and refinery
the primary methods for which knock engines dynamics. Therefore, generally the
they are a proxy. Mechanical APC engineer is left to choose
methods such as knock engines under-utilised, on-line diagnostic between the minimum cost and
have an inherent disadvantage in capabilities that should be exploited minimum giveaway objective
repeatability over spectrometers to ensure a robust on-line functions.
with no or few critical moving certification system. On-line However, deviation of the recipe
parts. As for reproducibility, NIR/ blending feedback based on the from plan should be tracked and
Raman octane results are generally status of the NIR/Raman real-time minimised where possible. Ideally,
better than those from knock diagnostics for each inferred the multi-period planning software
engines and are normally on a par property such as the residual ratio should download suitable minimum/
with, or slightly better than, (RR) and/or the Mahalanobis maximum recipe percentages, which
distillation (D86) analysers. In all distance (M-Dist) should be built the single-blend optimiser should
cases, analysis with an NIR/Raman into the blending control system stay within, so as not to make the
analyser is much faster and and appropriate standard operating multi-period plan unfeasible.
significantly less labour-intensive procedures (SOPs) developed so While these two remaining
than with primary methods such as that blending operators know how strategies (minimum cost and
knock engines, D86 distillisers, to react (that is, take additional minimum giveaway) appear very
gravitometers and gas chromato- spot samples within the blend) similar at first sight, there are many
graphs. when the on-line analysers are subtle differences in their operation
If NIR/Raman technology is telling them that the confidence of and in the results they produce.
chosen for an on-line certification the inferred property (for instance, Minimum cost tries to create an on-
method, it is important to high RR and/or M-Dist values) spec blend using the least costly
understand that full redundancy is is questionable. The long-term combination of blend components
valero.indd 4 9/12/10 22:40:18

(or cheapest blend), which does not
RBOB recipe dependency of ethanol boost effect on octane
ensure minimum specification
giveaway, whereas minimum give-
away tries to minimise specification Recipe Neat Blended EtOH octane
octane octane boost
giveaway without regard for High toluene concentrate; low alkylate blend 91.6 93.2 1.6
utilising the least costly blend Low toluene concentrate; high alkylate blend 91.6 94.9 3.3
components (although most modern
SBOs operating in corporate, multi- Table 1
level optimisation can combine the
benefits of both strategies to some If your refinery makes oxygenated lead to either excessive giveaway
extent). An important distinction gasoline, both the off-line blend (you must target a worst-case, low
between the two strategies is that recipe generation tool and the boost effect, which will lead to
minimum giveaway is based on online blend optimiser should take giveaway if the olefins/aromatics
real costs that are outside the into account the non-linear blending ratio deviates substantially through-
refinery’s economic envelope, effect that oxygenate induces in out the blend) or limited blend
whereas minimum cost is based on blend properties. Oxygenates such optimisation flexibility. (If you
internal shadow pricing of as ethanol (the most common in the clamp down the olefins/aromatics
components that are not always US) are not allowed in product ratio, you might risk giveaway or
correlated with actual costs. pipelines because of corrosion sub-optimal blends, which are more
Therefore, it is generally advisable problems (ethanol is hydrophilic); expensive blends.)
to set the primary optimisation they are typically added at product
strategy to minimum giveaway, terminals. Therefore, refineries Conclusions
with a secondary optimisation The five basic elements of refinery
strategy of minimum cost. blending complexity have been
Most contemporary single-blend Experience has shown described in sufficient detail to
optimisers can be set up this way. enable blending and APC engineers
Another important facet to that significant to plan the next step(s) towards
optimal on-line blend control is the optimal refinery blending at their
reliability of the blend recipe data,
deviation from initial location. Furthermore, specific
both initial recipe and blend values,
which are obtained from the off-line
blend recipes often examples of implementable measures,
techniques and technologies have
blend recipe planning software, or leads to sub-optimal been described, with some economic
multi-period blend optimiser considerations presented where
(MPBO). Experience has shown final product blends applicable.
that significant deviation from Not all refineries will be able to
initial blend recipes often leads to (giveaway) achieve the ideal refinery blending
sub-optimal final product blends profile, but instead may only move
(giveaway). This is especially true incrementally towards that
for blending systems that are typically blend neat reformulated/ objective. It is the refinery’s
designed to allow barrel splitting oxygenated gasoline (RBOB), and challenge to identify its unique
among product tenders (blend conventional oxygenated gasoline place in the matrix of refinery
segment control is one common (CBOB), without ethanol. It is also blending complexity and to then
strategy), where poor-quality initial well known that the so-called produce a project plan to reach the
recipes will lead to large deviations ethanol boost effect on the final next step(s) towards a more optimal
in product specifications early in blended gasoline’s properties is state.
the blend, which can never be both recipe-dependent and non-
recovered. linear. The ratio of olefins to Special thanks to Atique Malik (atiquemalik@
Often, the off-line blend recipe aromatics used in the neat mac.com) for his help in putting this article
generation tool determines the blendstock significantly determines together, and for his always valuable insight
blend values (roughly, the steady- the final blended octane of into optimisation strategies and philosophies.
state gains used by the optimiser if oxygenated gasolines. An example
non-linear blend equations are not of this is shown in Table 1. David S Seiver is Manager of Blending APC
Technology for the Valero Energy Corporation.
used in the on-line optimiser) for This boost effect should be
With more than 20 years’ experience in the
each blend, and the accuracy of properly modelled to optimise
petrochemical and industrial gas industries,
these blend values is critical for RBOB/CBOB gasoline blends, and he previously specialised in gasoline and
good blend control. This is fairly properly accounted for in both the diesel product single-blend optimisation for
obvious from a multivariable off-line and on-line blending ConocoPhillips at the Wood River Refinery, as
control perspective, where APC systems. Estimating the ethanol well as providing technical blending project
engineers are familiar with boost a priori, as opposed to directly assistance to other sites. He is a registered
optimiser cycling associated with measuring blended properties professional engineer in the State of Texas.
incorrect steady-state gains. throughout the blend will ultimately Email: david.seiver@valero.com
valero.indd 5 9/12/10 22:40:29

www.ptqenquiry.com
;LQGG
linde.indd 1 9/12/10 12:43:36
Processing high TAN crude: part II
Huizhou, which is the first refinery for processing 100% high TAN crude, started up
in 2009. This article describes the challenges of an opportunity crude operation
Wu Qing
CNOOC
H
igh total acid number (TAN) the range $1.15–10.73/bbl, but the crude. The refinery has done a
crude has the following savings compared to conventional tremendous amount of work to
properties: high acid value, crude processing are $43.54–62.7/ address the potential risks of refin-
fewer light components, high bbl. The cost of crude accounts for ing opportunity crude oil and to
density and viscosity, high gel about 90–95% of the total running achieve successful production start-
asphalt content, and high salts and costs of refineries, so it is very up and smooth operation. The
heavy metals content, which give attractive for refineries to process grassroots refinery started opera-
rise to equipment corrosion and opportunity crude, especially high tions in April 2009 and currently all
severe problems with product qual- TAN crude. units are running smoothly, with
ity and environmental protection. With an annual capacity of 12 excellent product quality achieved
The price of opportunity crude oil million tonnes (240 000 b/d), from a slate of around a dozen
is about 80% of the price of conven- CNOOC’s Huizhou refinery is the high-acid crude oils.
tional crude oil. The extra cost of first large-scale refinery designed The first part of this article dealt
processing high TAN crude is in for the full conversion of high TAN with specific corrosion types and
Measures in response to high TAN crude oil characteristics
Features of high TAN crude oil Implemented measures

Due to the oil’s high density and viscosity, electric desalting Equipment: electric desalting tanks are designed at three levels; level 1 is
emulsification will be more demanding, oil water separation will be the high-velocity level, and levels 2 and 3 are low-velocity tanks
more difficult, and the high content of asphalt and gel in high-acid specially designed with back flush facilities inside the electric desalting tube
crude oil will increase emulsification and result in low working Process: carry out small- and media-scale tests, add dewatering and
efficiency of the electric desalting tank and the problem of oil demulsifying agents, supplement reverse demulsifier on the basis of existing
entrainment in water demulsifier
Environmental protection: special treatment
High-density crude oil contains high levels of solid particles and Equipment: supplemental installation of deoiler behind electric desalting tanks
suspended substances, which may result in accumulation of Process: add anti-sludging agents, dispersants or carry out washing, change
material at the bottom of the electric desalting tank, and fouling operation mode
blocking in the heat exchanger Environmental protection: special treatment
Both high- and low-temperature corrosion are very heavy Equipment: carry out corrosion mechanism analysis, to research corrosion
of different materials in different types of acids contained in crude oils
under corresponding process unit conditions; formulate equipment material
selection guidance for high-acid crude oil equipment; select materials
according to this guidance; install corrosion probes and coupons; measure
thicknesses at specific points
Process: add high-temperature anti-corrosion agent to system to monitor the
effectiveness of anti-corrosion agent chemical test analysis
High-acid crude oil has a high content of salts and heavy metals, Enhance monitoring of secondary processing units
which may result in catalyst poisoning in secondary processing units, Add chemical agents
catalyst bed blocking, and fouling and coking in high-temperature
heat exchangers
High-acid crude oils are generally naphthenic- or middle-paraffin- Use correct hydrogenation and catalytic cracking technologies
based oils, with high nitrogen contents, which is a big challenge with
regard to aviation kerosene smoke point, diesel cetane number and
oil colour
Table 1
cnnoc.indd 1 9/12/10 22:43:33

supply qualified and approved mate-
Solutions for electric desalting of high TAN crude oils
rials to downstream units, and
guarantee four years of operation, we
Problems Solutions have formulated a guide for high
High salt content in crude oil Three-level tank design
acid crude oil equipment material
High density, viscosity Electric desalting tank design operating at 139°C
selection. When it comes to the selec-
High acid value; oil entrainment Install deoiler behind electric desalting tank, together with tion of pipeline material, the
in drainage water specially designed back flush structure following recommendations are
made:
Desalting efficiency lower Increase reverse demulsifier, dispersant, crude oil dewatering
demulsifier, desalter’s process injection system, agile water • For 220°C or lower, use carbon
injection, agent injection procedure steel
• For 220–288°C, use 1Cr5Mo,
Table 2 1Cr9Mo, 0Cr19Ni10Ti or 00Cr17-
Ni14Mo2 (SS316L material in this
environmental issues arising from have formulated a technical docu- plant is required for higher molyb-
high TAN crude processing. This ment that includes solutions to denum content)
second part deals with operational supplement the original designs. • For media of 288°C and above,
solutions to those issues. Measures taken to deal with the 00Cr17Ni14Mo2 austenitic stainless
characteristics of high TAN crude steel is recommended
Design and operation of crude oil are listed in Table 1, while • For temperatures of ≥220°C and a
distillation problems and solutions for process- flow velocity of ≥30 m/s,
We have co-operated with domestic ing high TAN crude oils in the 00Cr17Ni14Mo2 austenitic stainless
and international research and electric desalting unit are listed in steel is recommended
design institutes, and have carried Table 2. • For large-diameter pipelines, a
out crude oil assessments, demulsi- composite of carbon steel and
fier selection and electric desalting Equipment material selection 00Cr17Ni14Mo2 stainless steel is
operation condition analysis, anti- (metallurgy) recommended
corrosion mechanism and material The atmospheric and vacuum distil- • Where flow velocities are highest,
selection, corrosion process analy- lation unit of Huizhou refinery is large-radius elbows and slot-
sis, detection and monitoring designed for crude oil with an acid branching tee joints should be
system analysis, and scientific value of 3.57 mgKOH/g and a selected.
assessment and risk identification sulphur content of 0.28–0.3%. Monitoring methods should
for all potential problems relating However, 14 different oils with acid include both:
to high acid crude oil processing. numbers of 0.3–3.57 mgKOH/g from • Corrosion probe monitoring:
To guarantee safe, environmentally all over the world have been proc- there are 17 probes installed
sound and extended operations, we essed by the refinery. In order to in different positions on the
Corrosion monitoring probes in the atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit
Pipe Pipe Mate- Desi-

diam- mat- rial gn
eter erial flow temp,
Position Type t/h C
101-AE-01101 Before feed pressure control valve of flashing tower Continuous high-temperature resistor with P5 coupon 600 304L 1428 224
101-AE-01201 Atmospheric overhead oil gas volatilisation line Continuous low-temperature inductor with CS coupon 900 CS 65 118
101-AE-01401 After E-401 pipeline inlet valve Continuous low-temperature inductor with CS coupon 450 CS 18 118
101-AE-01501 After A-101A inlet valve Continuous low-temperature inductor with CS coupon 700 CS 18 93
101-AE-01502 After atmospheric overhead water cooler valve Continuous low-temperature inductor with 09 coupon 500 CS 32 60
101-AE-01701 Before 3rd vacuum cut backflow control valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 316 coupon 250 316L 209 307
101-AE-01702 Before 4th vacuum cut output control valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 316 coupon 150 316L 54 361
101-AE-01703 After P-115A inlet valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 316 coupon 700 316L 489 369
101-AE-01801 Vacuum overhead level 1 vacuumising device Continuous low-temperature inductor with CS coupon 900 CS 4.2 180
water chiller inlet
101-AE-01802 Vacuum overhead level 1 vacuumising device Continuous low-temperature inductor with CS coupon 150 CS 4.2 37
water chiller inlet
101-AE-02101 After E-202 1st vacuum cut inlet valve Continuous low-temperature inductor with CS coupon 250 CS 138 142
101-AE-02301 After E-205AB 2rd vacuum cut inlet valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 321 coupon 450 321 800 237
101-AE-02401 After E-206 3rd atmospheric cut inlet valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 316 coupon 200 316L 110 303
101-AE-02601 After E-306 atmospheric cut inlet valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 321 coupon 200 321 131 253
101-AE-03201 After E-501 1st atmospheric middle-cut inlet valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with P5 coupon 300 Cr5Mo 223 263
101-AE-04001 Before atmospheric heater 1st feed line control valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 316 coupon 200 316L 175 311
101-AE-04301 Before vacuum heater 1st feed line control valve Continuous high-temperature inductor with 316 coupon 200 316L 129 352

Table 3
cnnoc.indd 2 9/12/10 22:43:46

Chemical agent injection
Agent name Product features Injection point Injection amount Injection method
Crude oil tank • Can reduce crude oil desalting costs Crude oil storage tank, Keep the amount injected Basic solution injection
dewatering and • Wide range of adaptability header feedline between 2–24 ppm, usually
demulsifer • Reduces oil entrainment in the desalting starting at 6 ppm. If the electric
EC2045A tank’s salty water desalting tank can fix desalting
• Can effectively reduce solid impurities and dewatering issues, there
in downstream heat exchangers and other is no need to inject demulsifier
equipment, and reduces fouling on the
interior walls of equipment
• Increases desalting efficiency and reduces
corrosion of unit overhead system.
• Controls the solids content of the crude
oil/emulsion interface in the desalting tank
• Removes oil contained in inorganic
substances in crude oil
• Promotes fast demulsifying
• Increases dewatering efficiency
in the crude oil storage tank
Electric desalting • Reduces crude oil desalting costs Crude oil pump inlet Keep the amount injected Basic solution injection
tank demulsifier • Wide-ranging adaptability Level 1, 2 & 3 tank inlet between 2–24 ppm, usually
EC2506A • Reduces oil entrainment in the starting at 6 ppm
desalting tank’s salty water
• Can effectively reduce the solid impurities
in downstream heat exchangers and other
equipment, and reduces fouling on the
interior walls of equipment
• Increases desalting efficiency, reduces
corrosion of unit overhead system
• Controls the solids content of the
crude oil/emulsion interface in the desalting tank
• Removes oil contained in inorganic
substances in crude oil
• Promotes fast demulsifying
Table 4
atmospheric and vacuum distilla- desalting, which is drained into operating smoothly and all
tion unit (see Table 3) deep seawater via pipeline after products meet the approved quality
• Test analysis and monitoring: approved treatment. Any oil- standards. However, because the
thickness measuring and coupons contaminated wastewater is atmospheric and vacuum distilla-
are fixed at specific points. recycled after approved treatment. tion unit is designed for operation
Periodic back flush water from with Penglai 19-3 crude oil, with a
Chemical agents injection the bottom of the electric desalting light oil yield of only 4.8%, when
An integrated, multiple-treatment tank cannot be processed as is by this crude is blended with other
system at Huizhou refinery applies the wastewater treatment system crude oil types overhead load
the following chemical agents: because of its high salts content. For restriction on the atmospheric distil-
crude oil dewatering demulsifier this reason, during back flushing, lation tower is a concern. Of course,
EC2045A, electric desalting demul- this waste stream is first fed to a the sulphur content in blend crude
sifier EC2506A, reverse demulsifier tank, where its concentration can be oils especially for the refining
EC2345A, electric desalting tank adjusted. The water is then blended blended crude oils and sulphur
demetalisation agent EC2047A, low- to adjust its concentration and recycle capability are the main
temperature corrosion inhibitor treated gradually. We are now restrictions in the selection of crude
EC1021A, high-temperature inhibi- trying to use a continuous, low- oil type and amount for refining
tor EC1023N and scale inhibitor level flush to replace periodic blending.
EC3238A. Table 4 shows a sample (once-per-week) flushing. Other Another factor to be considered
of the design for the chemical possible approaches to treating this with respect to appropriate crude
agents injection system. highly polluted wastewater are oil blending ratios and oil types is
under development, such as adding the change in the quality of waste
Environmental protection acidic organic substances extracted water from atmospheric and
Since its start-up, Huizhou refinery from naphtha. vacuum distillation electric desalt-
has kept wastewater from the plant In view of the process technology ing after crude oil blending, and the
treated to the approved level, chosen for the subsequent level 2 acceptance level of the wastewater
including wastewater from electric and 3 processing units, all units are treatment plant.
cnnoc.indd 3 9/12/10 22:43:57

Electric desalting following start-up
Month Desalting pass rate, % Prior-desalting salt content, mgNaCl/l Post-desalting salt content, mgNaCl/l
Sample qty Approved sample qty Pass rate Max Min Average Max Min Average
5 18 2 11.11 120.5 12 38.77 9.4 2.64 4.93
6 22 21 95.45 33 4.95 17.66 3.4 1.65 2.77
7 21 20 95.24 135.3 9.07 33.12 4.46 2.18 2.95
Table 5
Effectiveness of crude demetalisation
Item Fe Pb Al Zn Na K Ca Mg Total
June crude oil before demetalisation 5.86 0.01 3.37 0.48 6.63 1.04 35.52 15.22 _
July crude oil before demetalisation 9.6 0.09 9.49 0.59 11.3 2.25 17.05 15.9 _
Crude oil average before demetalisation 7.73 0.05 6.43 0.54 8.97 1.65 26.29 15.56 _
June crude oil after demetalisation 1.95 0 0.2 0.14 0.8 0.06 27.26 9.86 _
July crude oil after demetalisation 0.34 0 1.96 0.37 1.2 0.68 11.69 1.14 _
Crude oil average after demetalisation 1.145 0 1.08 0.255 1 0.37 19.48 5.5 _
Average demetalisation rate 0.8519 1 0.832 0.523 0.8885 0.7751 0.259 0.6465 0.7221
Table 6
Effectiveness of electric desalting drainage water reduced metal concentrations were brought under
Despite frequent switching between entrainment, which in turn could reliable control with an approval
different crude oils and the severe affect the wastewater treatment rating of more than 90%.
effects of low-quality crude oils, the system, so the sewage water treat- By observing the probe trend, the
electric desalting process has been ment plan needed to be adjusted higher corrosion rate before the
effective and comparatively stable and optimised accordingly. charging of neutraliser and corro-
in operation. During the optimisa- sion inhibitor becomes obvious. The
tion and adjustment of the refinery, Low-temperature corrosion rate decreased dramati-
desalting required a lower approval corrosion resistance cally following the addition of these
rate; nonetheless, most of the salt In the overhead of the atmospheric additives, indicating that the correct
content results were in the range of and vacuum distillation unit, the Fe anti-corrosion measures had been
3.0–3.5 mgKOH/g after desalting. ion content was ≤1 mg/l, the probe implemented. The wastewater in
The pass level is 3.0 mgKOH/g and corrosion rate was ≤0.2 mm/y and the reflux accumulator of the atmos-
below. the pH value was within the range pheric distillation tower overhead
Over the following two months, 5.5–7 (see Table 7), which means was clear and contained a lower
the electric desalting units operated corrosion was under control accord- level of iron.
well, with a desalting pass rate of ing to domestic and international The vacuum distillation tower
more than 90%. During this time, standards. overhead contained large amounts
more types of crude oil were Corrosion tended to fluctuate of low molecular weight organic
blended for processing, which influ- during the early period of start-up. acids. These enter the water tank
enced performance (see Table 5). In particular, the pH value showed after cooling in the level one
Table 6 shows the results of crude wide variation. However, after a condenser and result in an increase
demetalisation. They are generally series of optimisations and adjust- in the probe corrosion rate after E-
good. Electric desalting of the ments, both pH values and Fe ion 510W. Optimisation of the charging
Improvement in overhead Fe ion concentration
Tower overhead Fe ion pass rate, % Atmospheric overhead Fe ion content, mg/l Vacuum overhead Fe ion amount, mg/l
Month Total sample amount Sample pass amount Pass rate Max Min Average Max Min Average
5 36 29 80.56 1 0.15 0.44 4.2 0.3 1.12
6 43 39 90.70 1 0.05 0.56 1.8 0.5 0.87
7 46 44 95.65 1 0.1 0.59 1.4 0.7 0.89
8 42 42 100.00 1 0.1 0.45 10.4 0.68
9 50 47 94.00 1 0.1 0.46 1.3 0.3 0.77
10 40 40 100.00 0.9 0.2 0.36 1 0.35 0.69
11 41 40 97.56 1 0.2 0.49 1.2 0.2 0.58
sum 298 281 94.30 1.00 0.05 0.48 4.20 0.20 0.80
Table 7
cnnoc.indd 4 9/12/10 22:44:13

High-temperature corrosion control
Date 3/6/2009 22/6/2009 6/7/2009 20/7/2009

Fe, ppm Ni, ppm Fe, ppm Ni, ppm Fe, ppm Ni, ppm Fe, ppm Ni, ppm
2rd atmospheric cuts 0.27 0.01 0.55 0 0.01 0.03 2 0.39
3rd atmospheric cuts 0.01 0.01 0.2 2 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.11
2rd vacuum cuts 0.01 0.01 0.77 0.01 0.15 0.05 0 0.02
3rd vacuum cuts 0.01 0.01 0.42 0.01 0.81 0.05 0 0.19
4th vacuum cuts 3.19 62.54 12.84 51.68 3.84 20.73 4.6 28.85
Vacuum residues 8.75 92.22 11.92 83.33 8.94 62.83 7.16 53.02
Crude oil 2.93 32.36 8.51 23.97 0.34 26.87 1.29 17.21
Note: Fe/Ni ion content analysis results conform to material balance; corrosion has been effectively controlled
Table 8
operation led to the corrosion rate can control the high-temperature high acid value, fewer light compo-
decreasing from a high of 3 mm/y corrosion resulting from high acid nents, high density and viscosity, a
or more to less than 0.2 mm/y. crude oil refining (see Table 8). high gel and asphalt content, and a
During start-up, analysis revealed high salts and metals content,
a large amount of organic acid Fouling control which may result in the serious
(about 1200–1800 ppm as acetic During the early months following corrosion of equipment and
acid) in the overhead system, operational start-up, accurate concerns with product quality,
which was beyond expectation. assessment of plant fouling control environmental protection and
Application of Nalco’s adjustment was not available. The focus here is processibility.
and treatment plan quickly brought to install temperature sensors on CNOOC’s Huizhou refinery is a
the resulting corrosion under the inlets and outlets of the main full conversion site exclusively
control. The ferric ion concentration heat exchangers, transmit the processing high acid heavy crude
decreased from 100 ppm or more to temperature data to the distributed oil at an annual rate of 12 million
1 ppm. control system and calculate the tonnes. Just one year on from
efficiency of a single exchanger, or production start-up, the refinery
High-temperature naphthenic a series of heat exchangers, to judge achieved a high standard of
acid corrosion the fouling trend and implement performance in electric desalting,
Taking into account that the acid further measures accordingly. high- and low-temperature corro-
value of crude oil and side streams Table 9 lists the existing problems sion control, and the processing and
is higher than 3 mgKOH/g, the Fe and solutions in the crude distilla- treatment of kerosene and diesel,
ion content of the side streams is tion units. wax oil and residuum.
<1.0 mg/l and the corrosion probe
reading is less than 0.2 mm/y; Conclusion
hence, all parameters achieved the Producing clean fuel or high-value Wu Qing is the Chief Engineer of Huizhou
required control targets. petrochemical products from heavy, refinery, Guangdong, China, part of the Refining
This demonstrates that upgraded low-quality crude oils is a big chal- and Marketing Group of China National
material treated with an effective lenge for oil refiners. Characteristics Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC).
high-temperature corrosion inhibitor of high acid crude oil include a Email: wuqing@cnooc.com.cn
Problems and solutions in the crude distillation units
Problems Cause Improvement solutions

Occasional water content Excessive pH value of feed water, and content of Improve feed water quality
during electric desalting NH4 and impurities exceeds limit Assess the mix ratio between crude oils
High content of gel-asphalt and solid particles Add asphalt dispersants
Excessive use of additives in crude oil upstream processing
Overhead condensate water, ammonia Overhead system has a high content of organic acids: Reduce upstream acetic acid usage, reselect the
and nitrogen content exceeds limit acetic acid content is very high and use of neutraliser neutraliser, consider adding alkali to crude oil
exceeds the limit with respect to corrosion control
High content of solids, ammonia Result of high acid crude oil refining Enhance sewage water processing capability
nitrogen, metal, oil, COD Disparity within high acid crude oils match to elevate electric desalting drum flexibility:
Difference between crude oil currently processed • Add solid wetting agent
and design quality of crude • Add asphalt dispersants
Table 9
cnnoc.indd 5 13/12/10 13:26:14

www.ptqenquiry.com
flexitallic.indd 1 13/9/10 12:54:59

Maximisation of VGO through deep-cut
distillation for refinery margins
Appropriate choice of crude and/or crude oil blends as feedstock and a vacuum
tower revamp enable higher production of vacuum gas oil for secondary processing
Rajeev Kumar, Chithra V, Shalini Gupta, Sonal Maheshwari, Peddy V C Rao and N V Choudary
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd, India
O
ver the years, improvements
to distillation towers have
delivered better separation

and higher yields.1,2 Vacuum towers

have been improved by the intro-
Yi e l d i mprove me n t , wt%

duction of packing designs that
deliver better mass transfer and
separation. Packings have the
advantage of lower pressure drops
compared with trays, reducing, for
instance, flash zone pressures and

the overall column pressure drop.3,4
Thus, more efficient vacuum tower
operation meets the current demand
for processing heavy crude oils and
delivering high heavy vacuum gas
oil (HVGO) yields. $SVEF" $SVEF# $SVEF$ $SVEF% $SVEF& $SVEF' $SVEF(
Traditional vacuum towers
deliver a HVGO/residue cutpoint Figure 1 Yield improvement for crude oils
of approximately 520–565°C.5 Deep-
cut operation starts when cutpoints furnace, tower, ejector system and Challenges in processing
are increased by 50°C (see Figure so on, to optimise capacity, low- deep-cut VGO
1). In this way, an increase in prod- pressure capability and overall VGO from the vacuum tower is a
uct recovery by up to 2–5 wt% is revamp cost. However, a simpli- feedstock to secondary units —
possible. However, vacuum column fied analysis can benefit the HCU/HDS and FCC units — for
operations present an arduous envi- project’s initial feasibility study. maximising distillates production.
ronment for efficient fractionation, Accurate feed characterisation and The endpoints of VGO processed in
which makes upgrading product effective process simulation are these units are generally 520–565°C
from bottoms to distillate more key factors in evaluating deep-cut and vacuum residues (VR) are used
difficult. Shifting of delta initial options. for producing low-value products
boiling residues to vacuum gas oil A technical evaluation of deep-cut such as fuel oils, low-sulphur heavy
(VGO) is the real challenge for a maximisation has been included in stock and bitumen. Extending the
deep-cut VGO maximisation proc- the present work. The evaluation endpoints of VGO up to 600°C can
ess to meet the design feedstock includes a study on: selection of the be further utilised for conversion to
criterion of the secondary units.6,7 crude basket; true boiling point high-value distillates in the second-
In the current refining climate, distillation for deep cuts at each ary processing units. The diversion
processing opportunity crude oils 10°C cut for analyses and endpoints; of deep-cut VGO (520–600°C) from
in atmospheric units8 and vacuum feed characterisation to meet the VR means up to 2–5 wt% more of
towers in deep-cut mode operation criterion for secondary units; and the crude feedstock is available to
can provide economic and opera- an economic analysis. Thus, increas- the secondary units. This can result
tional benefits to the refiner. To ing the demand for feed in more distillates and fewer low-
obtain deep-cut yields, a revamp enhancement in HVGO yields can value products.
of the vacuum unit is required, provide a large economic incentive To obtain deep-cut VGO, vacuum
and a proper design and engineer- per barrel, reducing residue produc- tower operations are quite severe,
ing study is essential. This should tion and so improving the gross which causes changes in VGO
include crude type, exchanger, refining margin. composition. In such conditions, the
bpcl.indd 1 10/12/10 14:46:19

content (Ni+V) can be up to 3 ppm
Feedstocks for deep-cut processing
(maximum), with a penalty in run
length.5 In view of this, crude char-
Crude oils properties A B C D E F G
acterisation studies are necessary to
Origin Algeria Thailand Azerbaijan India Qatar Nigeria Abu Dhabi
Density at 15°C, kg/L 0.8055 0.8096 0.8490 0.8320 0.8750 0.8550 0.8590 determine the cutpoint at which
SG at 60/60ºF 0.8061 0.8102 0.8499 0.8329 0.8757 0.8554 0.8597 VGO can be extracted for study.
°API gravity 44.1 43.2 35.1 38.5 30.2 33.9 33.1 Thus, the metals content for VGO
Total sulphur, wt% 0.11 0.04 0.15 0.13 2.15 0.12 1.74
cutpoints up to 600°C (that is for
TAN, KOH/gm 0.08 0.02 0.20 0.16 0.09 0.21 0.09
Pour point, °C -37 23 -4 24 -15 -3 -27 every 10°C rise from 550 to 600°C),
KV @ 40°C, cSt 1.09 3.56 6.46 2.90 9.10 3.90 8.51 along with CCR and C7 insoluble
MCCR, wt% 0.73 1.21 1.50 1.10 4.60 1.20 4.42 asphaltene content data, are
Asphaltene, wt% 0.032 0.022 0.066 0.310 1.200 0.159 1.720
required to revamp the existing
Basic nitrogen, ppm 100 89 400 210 305 290 330
Metal, V, ppm 0.84 0.07 0.10 0.17 21.00 0.77 8.77 vacuum column to decide the
Metal, Ni, ppm 0.34 0.62 3.00 3.40 7.20 4.20 6.90 endpoint for VGO cut. To under-
stand the deep cuts and endpoints
Table 1 for processing in the secondary
units, small cuts beyond 550°C have
Specifications for deep-cut VGO to secondary units been made, such as 550–560°C,
560–570°C, 570–580°C, 580–590°C
and 590–600°C. These cuts were
Specifications CCR Asphaltene V Ni V+Ni
Units wt% ppm ppm ppm ppm characterised for their physico-
Secondary unit feed (VGO) <0.5 <500 <1.0 <1.0 <3.0 chemical properties to meet the
criteria as feedstock for secondary
processing (see Table 2). The
Table 2 primary concerns here are high
levels of CCR and asphaltenes in
primary concerns are production of °API crude oils were selected for VGO, which could cause higher
increased levels of Conradson the study. Feedstock characterisa- coke make in the secondary units,
carbon residues (CCR), larger quan- tion for critical properties was while higher metals content could
tities of high molecular weight carried out by standard ASTM poison the catalysts. These critical
polycyclic aromatics and methods and the results are shown parameters were characterised for
asphaltenes in VGO, which could in Table 1. varying VGO endpoints for various
lead to higher coke make in the crude oils (see Figures 2–6).
secondary units, and metal contam- TBP distillations for deep cuts
inants that could poison the True boiling point (TBP) distillation Results and discussion
catalysts. All secondary units are (atmospheric) was carried out in a Feedstock selection is one of the
vulnerable to these factors, which batch set up of 15 theoretical stages, criteria for deep-cut maximisation
could lead to a heavy penalty in accordance with ASTM D2892, through the revamp of vacuum
through catalyst poisoning and up to 360°C cuts. The residue was towers and operations. In order to
effect on run length. The real chal- transferred to a pot still for vacuum establish the cut-off temperature for
lenge for a deep-cut VGO operation at 0.5–0.1 mm Hg, in deep cuts, the initial physical prop-
maximisation process is to meet the accordance with ASTM D5236. erties of crude oils were studied.
design feedstock criteria of second- The composite (atmospheric and Various crude oils of differing
ary units for parameters such as vacuum) distillations were carried origins were selected and character-
CCR, C7 insoluble asphaltenes, out up to AET 600°C cuts. The yield ised (see Table 1). It was observed
nitrogen and metals. Not only has profile is shown in Figure 2. that high °API crude oils are low in
distillation technology improved, CCR, asphaltenes and metals when
but conversion units are also better Deep-cut characterisations and compared to medium °API crude
equipped to handle heavier gas oil secondary units oils. In this regard, the cut-off for
feeds. A methodology has been VGO drawn from the vacuum deep-cut VGO would be more criti-
designed to debottleneck these column is used as feed to second- cal for medium and low °API crude
units by deep-cut characterisation ary processing units. The extent of oils. Initial characterisation of crude
for each 10°C cut range. This will deep cut and its endpoints from the oils will be helpful in the selection
help to restrict the maximum vacuum column is determined by of suitable quality feedstock.
cutpoint for HVGO and increase CCR, metals content (V, Ni) and C7 Distillation of various crude oils
conventional yields. insoluble asphaltenes in the VGO. was studied and the studies
Generally, secondary units are revealed that the yield profile of
Selection of crude oil feedstock designed for a feedstock with Ni <1 high °API crude oils was higher
A crude oil basket was selected ppm, V <1 ppm, and C7 insoluble compared to medium °API crude
from various parts of the world. For asphaltenes at 500 ppm (maximum). oils. However, the yields of deep
the most part, high and medium However, the composite metal cuts are found to be higher for
bpcl.indd 2 9/12/10 22:51:23

medium-density crude oils
compared with low-density (high
$SVEF"
° API) crude oils (see Figure 1).
$SVEF#
However, processing lower °API
$SVEF$
crude oils is more beneficial with $SVEF%
regard to feedstock flexibility and
Yi e l d, wt%
$SVEF&
thus offers more incentives, $SVEF'
provided it meets the specifications
$SVEF(
of the deep cuts.
Since deep-cut operations are
severe, the HVGO obtained contains
high CCR, asphaltenes and poison-
ous metals (V, Ni). Thus, HVGO

obtained from selected crude oils
(A–G) was characterised for CCR Cut, °C
(see Figure 3), asphaltenes (see
Figure 4), vanadium (see Figure 5), Figure 2 TBP yield profile up to 600°C cuts
nickel (see Figure 6) and V+Ni (see
Figure 7) respectively. Based on the
feed specifications for secondary
units, the endpoint will be the cut-

off for HVGO deep cuts.

It was observed that crudes E, F
and G contained higher levels of
CCR, wt%
CCR and so 580°C would be the

maximum endpoint for these crude

oils. However, crudes A, B, C and
D can have cuts up to 600°C (see
Figure 3). The asphaltene contents

of crudes E, F and G are found to
be higher and so their cutpoints
$SVEF" $SVEF# $SVEF$ $SVEF% $SVEF& $SVEF' $SVEF(
would be 560, 590 and 560°C,
respectively. However, crudes A, B,
C and D can go up to 600°C deep Figure 3 CCR profile for deep cuts
cuts.
The vanadium content of crude E

was observed to be the highest,

hence 560°C would be the maximum

endpoint for this feedstock.
Aspha lt e ne , ppm

However, crudes A, B, C, D, F and
G can be processed for cuts up to
600°C (see Figure 5). The nickel

content of crude E was also observed
to be the highest, hence 590°C would
be the maximum endpoint.
However, crudes A, B, C, D, F and
G can be processed for cuts up to
600°C (see Figure 6). The vanadium $SVEF" $SVEF# $SVEF$ $SVEF% $SVEF& $SVEF' $SVEF(
plus nickel content of crude E was
observed to be highest, hence 580°C Figure 4 Asphaltene profile for deep cuts
would be the maximum endpoint.
However, crudes A, B, C, D, F and blend optimisations and residue hardware and feedstock needed for
G can be processed for cuts up to valorisations. The idea presented deep-cut VGO, deep-cut VGO char-
600°C (see Figure 7). here, to explore the possibilities for acteristics, and endpoints for
the maximisation of deep-cut VGO processing limits. More data on the
Revamp of vacuum towers for yields for extra distillates, in this properties of heavy crude oils will
deep-cut operations: a case study way reducing residue yields, has be useful for examining feedstock
In the current refining climate, vari- been taken up for implementation. flexibility.
ous options have been followed In order to employ this concept, it In the field, deep-cut mode
for improving margins, such as is necessary to understand the operations are severe. Thus, a
processing opportunity crude oils, detailed engineering required, the revamp of the vacuum tower is
bpcl.indd 3 10/12/10 13:52:37

identified for hardware modifica-
3.25 tions. This will include inspection
3.00 360-550 of furnace design, flash zone condi-
2.75
360-560 tions, wash oil section design, low
360-570 pressure drop draw-off trays and
2.50
360-580 spray sections, all crucial parame-
2.25 360-590 ters for the implementation of
2.00 360-600 deep-cut mode operations.
V, ppm
1.75 To investigate low-capex oppor-

1.50 tunities, a review by an experienced
1.25 revamp engineering team of the
existing unit and equipment is
1.00
essential. Pre-revamp analysis can
0.75 lead to the correction of under-
0.50 performing systems, which saves
0.25 extra costs and can reduce the over-
0.00 all investment in a revamp. A
Crude A Crude B Crude C Crude D Crude E Crude F Crude G detailed engineering and process
simulation study can be envisaged
Figure 5 Vanadium (V) profile for deep cuts to fully evaluate the benefits.
Considering all of these aspects,
selection of the engineers to carry
1.10 out a pre-revamp study has been
1.00
360-550 made and one of BPCL’s refineries
360-560 has been considered for the revamp
0.90
360-570 of a vacuum tower during an
0.80 360-580 upcoming turnaround.
0.70 360-590
Ni, ppm
360-600
0.60 Economic analysis
0.50 The expected benefit by deep-cut
0.40 distillation of VGO up to 50°C for
processing in secondary units has
0.30
been estimated based on per-barrel
0.20 crude throughput. Increasing the
0.10 HVGO cut means 2–5 wt% of extra
0.00 feed (see Figure 1) for distillate
Crude A Crude B Crude C Crude D Crude E Crude F Crude G improvement at the secondary
units, rather than being down-
Figure 6 Nickel (Ni) profile for deep cuts graded as VR. Conversion in the
secondary unit is 70% (assumed)
and the remaining 30% can be taken
5.00 as VR. The refinery gate price for
360-550 distillates and residues is taken as
4.50
360-560 ~$0.5 per litre and ~$0.3 per litre,
4.00 respectively. Thus, the expected
360-570
3.50 360-580 benefit is estimated to be in the
V+Ni, ppm
3.00 360-590 region of $0.3–1.0 per barrel of

2.50 360-600 crude throughput.
0.40
Conclusions
1.50
Initial feedstock characteristics have
1.00 the greatest influence on deep-cut
0.50 properties and so have an effect on
0.00 the operation of secondary process-
Crude A Crude B Crude C Crude D Crude E Crude F Crude G ing units. Processing medium °API
crude oils is better than processing
Figure 7 V+Ni profile for deep cuts high °API crudes for obtaining
higher yields of deep cuts.
essential prior to their implementa- refinery, a detailed engineering However, there is a wide variation
tion. Since vacuum tower system study is needed. To implement the in the characteristics of the deep
configurations vary from refinery to idea fully, a turnaround has to be cuts near their final boiling points,
bpcl.indd 4 9/12/10 22:51:41

and thus an understanding of deep Engineering Inc, 1-8, www.ascentengineering. Ltd, specialising in crude evaluations,
cuts at intervals of 5–10°C is essen- com. fuel characterisations and new product
tial for obtaining endpoints. Based 3 Kister H K, et al, Distillation Design, McGraw- development. She holds a master’s degree in
Hill Book Co, New York 1992. chemistry.
on the characteristics of deep-cut
4 McCabe W L, et al, Unit Operations of Email: chitrar@bharatpetroleum.in
VGO and its specifications, the
Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Shalini Gupta is a Senior Research Scientist
endpoint varies, depending on the New York, 2001. (R&D) with Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd,
feedstock crude and/or crude oil 5 A Report on Deep-Cut VGO Maximization, specialising in bio-lubricants, metal recovery
blends. study carried out for Kochi Refinery (India) at from spent catalyst, resid upgratation and
A vacuum tower revamp is essen- Corporate R&D Centre, BPCL, Greater Noida, analytical sciences. . She holds a master’s
tial for operation in deep-cut mode. CRDC-KR/TBP-001/2009. degree in chemistry.
By revamping the unit for deep-cut 6 Martin G R, Lines J R, Golden S W, et al, Email: guptashalini@bharatpetroleum.in
mode operations, the yield can be Understanding vacuum-system fundamentals, Sonal Maheshwari is a Senior Research
improved by 2–5 wt%. Deep-cut Hydrocarbon Processing, Oct 1994. Engineer (R&D) with Bharat Petroleum
7 Spangler R, et al, ConocoPhillips revamp Corporation Ltd, specialising in bitumen and
incentives for typical light and
crude unit to increase flexibility and resid upgrading. She holds a master’s degree in
medium crudes are estimated to be chemical engineering from Indian Institute of
profitability, Oil & Gas Journal, 21 Aug 2006.
~$0.3–1.0 per barrel of crude Technology, Delhi, India.
8 Kumar R, Thorat T S, Chithra V, Rathore V, Rao
throughput. P V C, Choudary N V, Processing opportunity Email: maheshwaris@bharatpetroleum.in
crude oils — catalytic process for high-acid Peddy V C Rao is a Senior Manager (R&D)
crudes, Hydrocarbon World, 4, 2, 64–68, 2009. with Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd, and
Acknowledgement has 24 years’ experience in the petroleum,
The authors express their sincere thanks to BPCL Rajeev Kumar is a Deputy Manager (R&D) biofuels and petrochemicals industry. He holds
management for constant encouragement and with Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd, a doctorate in chemistry from Indian Institute
support. Also, special thanks to S Ramanathan India, specialising in the development of new of Technology, Bombay, India.
and Muzaffar Ahsan for their support. processes in crude areas, crude compatibility, Email: raopvc@bharatpetroleum.in
resid upgrading, biodiesel and biolubricant N V Choudary is a Chief Manager (R&D)
References processes. He holds a master’s degree in with Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
1 Hanson D W, Martin M A, Refining report on chemical engineering from Indian Institute of He has 26 years’ research experience in
low cost revamp increases vacuum gas oil, Oil Technology, Kanpur, India. petroleum refining, catalysis, adsorption and
& Gas Journal, 18 Mar 2002. Email: rajeevkumar@bharatpetroleum.in thermodynamics and holds a doctorate in
2 Musumeci J, et al, Deep Cut Vacuum Tower Chithra V is a Senior Research Scientist chemistry.
Processing Provides Major Incentives, Ascent (R&D) with Bharat Petroleum Corporation Email: choudarynv@bharatpetroleum.in
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Renewable fuels and biofuels in a
petroleum refinery
Sound judgement of the process environment, logistics and product properties are
necessary to process both fossil and bio-derived raw materials on a single site
Jukka Keyriläinen and Matti Koskinen

Neste Jacobs
B
io-based raw materials and been the source of fuel as well as they have been utilising them for a
associated process technolo- many valuable and vital substances long enough time to gain thorough
gies form an entirely new and constituents. In the oil era, knowledge on all relevant issues.
engineering challenge for integrated many of those products became Typically, the refineries also have
petroleum refineries. The composi- cheaper and performed better when an extensive knowledge of product
tion variation of raw materials, derived from fossil feedstocks. For and fuel markets, albeit for
including trace components, vari- renewable fuels, the sustainable petroleum-based fuels only. The
ous logistical problems and the way would be to encourage benefit- processing of biofeedstocks means
difficulty of coming up with the ing first from the value chain of entering an unknown territory. One
right integration approach the biomass constituents and to could say, from a traditional view-
compared to conventional engineer- produce fuel only from the resi- point, that anything “bio” means
ing of fuel refineries using dues, or from an entirely different additional problems by way of
petroleum feedstocks, needs new feedstock such as algae — not part fouling, decreased efficiencies or
types of skills and experience. The an additional work burden.
fundamental engineering challenge Biomaterials are living organisms
is to combine existing advanced The simplest and containing and producing a multi-
petroleum process technologies tude of compounds. In traditional
with various aspects of the prob-
cheapest way to applications, the smaller scale
lems faced in renewable fuels process renewable impurities might not be relevant or
process engineering and to come even recognised due to relaxed
up with the optimal design feeds in an existing requirements, but they can be of
approach that enables the imple- paramount importance in petro-
mentation of biomaterial streams to refinery, as co-feeds, leum refineries with regard to
the highly integrated process envi- catalyst activity or when accumulat-
ronment of a petroleum refinery. is not necessarily the ing within equipment.
Another important issue is that
Introduction most economical one the simplest and cheapest way to
Renewable fuels have been one of process renewable feeds in an
the hottest topics so far in this of the food chain or the traditional existing refinery, as co-feeds, is
millennium’s energy debate. The green industry. This method of not necessarily the most economical
reason for the growing interest is switching from pollution to solu- one. Also, the available trading
obvious: the ever-increasing tion is already on the research specifications for renewable feed
concern about CO2 release to the agenda of many enterprises. materials resemble merely the key
atmosphere and its impact on factors for present applications,
global warming. Another significant Petroleum refinery as a platform for while a complete description of
factor is political instability in the renewable fuels production biomaterial properties is lacking.
areas where crude oil is produced. Petroleum refineries are natural Only experience will reveal the
And thirdly, local agricultural locations for renewable fuels significant factors and surprises.
economics and trade deficits, production. They are, after all, built However, in current circum-
partly due to historically high crude for the production of advanced stances, “bio” also means a premium
oil prices, provide an additional fuels by the most cost-effective in product value, which changes the
driver to get more energy from means to deliver appropriate prod- picture, not least in the current
domestic sources among quite a ucts for surrounding societies. economical climate, wherein refinery
few of the leading consumers of Refiners are very experienced with margins are low or non-existent. The
petroleum. their raw materials and equipment, engineering challenge is to do the
During past centuries, flora has which is mainly due to the fact that integration correctly, when bioprod-
neste.indd 1 10/12/10 09:38:05

Initial process Platform Refining Products
Fuel alcohols
Bio-conversion Sugars Fermentation Bio-polymers
Chemicals
Residues: heat, power, biogas
Thermo-chem Fischer
Biomass conversion Syngas Tropsch Synthetic diesel
(gasification) process Chemicals
Fuel gas Recycle

Residues: heat, power
Paper
Sorting, Constituents Fraction Intelligent fibre products
Fractionation (fibres, bark, (wood molecule Chemicals
extractives, etc) specific processes) Biofuels
(Delign)
Pharmaceuticals
Tall oil products

Wood products
Recycle
Figure 1 Biorefinery platforms
ucts are manufactured in a technology blocks that are proven processing. The residues may be
petroleum refinery. Moreover, the in other applications, there are utilised by bioconversion or ther-
key is to create molecules as similar many challenges that are not simple mochemical means.
as possible to existing fuel molecules to overcome. Some of the technol- Perhaps the best example of a
in their structures. ogy blocks were designed originally biorefinery is a traditional pulp
Conventional petroleum refineries for other purposes and applications mill, a constituent platform, where
can be modified to process bio- and, often, quite a few must be a primary product, fibres, is sepa-
basestocks into renewable fuels. redesigned and adapted for this rated from chemical constituents
using chemical or thermomechani-
Routes to renewable fuels cal processes. From the chemical
A biorefinery concept could be built A biorefinery concept fraction, multiple products may be
on three main initial platforms to produced, including commodities,
promote different product slates (see could be built on fine chemicals, functional food and
Figure 1). The sugar platform is pharmaceuticals. Volume-wise, the
based on biochemical conversion three main initial main by-products so far are differ-
processes and focuses on the fermen- ent biofuels in liquid or solid form.
tation of sugars extracted from
platforms to promote However, other routes do exist (see
biomass, including lignocellulosic different product Figure 2).
material. This platform requires The fats and oils route is currently
strong know-how of bio- and genetic slates widely practised in FAME produc-
engineering and chemical engineer- tion. It generates a commercial
ing, because the conversion is done product, which, however, has
by micro-organisms. specific application. Also, bio-based significantly compromised proper-
The syngas platform is based on feedstocks contain small quantities ties, resulting in blending
thermochemical conversion proc- of components that are different limitations in normal diesel use or
esses and focuses on the gasification to those of fossil origin, which, dedicated automotive equipment.
of variable biomass feedstocks. It of course, requires experimental The emerging hydroprocessing
can use almost any organic feed demonstration. route provides far superior prod-
and produces synthesis gas that can The constituent platform, based ucts and is currently practised in
be converted to components other on fractionation processes, focuses the NExBTL process, with two
than fuels. Although the syngas on the separation of valuable operating references in Neste Oil’s
platform seems to consist of known biomass constituents for further Porvoo refinery and a third unit
neste.indd 2 10/12/10 09:38:16

currently being started up. The olefins in typically two product from older branches to buds. Then
biomass route depicted in Figure 2 streams: condensate and wax. again, trees from different parts of
is yet to be fully commercialised. Specific treatment is often necessary a single forest or of geographically
for different crude FT product diverse origins contain different
Technology challenges streams, which, of course, adds to compositions of sulphur, nitrogen
Proving the credentials of various the total engineering burden. Co- and chloride compounds, to name
biorefinery and renewable fuels feed to existing petroleum refinery but a few. And things do not ease
production concepts in petroleum streams may be one possibility, but with farmed raw materials, given
refineries requires innovation it may not be a value-creating solu- the incoherence of the farming
networks and teamwork among tion, because the product of industry in general.
different research institutes. One bio-origin is easily diluted in huge Yet another formidable challenge
key issue is determining the concept is the management of catalyst cycle
of plant ownership. For a pulp mill length and lifetime, and the
or an ethanol plant, the main inves- Specific treatment required pretreatment know-how
tor may be self-evident. But the and analytics. Clearly, robust proc-
more diverse the mix of expected is often necessary esses are required.
value-added products, the more
complex it is to initiate an organisa-
for different crude Process development for
tion or a particular network to
promote and finance the project.
Fischer-Tropsch renewable fuels
Advanced process modelling is a
The syngas platform requires a product streams, necessity for the development of
reliable logistics chain for raw processes. This is challenging in
material feeds where the volumes which adds to the view of the lack of property data
are huge. For example, a 100 kt/a for natural substances. Therefore,
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) product unit total engineering extensive testing of unit operations
would require more than one and unit processes, combined with
million cubic metres of forest resi- burden modelling, gives a reliable base for
due calculated as solid wood. And the process design.
the FT product capacity is in most amounts of fossil products. In Modelling can be utilised from
cases too low to be profitable. general, a thorough understanding chemistry to proven technology, by
Today, such logistic chains in high of current oil refining technology determining the kinetic parameters
enough volumes are non-existent or and integration skills is required to of reactions, interpreting test results
at least rare. Partnerships with the achieve a viable solution. and dimensioning thermal and
forestry industry to secure raw Another challenge is the tremen- mass transfer units and emissions
material availability may be more dous variation in raw material management, up to the operational
than justified. qualities. Even for a single tree, the optimisation of the plant. The tradi-
Crude FT product is a wide constituent of material changes tional methodology is illustrated in
mixture of alkanes, oxygenates and significantly from base to top or Figure 3.
(Trans-)
esterification ‘Biodiesel’ esters
EG2-%&!-%&!%%
Tri-glycerides,
Fats and oils Purification
fatty acids
Hydro- Renewable diesel
EGVEGETABLEOILS processing hydrocarbons
ANIMALFATSALGAEOIL
TALLOIL
Conversion Renewable fuel products
Pyrolysis,
Biomass Biocrude
deoxygenation
Co-processing
&ORESTWASTE with petroleum
AGRICULTURALWASTE
Figure 2 Other routes to renewable fuels
neste.indd 3 13/12/10 13:27:45

Process Process
Process Technology
method solution
Continuous improvement
s ,ABBENCH SCALE s 0ILOTDEMOTESTED s )NDUSTRIAL SCALE
TESTING s %NTIREPRODUCTION APPLICATION
s -ATERIALBALANCES PROCESS s /PERATIONIN
s %NERGYBALANCES s #ONTINUOUS DIFFERENT
OPERATION CONDITIONS
s 0ROCESSMODEL
s 6ERIFICATIONOF s 0ROCESSSTABILITY
s 3TREAM
SPECIFICATIONS BALANCESAND s ,ONG TERM
s -AINEQUIPMENT + PROCESSMODELS
s #ATALYST
+ OPERATION
PARAMETERS
s #ONTROLPRINCIPLES
DEACTIVATION s )NHERENTSAFETY
RATESLIFETIMES REQUIREMENTS
s 0ROCESSDYNAMICS s 3HUT DOWNAND
s #ORROSION START UP
s %MISSIONS EXPERIENCE
WASTES s 2EALEMISSIONS
s 4ROUBLESHOOTING
Process models, simulations, engineering
Research (R&D)
Test runs
Figure 3 Process development
However, if advanced modelling which cut the time for designing course, means additional money
technologies and modern chemical and building facilities to zero and spent at the front end.
engineering tools are used rigor- helped to push technology develop-
ously, significant savings in overall ment forward significantly, enabling Partnership is the key
time schedules can be attained (see the first unit to be started early, The ultimate payout with the
Figure 4). In practice, the NExBTL resulting in greatly improved NPV successful application of modelling
process was developed without any for the project. The modelling effort can be considerable, as renewable
conventional pilot plant stage, requires time and skills, which, of fuel production may be started a
year or more before, with no costs
associated with piloting. The differ-
ence with regard to conventional oil
refining and fuel production is that
the solutions available might not be
tailored to existing needs, but some
Net present value, MEUR
Improved NPV additional research and engineering

is all that is needed to fit the
pieces together. A key issue then is
to identify suitable partners or
Time resources that are capable of
handling this task, since biomaterials
Saving in have gained a lot of public interest.
R&D
Shorter Many companies would like to
payback participate in the bio-business and
Investment time are keen to form close relationships
and partnerships in the renewables
Traditional way of working industry. It can be puzzling to have
New approach; use of novel scale-up tools several contestants claiming to be
able to handle the task better than
anyone else, with no grounds to
Figure 4 Process development enhancement through modelling verify this, since it is outside tradi-
neste.indd 4 10/12/10 09:38:40

tional modes of operation. Also, the
pros and cons of forming close part- Conventional oil refining investment
nerships must be weighed against
whether there truly is potential for
mutual benefits (see Figure 5). Technology Technology Technology
An investment project in a petro- vendor 1 vendor 2 vendor 3
leum refinery normally means
purchasing one or a few licence Engineering contractor
packages from one or several tech- Connections
nology suppliers and finding an to existing
Renewable feed processing investment plant
engineering contractor who will
then put the packages together for
the detailed design, construction
and purchasing activities. The task Vendor 1 Vendor 2 Vendor 3
is fairly simple, since licence pack-
age suppliers are aware of the
Engineering contractor
environment in to which their prod-
uct is going to be fitted. For
renewable fuels processing, a lot is
required of the engineering contrac- Figure 5 Engineering contractors for conventional and renewable processes
tor in order to glue together the
often misaligned pieces stemming possibly existing impurities to a tional refineries are actually very
from different industrial practices. different applications cannot be versatile, with possibly tens of
The renewable fuels process can anticipated and they might be different production units and
be made to work, but the contractor revealed only by experience if there feed-blending capabilities, while
must step up with a clear vision has not been previously gained renewable fuels production, espe-
and fill in the blanks left by tech- knowledge on their existence and cially when integrated into an
nology vendors who could be behaviour. Therefore, caution should existing process plant, may consist
earning their living in a totally be applied when studying the speci- of a single production unit and a
different field of industry, say, with fications for commercially available few storage tanks. If so, there
animal feeds. raw materials — they are by no should be no false expectations of
Generally speaking, for the the unit being capable of processing
successful execution of investment
in renewables, it is essential to
For the successful “any” of the types of raw material
chosen to be utilised.
recognise open items in the knowl- execution of When the basis of design is
edgebase and to find the right agreed for a new renewable fuels
partners to piece the process investment in process, the natural variation in raw
together. This means managing the material quality can be addressed
whole vendor chain effectively. renewables, it is in two ways. The first is, obviously,
to specify all of the possible varia-
Biomaterials in petroleum essential to find the tions of raw materials as suitable
refining units feeds for the process, but this can
A wide variety of components is
right partners to piece end up raising the complexity of
typical for raw materials from natu-
ral sources, since living organisms
the process together engineering, which unfortunately
applies to costs as well. Another
require a multitude of nutrients and approach would then be to limit the
minerals for their digestion, which means complete, and are more likely number of raw materials to a few
in turn produces a broad spectrum to incorporate only the properties representative cases and compen-
of, say, effluents. Surprisingly, many and parameters that are significant sate for variations by designing the
of the smaller scale impurities and to the present applications of said logistics as flexibly as possible. In
trace components may not even be materials. practice, this would mean provid-
familiar to the users of present appli- ing enough storage capacity and
cations if there has not, for one Handling the logistical challenges routing possibilities in order to
reason or another, been particular Having said that, renewable raw keep some fractions separate, to
interest in them. Often the principle materials contain a broad spectrum blend fractions intentionally and for
of “if it causes no problem, it is not of components in various concen- the intermediate storage of fractions
there” is applied to the variety of trations, and an experienced refiner that require severe processing.
impurities. This lack of interest may might think straight away that it is
actually be justified from the produc- exactly the same with crude oil, and Purification of oils and fats
er’s economical viewpoint, but the they would be right. But it must Since the purification of oils and
downside is that the effects of those also be noted that even conven- fats is a common task in the food
neste.indd 5 10/12/10 09:38:51

The size and frequency of certain
feedstock shipments must be taken
into account when designing the
storage facilities if blending is not
Crude oil Renewable desired. On the other hand, having
storage feed storage some blending and buffering capac-
ity in between processing steps
might be advantageous, because it
Interconnections allows intermittent operation of one
processing step while securing
Hydrogen Renewable
Crude oil homogenous feed quality for the
Fuel gas feed
storage
refining next.
Steam/Cond processing
Sour water
Flexibility can be greatly increased
Amine
with logistical solutions. Processing
units in general tend to be designed
Renewable for a certain capacity, which then
Oil product can vary to some extent between
product
storage
storage given turndown and over-design
percentages. With properly
designed logistics, the virtual turn-
Auxiliaries down or operating window of
Waste water treatment processing steps can be significantly
Oily water recovery improved.
Slop oil
Managing by-product and waste
streams
Figure 6 Production segregation Integrating the renewable fuels
process into an existing refinery can
industry, there are several well- When designing a new process- result in the co-processing of raw
developed processing methods ing unit for renewable fuels materials from fossil and renewable
commercially available, including production, it can be tempting to sources. But it may also turn out to
degumming, bleaching, deodorising make the range of possible feed- be beneficial to keep these two frac-
and dewaxing. Some can be alter- stocks as wide as possible. By tions separated for legislative and/or
natives to one another, while others considering what was stated above, economical reasons; for instance, in
are connected in series to achieve it becomes obvious that the purifi- the search for a premium margin.
best results. cation system, whatever the In principle, separation is very
The choice of suitable purification combination of steps chosen, must simple; it is all about nominated
method depends very much on the be flexible in terms of utilising the storage tanks, pipelines and
quality and source of the oil to be processing steps. If some feedstocks processing units. The real challenge
purified. Some seed oils may need require less purification, maybe one of integration, however, is how to
additional steps to reach the step can be completely bypassed. manage all of the side products,
required levels of purity. But it is The possibility then is not only for waste streams, drains and spills
also good to recognise that the an actual bypass pipeline over one without introducing a threat to the
processing conditions within one processing step, but also the ability existing plant operations (see Figure
purification step can vary with to store feedstocks with different 6). A good example is handling
different feedstocks. requirements separately. wastewater from a process using
renewable raw materials. Due to
their composition and biological
Gasoline properties
source, the trace amounts of raw
materials in water effluents can
High Low Low Low Low Driveability create order of magnitude greater
octane RVP olefins benzene aromatics (distillation)
BOD readings compared to
Butanes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Alkylate Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No common oily waters. In addition,
Isopentane Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes the biological compounds are often
C6 isomerate No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes more easily digested by the fauna
Light FCC gasoline Yes No No No Yes Yes
in active sludge treatment and,
Heavy FCC gasoline No Yes Varies Yes No No
Reformate Yes Yes Yes No No No therefore, the species in sludge used
ETBE, TAEE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes to digest biological wastewater are
Ethanol Yes No Yes Yes Yes No often different from those used for
fossil organic waters. It can be
Table 1 easily understood that there is a
neste.indd 6 10/12/10 09:39:01

good potential to mess up or over- challenges in engine performance engineering skills requirements
load the wastewater facility without (deposits and corrosion in fuel combined with sound judgement of
proper knowledge. A seemingly systems, engine oil dilution or process environment, logistics and
small issue may become a very polymerisation, phosphorous, ash). respective product properties and
large one when the whole facility These problems can be overcome values will dictate the overall feasi-
has to be run down because of by hydrogenated vegetable oils and bility of such operations.
malfunctioning wastewater treat- animal fats, such as the product The engineering challenge is to
ment. A similar issue could be the from Neste Oil’s NExBTL process, combine existing advanced petro-
transportation of renewable raw which simultaneously yields supe- leum process technologies with
material trace components to various aspects of the problems
another fossil unit via, for instance, faced in biorefinery engineering
a minor utility line, which could Both biorefining and to come up with process
appear after a time as mysterious simulation tools that allow the
corrosion or plugging. and renewable implementation of biomaterial
streams to the highly integrated
Product compatibility fuels production process environment of a petroleum
All products coming from a petro- refinery. Besides process modelling,
leum refinery pipeline must comply
in petroleum a sound understanding of related
with existing specifications and refineries pose many material requirements and corro-
simultaneously ensure future prod- sion engineering, as well as
uct improvement. However, this is challenges advanced process control and on-
not the case depicted in Table 1, line analyser technologies permit
which shows some key gasoline the steady-state operation levels
components and their key quality rior product with improved cetane required in a modern petroleum
parameters. and lower emissions. The key is to refinery. The resulting most viable
As can be seen, compared to create molecules, be they in gaso- solution is the one entailing the best
common fuel components, the exist- line or diesel boiling range, which economic results.
ing biocomponents perform quite are as similar as possible to existing
well, although only ETBE and fuel materials in their structure.
TAEE bring considerable advan-
tages in upgrading gasoline Conclusions Matti Koskinen is Sales Manager for Neste Oil
blending. The situation with diesel Both biorefining and renewable clean fuel technologies with Nest Jacobs Oy.
material is even worse, as fatty acid fuels production in petroleum refin- Formerly a Process Design Engineer with Neste
methyl esters have provided many eries pose many challenges. As both Engineering, he holds a master’s degree from
problems due to poor product are strongly emerging ways to Helsinki University of Technology.
stability, cold properties and produce fuels, the underlying Emai: matti.koskinen@nestejacobs.com
Independent Pilot Plant Services

• Process and Pilot Plant Expertise Since 1986
• Mitigate Technical Risk
• Simulate Refinery Processes
Email: testingservices@intertek.com
Tel: 1.281.971.5600
Web: www.intertek.com/testing/pilot-plant
www.ptqenquiry.com
neste.indd 7 10/12/10 09:39:12

www.ptqenquiry.com
enersul.indd 1 9/12/10 12:23:52

Protection analysis in refining
Independent pilot plant testing can serve as an independent protection layer to

reduce the technical risks of new process technology
Robert Absil
Intertek PARC
F
actors contributing to technical Number of isomers as a function of carbon number1
risks when implementing new
process technologies in the
refining industry include the Carbon number Boiling of n-paraffin, deg°C Number of isomers
5 36 3
complex compositions of crude oil 8 126 18
fractions and of heterogeneous cata- 10 174 75
lysts used in the conversion of those 12 216 355
fractions to marketable products. 15 271 4347
20 344 3.66 * 105
Furthermore, reactor hydrodynamic 25 402 3.67 * 107
performance and operational issues 30 449 4.11 * 109
can pose significant technical risks. 35 489 4.93 * 1011
The approach proposed in this arti- 40 522 6.24 * 1013
45 550 8.22 * 1015
cle is to use layer of protection
analysis, which has its origin in the
process plant safety field, to miti- Table 1
gate these technical risks. The
motivation behind this approach is the maximum atmospheric equiva- oxygen as phenolics and carboxylic
to semi-quantify the risks that are lent boiling points (AEBP) of crude acids; and nitrogen as indoles, pyri-
associated when implementing new oils can exceed 2500°F (1370°C). The dines, amines and quinolines.
process technologies so that they hydrocarbons include paraffins, The technical risk associated with
can be controlled, with decisions cycloparaffins, aromatics, resins and the complexity of feedstock compo-
being made based upon objective asphaltenes. They also contain sition is that the potential outcome
evidence. To illustrate this approach, heteroatoms, such as sulphur, nitro- of a process technology implemen-
one operational issue — plugging of gen and oxygen, in their structures. tation involving a new feedstock
reactor beds — is analysed and a Furthermore, crude oils contain may not be completely known,
risk mitigation programme is metals, such as vanadium, nickel, since no two crude oils are the
proposed. Furthermore, independ- iron and copper. In addition, crude same. Altgelt and Boduszynski
ent pilot plant testing is proposed oils contain salts, which are pointed out that a complete compo-
as an independent protection layer dissolved or suspended as crystals sitional analysis of heavy fractions
to reduce technical risks. in very small water droplets emul- — and thus also of the crude oil
sified in the crude oil. — is impossible and that simplifica-
Refinery process To illustrate the complexity of a tions must be made.1
implementation risks crude oil or its fractions, Altgelt Instead of focusing on individual
Feedstock risks and Boduszynski listed the number compounds, groups or lumps of
When considering technical risk in of isoparaffins that can exist as a compounds that fall into similar
the refining industry, the crude oil function of carbon number (see chemical classifications have been
feedstock is one major contributor. Table 1).1 Similar structural varia- used with success.2 However, the
Conventional crude oil is a complex tions exist for cycloparaffins, less is known about the feedstock,
mixture of hydrocarbons that boil aromatics, resins and asphaltenes at the greater the technical risk and
over a wide range of temperatures. a given carbon number. the higher the probability of failure
Reaching beyond the maximum Moreover, hydrocarbons may on demand of the programme.
cutpoints of vacuum-packed contain one or more heteroatoms in
column distillation (~1040°F, 560°C) their structures. Sulphur exists, for Catalyst risks
and high-vacuum, short-path distil- example, as mercaptans, sulphides, Another important factor affecting
lation (~1300°F, 700°C), sequential disulphides, thiophenes, benzothi- risk assessment is the heterogene-
elution fractionation indicates that ophenes and dibenzothiophenes; ous catalyst used in the conversion
intertek.indd 1 10/12/10 09:54:20

colloidal fines has been reported in
the processing of oil sands-sourced
IPL operates as intended
Safe outcome gas oil.5
Again, the less is known about
Initiating event IPL potential operational problems, the
Consequence greater the risk and the higher the
occurs despite probability of failure on demand of
IPL fails to operate as presence of IPL
intended
the process.
Independent protection layers

Figure 1 Effectiveness of an independent protection layer6 Process plant safety
The concept of risk and risk mitiga-
process. The composition of a solid properly packed pilot plant units, tion measures are well developed
catalyst can be complex; the catalyst the probability of failure on demand in the field of process plant safety
is often dual-functional, in that the of the commercial trickle-bed to evaluate the hazard potential of
acidic function provided by the processes in this application would installations or changes to installa-
zeolite catalyses cracking and isom- be 0.2. tions. Risk mitigation measures can
erisation reactions, and the metal be categorised according to the
function catalyses hydrogenation Operational risks degree of quantification. The well-
reactions, as is the case with hydro- Another risk often overlooked is known hazard and operability
cracking catalysts. Moreover, a associated with operational issues, (HAZOP) and what-if studies are
binder, such as alumina, is used as which are due to problems pertain- purely qualitative. Simplified quan-
support or to give the solid catalyst ing to the operation of an existing titative methods, such as the
particle mechanical strength. refinery unit, such as a co-current, Chemical Exposure Index (CEI) and
Although substantial advances have trickle-bed reactor, and can play a the Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI),
been made in understanding heter- key role on whether the implemen- use relative rankings of hazards.
ogeneous catalysts, factors such as tation of a new process technology Full quantitative methods, such as
diffusion limitations, poison sensi- chemical plant quantitative risk
tivity, limited understanding of analysis (CPQRA), completely
reaction mechanisms and of the The less is known quantify the risks associated with
structure of the active sites contrib- an event. Moreover, layer of protec-
ute to technical risk.
about potential tion analysis (LOPA) identifies
Again, the technical risk associ- operational problems, independent layers of protection
ated with catalyst complexity is that that reduce risk. An independent
the potential outcome of new proc- the greater the risk protection layer (IPL) is defined as
ess technology involving a new “...a device, system, or action that is
catalyst is not completely known. and the higher the capable of preventing a scenario
from proceeding to its undesired
Reactor hydrodynamic probability of failure consequence independent of the
performance risks initiating event or the action of any
In a trickle-bed reactor, the ideal on demand of the other layer of protection associated
flow pattern is that the liquid flows with the scenario.”6 An event tree
as a continuous film over the cata-
process showing the effectiveness of an IPL
lyst particles, with the hydrogen is illustrated in Figure 1.
flowing through the remaining void is a success. These include issues The PFD is defined as the proba-
space and diffusing through the related to plugging of reactors, bility of failure on demand of the
liquid film to the catalyst surface. excessive wear of control valve IPL. Thus, if out of 100 initiating
However, commercial trickle-bed stems or unanticipated corrosion of events or demands the IPL in
operations have been shown to be equipment. Switching to processing Figure 1 fails to operate once, the
non-ideal and are affected by, for feedstocks other than conventional probability of failure on demand is
example, liquid and gas maldistri- crude oil may lead to unanticipated 1 out of 100 or 10-2.6
bution and mass transport operational problems. Early reports
limitations.3 indicated that hydroprocessing of Passive and active IPLs
Since no actual statistics were residues was affected by reactor Two types of IPLs have been identi-
given in the McGovern report,3 a bed plugging due to fines, such as fied. A passive IPL is “...not
probability of failure on demand dirt, sand, salt and corrosion prod- required to take an action in order
cannot be calculated. However, for ucts.4 Hydrotreating of gas oil to for it to achieve its function in
the sake of argument, if 10 out of produce ultra-low sulphur diesel reducing risk.”6 Passive IPLs
the 50 hydrotreaters started up was impacted by fines accumula- include dikes, underground drain-
industry-wide were not able to tion.3 Plugging of hydrotreating age systems, open vents,
meet the performance predicted by catalyst beds by colloidal and non- fire-proofing and inherently safe
intertek.indd 2 10/12/10 09:54:32

design. An active IPL is “...required Probabilities of failure on demand for several IPLs6
to move from one state to another
in response to a change in a meas-
urable process property.”6 Active Type of IPL Device Industry range PFD Typical PFD
Passive Dike 1 * 10-2 to 1 * 10-3 1 * 10-2
IPLs include instrumented systems, Passive Open vent 1 * 10-2 to 1 * 10-3 1 * 10-2
such as a continuous pressure Active Relief valve 1 * 10-1 to 1 * 10-5 1 * 10-2
controller that regulates, for exam- Active Rupture disc 1 * 10-1 to 1 * 10-5 1 * 10-2
ple, unit pressure at a specified set Active Basic process control system 1 * 10-1 to 1 * 10-2 1 * 10-1
point and generates continuous
feedback to the operator that it is Table 2
functioning normally. A state
controller is also an active IPL. It operational technical risk; namely, • Particulates entering with the
takes pressure measurements and reactor plugging. This topic was crude oil or unconventional
executes on-off changes to alarm chosen because it does not involve resource:
indicators and to process valves. A any proprietary information. ■ Suspended solids, such as very
basic process control system (BPCS) Moreover, the open literature has a fine sand, clay and soil particles,
is a control system that continu- number of references to plugging of iron oxides and iron sulphide parti-
ously monitors and controls the trickle-bed reactors. cles. These are picked up from
process in day-to-day operation. pipelines, tanks and tankers during
Some typical ranges for PFDs are Trickle-bed reactor plugging transportation to the refinery
shown in Table 2. Note that the In the following, the term “particle“ ■ Salt and fines carryover from
BPCS is a relatively weak IPL for refers to the catalyst and the term the desalter due to improper opera-
reasons of little redundancy, limited “particulate” to the material in the tions. Total suspended solids
built-in testing capabilities and feedstock that is responsible for removal should be greater than
limited access security.6 plugging of the reactor bed. 60%, with 80% removal of particles
greater than 0.8µ
Application of LOPA to ULSD Sources of particulates in a refinery ■ Clays entrained during distilla-
hydrotreating A particulate balance performed tion in case the feed is not properly
Risk assessment in ULSD production around the refinery shows that desalted
Consider a refiner deciding to particulates responsible for reactor • Particulates generated within the
implement ultra-low sulphur diesel bed plugging can either enter the refinery:
(ULSD) process technology. A tabu- refinery with the crude oil or can ■ Corrosion products from proc-
lation of potential risks is shown in be generated in equipment or process equipment and piping
Table 3. The refiner or plant opera- ess units inside the refinery. ■ Coke generated on the hot
tor in the general case has to ask Categorised according to source, surfaces of heaters, furnaces and
systematically what the risks are these include: heat exchangers
and whether these risks can be
accepted. As a first approximation, Risk assessment for ULSD reactor bed operations
the financial impact of failure to
meet each criterion will be assumed Input variable Output variable Risk assessment
to be the same. The main risks are Feed rate, bbl/day Product rate, bbl/day How much LCO can be charged with diesel?
whether the refiner will be able to
produce ULSD that meets ATSM H2 make rate, scf/bbl H2 bleed rate, scf/bbl
specifications using the catalysts Inlet H2 composition, vol% H2 tower rate, scf/bbl What is impact on performance?
available on the market and using
the existing trickle-bed reactor. H2 recycle rate, scf/bbl H2 consumption, scf/bbl Can H2 be supplied?
The approach proposed here can
Inlet pressure, psig Outlet pressure, psig Is pump capacity correct?
be used for each of the items listed Pressure drop, psig/L Is reactor plugging an issue?
in the checklist in Table 3. It consists
of the following steps: Temperature range, deg F What is cycle length?
• Identification of each potential Can catalyst be regenerated?
technical risk Catalyst Has optimal catalyst been selected?
• Examination of the fundamentals
associated with each risk using in- Reactor dimensions, L/D What is catalyst contacting efficiency?
house, literature or patent data. Liquid distributor configuration Is distributor operating properly?
Only documented evidence can be Reactor/tower integrity Are vessels rated for operating pressures?
used Is equipment integrity status known?
• Semi-quantification of each risk
• Mitigation of each risk by install- Feed composition Product composition Can ASTM D-975 be met?
ing IPLs.
This approach is illustrated for an Table 3
intertek.indd 3 10/12/10 09:54:46

■ Particulate (catalyst fines) maximum voidage packing of a bed extrudates, like trilobes, they can
carryover from FCC units of uniform spheres with diameter D lie parallel to each other and
■ Particulate (coke) carryover occurs when the particles are significantly reduce the accessible
from cokers arranged in a square array, with openings.
■ Gum and coke precursors in each layer directly above the other
cracked feedstocks. (see Figure 2). Then, the minimum Catalyst particle distribution
diameter of the particulates, defined Catalyst particle distribution also
Types of plugging mechanisms as d, that will be retained are plays a key role. While a conven-
Analysis shows that the pressure defined by the following equation: tional hydrotreating catalyst has a
build-up is from an accumulation nominal extrudate size, such as
of debris in the reactor in the inter- D/(d + D) = cos 45° 1mm-diameter extrudate, they
particle void space. This build-up exhibit a particle size distribution.
can either be in the top layer of the For a 1mm-diameter sphere, the Small particles and fines are gener-
bed or extend deeper into the bed. minimum diameter of the particu- ated by attrition during handling. If
Plugging can thus be categorised late that will be retained by the bed the distribution of the particles is
into two groups as to cause: is 414 microns. The diameter d can sufficiently broad, the smaller cata-
• Plugging due to retentive also be called the constriction diam- lyst particles or catalyst fines may
screening14 eter. Particles can be arranged in be able to nest within the interstices
• Plugging due to deep bed equilateral triangular pitch too (see between the larger particles. This
filtration.11 Figure 3). The particles are in an then reduces the diameter of the
array, with each layer directly particulates that can pass through
Plugging by retentive screening above the other. Then, the mini- the top layer of the bed.
Plugging by large particulates is mum diameter of the particulates
due to retentive screening, meaning with diameter d that will be Catalyst loading procedure
Wooten8 compared two types of
procedures for loading catalysts in
commercial fixed-bed reactors. The
sock-loading method uses a canvas
tube to transport the catalyst from
the reactor inlet manway to the
bottom of the reactor, with the sock
discharging the catalyst upon the
bed surface. The catalyst cylinders
are randomly oriented in this
method and are not allowed to find
a stable, horizontal rest position.
Figure 2 Square packing of spheres Figure 3 Equilateral triangular pitch This leads to bridging of the cylin-
ders and void spaces that tend to
that the particulates in the feedstock retained are defined by: collapse during operation. The
are so large that they actually dense-loading method, on the other
cannot penetrate deeper than the D/(d + D) = cos 30° hand, uses a vertical pipe that
top layer of the catalyst bed due to extends into the top of the reactor,
physical constraints. To illustrate For a 1mm-diameter sphere, the with the catalyst being horizontally
order-of-magnitude effects, two minimum diameter of the particu- propelled using either air-propelled
arrangements will be considered late that will be retained by the bed or kinetic propulsion systems. The
first, using spherical catalyst parti- is 154 microns. main difference is that in the dense-
cles and spherical particulates. As a loading method the catalyst
rule, the term “particle” is used for Factors affecting constriction cylinders fall onto the bed surface
catalyst and the term “particulate” diameter distribution14 and are able to assume a horizontal
for material other than catalyst that Actual trickle-bed reactors have a rest position before being impinged
leads to pressure build-up. Next, distribution of constriction diame- by other catalyst cylinders. Most of
the impact of catalyst particle distri- ters affected by particle shape, the catalysts reach terminal velocity
bution, catalyst shape and catalyst particle size distribution and load- after falling 10–15ft. The cylinders,
bed loading procedures will be ing procedure. thus, pack horizontally, thereby
discussed. minimising bridges and settling
Catalyst particle shape during operations. The dense-load-
Ideal packed bed with one The shape of particles can affect ing method can increase catalyst
constriction diameter14 the retention of particulates in the bed densities by as much as 17%.
The particle stacking configuration feed on top of the catalyst bed. If While the dense-loading method
affects the extent of retentive the particles are shaped as cylin- initially gives pressure drops
screening. First, the most open or drical extrudates or shaped greater by a factor of 1.5–2.5 than
intertek.indd 4 10/12/10 09:55:02

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npra.indd 1 8/12/10 14:55:21
those with sock-loading, they can Plugging by deposition desorption of asphaltenes at higher
be lower later in the run. Wooten Plugging due to deposition is temperature or asphaltene conver-
pointed out that sock-loaded cata- caused by the very fine particles sion. The asphaltene coating is
lyst beds have higher void space that are small enough that they will then progressively removed and
and are thus able to better handle not be physically retained by the increased deposition results down
particulate matter in the feedstock. catalyst in the reactor, but are the length of the bed. This has been
One would expect the dense load- rendered insoluble during process- observed in the hydrotreating of
ing method to sieve out smaller gas oil that contains asphaltene-
particulates, increasing the likeli- coated clays, with the greatest
hood of plugging on the top layer The impact of a deposition of the fine particulates
of the bed with particular feeds. being toward the exit of the
In the examples shown in Figures reactor plugging reactor.11 Furthermore, iron
2 and 3, the catalyst spheres were sulphide with its surface-modified
stacked, with each array directly on event will depend on asphaltenes deposited rapidly
top of each other. This generates because the asphaltenes were
vertical channels. Actual catalyst
the pressure control desorbed or thermally decomposed
packing configurations are substan- system configuration from the iron sulphide surface.10
tially more complex and the Water produced by hydrodeoxy-
required particle configurations to genation reactions destabilised the
retain the particulates may not be ing and deposit on the catalyst’s asphaltene-coated kaolin clay
present in the particulate’s flow external surface. Fine particulates, particulates by reducing the surface
path in the first catalyst layer, but such as kaolin clay, can have their coating. Neither ammonia nor quin-
may be present in a subsequent surfaces stabilised by insoluble oline affected particle deposition.
layer. Regardless, Narayan et al9 organic materials, such as Deposit testing with 8µm carbon
reported that a bed of hydrotreat- asphaltenes, making it very difficult black in kerosene on a packed bed
ing catalyst comprised of pellets of to separate them from bitumen.10 of glass bead or hydrotreating cata-
diameter of 1–2mm will strain out However, their surface properties lyst at room temperature showed
particulates of the order of 100 can be modified by the hydrotreat- that the pressure drop increased
microns in size. ing process due to a combination of with specific deposit. The carbon
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black was observed to be deposited may increase rapidly; the pressures the pressure control system configu-
along the entire length of the bed; in the reactor and the feed system ration, can lead to reduced
the axial pressure drop profile will quickly increase, potentially performance, increased ageing of the
increased along the length of the exceeding the maximum allowable catalyst and inability to meet prod-
bed. The pressure drop increase operating pressure. The issue is uct specifications. If the pressure in
was attributed to pore restriction whether the risk of overpressure the low-pressure region is adjusted
and to particulates attached to the will be accepted. Obviously, this to meet the specified pressure, the
particles to increase their hydraulic risk is unacceptable and therefore a impact on catalyst performance
radius. The initial interaction was means of reducing this risk must be should not be significant. If the pres-
due to electrostatic attraction implemented. To protect the reactor sure in the low-pressure region is
between the carbon black and the from overpressure, a rupture disc is not adjusted to the specified pres-
glass bead, and then by particulate- installed in the reactor inlet line sure, catalyst performance will be
particulate interactions.9 after the hydrogen line. This disc reduced and product specifications
will rupture when its set pressure may not be met.
Unit design considerations is exceeded. Furthermore, the pump In a 2005 report, McGovern et al3
One problem often encountered in will have a rupture disc in a pump- reviewed the performance of
process plant — refinery scale as around so that if rupture disc hydrotreating units and outlined
well as pilot plant operations — is pressure is exceeded the pump will possible solutions to mitigate their
plugging of the trickle-bed reactor continue pumping without building under-performance compared to
when converting certain types of up pressure. It is important to have pilot plant reactors. The major
feedstock. This plugging can lead a check valve in the line between contributor to sub-par performance
to high pressure drops at the the pump outlet and the hydrogen of commercial HDS units is liquid
inlet of the bed or across the entire maldistribution, requiring higher
bed, depending, as previously start-of-run temperature and greater
discussed, on the plugging mecha-
The various means catalyst deactivation rates.
nism. What happens to the plant
depends on how the pressure
of preventing bed Maldistribution occurs at two
levels: macro- and micro-scale.
control system is configured. The plugging can all be Macro-scale maldistribution refers
pressure is typically controlled by a to the initial liquid distribution,
control valve in the bleed line of the considered IPLs, in while micro-scale maldistribution
high-pressure separator. The refers to the flow pattern over a
pressure-measuring device can be that they prevent distance of several particles. Two
located upstream, for example, in types of micro-scale flow have been
the hydrogen line prior to combin- an undesired recognised. In film flow, the ideal
ing with the liquid feed line, or case, the liquid flows as a film over
downstream of the reactor, for
consequence the catalyst surface down the cata-
example, in the bleed offline. lyst bed. In rivulet flow, the liquid
The impact of a reactor plugging line. One reason is that when the flow coagulates and forms rivulets
event will depend on the pressure pump rupture disc ruptures, the of liquid that are several particles
control system configuration. If the check valve prevents the unit from thick. Micro-scale maldistribution
inlet pressure is controlled, an depressurising through the feed was stated to be present in all
increase in pressure drop will result system. Special precautions must be trickle-bed reactors, while macro-
in a decrease in the reactor outlet made to ensure that the material scale distribution was reduced by
pressure and part or most of the used to make the check valve seal using high-efficiency liquid distrib-
reactor will operate below the design is compatible with the feedstock. utors, but could not be eliminated.
pressure. This will have a significant This is the configuration used in Fines at the top of the bed impact
effect on catalyst performance. If the Intertek PARC’s pilot plants. liquid maldistribution, with increas-
outlet reactor pressure is controlled, Douwes et al4 mentioned that the ing accumulation progressively
the inlet reactor pressure will possibility of plugging of the reactor increasing liquid and thus gas
increase. The advantage with the has to be taken into account by judi- maldistribution.
latter design is that most of the cata- cious selection of the design pressure
lyst bed will be at design pressure. of the equipment and by protecting Mitigation of reactor plugging
However, it does permit operation the upstream and downstream low- Bos7 provided an extensive list of
at higher inlet pressures than were pressure systems. To protect the methods to reduce particulate
initially intended. Intertek PARC’s upstream system, special safeguard- formation, including:
hydrotreaters are configured to ing equipment needs to be installed • Storage of cracked feedstocks
control the reactor inlet pressure. to prevent backflow of material. under a nitrogen blanket
In the case of a large pressure • Limited storage time
drop due to a drastic reduction in Impact of reactor plugging • Corrosion control in upstream
the available open cross-sectional First, reactor plugging increases equipment
area in the reactor, the pressure pressure drop and, depending on • Temperature control to avoid hot
intertek.indd 6 10/12/10 09:55:31

spots in heaters, furnaces and heat tion layer. The probability of failure can be reduced depending on the
exchangers. on demand of a rupture disc is 1 particulate size in the feedstock. In
However, if particulates cannot out of 100 (see Table 2). If previous the event of retentive screening,
be eliminated at source, they must experience has shown that the prob- either one of the IPLs would reduce
be dealt with. The following means ability of overpressure is 1 out 100, the probability to 1*10–3 and both
can be identified:7 then by installing the rupture disc IPLs in series would reduce the
• A feed filter using either disposa- the risk of tank overpressure is probability to 1*10–5. Actual PFDs
ble filters, automatic backwash reduced by a factor of 10–2 to 1 out should be determined on an
filters or automatic back-flush filters of 10 000. industry-wide basis and should
with filter micron ratings of >5 The various means of preventing include vendor input.
micron, 10–500 micron and 0.5–50 bed plugging can all be considered
micron, respectively IPLs, in that they prevent an unde- Pilot plant testing as independent
• A staged catalyst bed with a sired consequence. Thus automatic protection layer
guard layer and/or internals for backwash and backflush filters are Prior to implementing new process
trapping the particulates and active IPLs, while guard bed cata- technology, the refiner or plant
providing storage capacity for the lysts with a macroporous structure operator must address each item in
particulates to trap very small particulates can their risk assessment list and go
• A guard bed reactor located be considered passive IPLs. through a procedure similar to that
upstream of the reactor with a Furthermore, installation of a guard used in the reactor plugging case.
pretreatment catalyst for trapping bed that can be replaced further An independent protection layer
the particulates, with bed being reduces the risk. Thus, if the proba- often used in the refinery and
replaced as needed. bility of failure (for instance, rapid chemical industries to reduce tech-
plugging of the top of the bed) nical risk associated with
Examples of IPLs in mitigation of during the lifecycle of the catalyst implementing new process technol-
reactor bed plugging is 1 in 10, or 0.1, then for the sake ogy is independent pilot plant
The rupture disc at the inlet of the of argument the probabilities of testing.12,13 A pilot plant is a unit
reactor is intended to prevent failure on demand for the filter and that simulates the operation of a
system overpressure and is an the replacement guard bed are 1 in refinery unit on a substantially
example of an independent protec- 100, and the probability of failure reduced scale. Pilot plants can cover
Tank Level Instruments
Visual Level Indicators
WEKA AG · Switzerland
Schürlistrasse 8 · CH-8344 Bäretswil
Phone +41 43 833 43 43
Fax +41 43 833 43 29
info@weka-ag.ch · www.weka-ag.ch
ARCA Flow Group worldwide: Competence in valves, pumps & cryogenics

Armaturen AG
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www.ptqenquiry.com
intertek.indd 7 10/12/10 09:55:52

non-hydroprocessing refinery units, currently loaded in the commercial be controlled. Decisions are made
such as delayed cokers, deas- reactor must be part of the catalyst on objective quantified evidence so
phalters and visbreakers. Pilot screening or feedstock evaluation to that risks can be minimised.
plants can also simulate operations assess the hydrodynamics of the
of fixed-bed reactors used commercial reactor.
in hydrotreating, hydrocracking, McGovern et al3 pointed out that
reforming and isomerisation. “...[t]he most reliable method to References
Independent testing means that identify poor commercial HDS reac- 1 Altgelt K H, Boduszynski M M, Composition
confidential testing services are tor performance is to simulate the and Analysis of Heavy Petroleum Fractions,
provided by the company whose commercial unit operations in a Marcel Dekker, 1994.
2 Lynch T R, Process Chemistry of Lubricant
only revenues are from the pilot small-scale...[pilot plant]...unit. If
Base Stocks, Taylor & Francis Group, New York,
plant services provided. Moreover, the same feed and catalyst are used
2008, 12–13.
the company does not compete with the same start-up and operat- 3 McGovern S J, Lee C K, Zagorski J A, www.ogj.
with its clients nor owns technol- ing conditions, then the primary com/ogj/en-us/index/article-tools-template.
ogy that it markets itself. Recall that difference between the two opera- articles.oil-gas-journal.volume-103.issue-
the definition of an IPL is “...a tions is the hydrodynamic or 30.special-report.underperformance-of-ulsd-
device, system, or action that is mass-transport characteristics of the units-may-create-supply-problems-in-us.html
capable of preventing a scenario two unit. If these tests are 4 Douwes C T, van Klinken J, Wijffels J B, van
from proceeding to its undesired performed correctly, they can iden- Zijll Langhout W C, 10th World Petroleum
consequence.”6 tify differences as small as 10°F... Congress, 9–14 Sept 1979, Bucharest, Romania.
The pilot plant is considered an The key to the success of these tests 5 Iliuta I, Ring Z, Larachi F, Chem. Eng. Science,
61, 2006, 1321–1333.
IPL because it is a system that can is good lab unit operation with very
6 AIChE, Layer of Protection Analysis, Center
prevent an undesired consequence small inerts.”
for Chemical Process Safety, AIChE, New York,
from occurring, such as not meeting 2001.
product specifications in commercial
operations. As such, it must have a By doing pilot plant 7 Bos W, Catalyst bed protection, PTQ
Catalysis, 2006, 17–21.
probability of failure on demand. It
is only through open lines of
testing, feedstock 8 Wooten J T, www.ogj.com/ogj/en-us/index/
article-tools-template.articles.oil-gas-journal.
communication between the pilot and catalyst risks are volume-96.issue-41.in-this-issue.general-
plant service provider and its clients interest.dense-and-sock-catalyst-loading-
that the PFD can be determined and substantially reduced. compared.html
9 Narayan R, Coury J R, Masliyah J H, Gray M
used to improve the quality of the
pilot plant testing services provided. Risks associated with R, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1997, 36, 4620–4627.
10 Wang S, Chung K, Gray M R, Fuel, 2001, 80,
The pilot plant is used to determine
the performance of the catalyst using meeting product 8, 1079–1085.
11 Wang S, Chung K H, Masliyah J H, Gray M R,
the actual feedstock. The catalyst to
be used in the testing will be the specifications are also Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 1999, 38, 4878–4888.
12 Absil R P, Pilot Plant Testing: Risk
same as the one used to load the
commercial reactor and will be acti-
substantially reduced Minimization in Refinery
Implementation, Intertek Trends in Energy
Process
vated using the same procedure as Conference 2010, Houston, Texas, 21 Jul
that which will be employed Conclusions 2010; www.intertek.com/trends-in-energy-
commercially. The products gener- Factors contributing to technical conference.
ated in the pilot plant testing can be risks when implementing new proc- 13 Absil R P, Risk Mitigation When Implementing
New Process Technologies in Refineries or
evaluated to determine if they meet ess technologies in the refining
Chemical Plants, www.intertek.com/white-
product specifications. By doing industry include feedstock complex-
papers/risk-mitigation-in-refining-chemical-
pilot plant testing, feedstock and ity, catalyst complexity, reactor plants, 1 Sept 2010.
catalyst risks are substantially hydrodynamics and operational 14 Zenz F A, Othmer D F, Fluidization and
reduced. Risks associated with meet- issues. As suggested by the layer of Fluid-Particle Systems, Reinhold Publishing
ing product specifications are also protection analysis used in process Corporation, New York, 1960.
substantially reduced. Furthermore, plant safety, independent pilot
any operational issues will be identi- plant testing services can serve as
fied and addressed. an independent protection layer to
The technical risks associated reduce these risks. Examples are Robert Absil is General Manager of Intertek
PARC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. He has
with feedstock complexity, catalyst shown in an actual case how layer
over 25 years of experience in the refining
complexity, trickle-bed performance of protection analysis can be
industry, focused on pilot plant testing, and
and operational issues can be applied to mitigate the risk of reac- holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from
addressed using independent pilot tor bed plugging due to particulates. the Illinois Institute of Technology and MS and
plant catalyst testing. In each of The motivation of this approach is PhD degrees in chemical engineering from
these cases, if an existing trickle-bed to semi-quantify the risks that are Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.
reactor is used for new process associated when implementing new Email: robert.absil@intertek.com
implementation, the catalyst process technology so that they can Blogaddress: http://pilot-plant.blogspot.com/
intertek.indd 8 10/12/10 09:56:04

www.ptqenquiry.com
dnv.indd 1 9/12/10 12:39:17

Improving crude unit operation
Most crude and vacuum units present an opportunity for improvement using
modern process control systems
Tim Olsen and Gary Hawkins

Emerson Process Management
T
he reliability and operating its performance to the point of to-day reliability, asset utilisation
flexibility of a refinery’s crude becoming an industry top tier and safety. Each of these can be
unit has a material impact on benchmark.” improved by implementing modern
the profitability of the entire refin- Besides their improvements in technologies that are often lacking
ery due to its importance to the accuracy and long-term stability, in older units.
overall process by distributing inter- modern microprocessor-based field
mediate streams as feedstock to the instruments provide lots more Modernisation
downstream workhorse conversion information on their status and The crude unit can be eliminated as
units that create higher value prod- condition than the simple process a sore spot for the refinery and
ucts. Many refinery managers and measurements of older instrumen- made a star performer by modern-
operations personnel want the crude tation. These technologies enable ising control systems and adopting
unit to just run and not cause any more efficient operations, decreas- digital field architecture. Investments
trouble. However, it can be a source ing costs and increasing profit in technology enable efficiency,
of increased energy usage, reduced levels. reducing the impact of crude unit
productivity, lower intermediate disruptions on the downstream
product quality, high maintenance refinery operations. Existing facili-
costs and increased safety risks. This Effective crude unit ties can start small and gain
is because crude units are often experience through upgrade
among the most neglected parts of
operations depend on programmes at a measured pace,
any refinery, with all the infrastruc-
ture issues of ageing facilities.
achieving excellence with benefits from early installa-
tions paying for the later stages.
Today, nearly every crude unit faces in the areas of energy
major operating challenges of Replace older legacy control systems
energy inefficiency, poor unit utili- efficiency, day-to- Modern automation technology is
sation and asset unreliability, as faster, more powerful and with
well as safety, health and environ- day reliability, asset features that enable information
mental issues. management beyond the simple
Unexpected pump failures, accel- utilisation and safety process variable, setpoint and
erated coking on fired heater tubes, output. Embedded advanced proc-
overhead column vapour not Emerson calls this the Smart ess control (APC) tools are easy to
condensing and unreliable meas- Refinery — a place where person- use and maintain, require no addi-
urement of high-viscosity fluids are nel are better informed about tional hardware or software, and
among the everyday occurrences. process performance, faulty field can shorten implementation sched-
Energy issues are often related to assets and the root causes of exist- ules dramatically.
heat exchanger tube fouling and ing or imminent problems. In the Digital automation architecture
poor heat transfer efficiency, an Smart Refinery, console operators gives refiners the ability to safely
inability to optimise fired heaters receive information relating to operate closer to process and equip-
and inadequate temperature meas- critical control applications, mainte- ment constraints without violating
urements needed to optimise crude nance technicians are made aware them, while monitoring the condi-
unit operation. of impending maintenance needs, tion of many assets in real-time.
But improvement is possible. In and the safety engineer is notified Information from this smart tech-
the words of one official of a large of safety instrumented system (SIS) nology helps personnel address the
US refinery: “Selective application issues. long-standing uncertainty as to
of advanced technology can help a Effective crude unit operations whether observed problems are the
crude unit overcome built-in depend on achieving excellence in result of instrument degradation or,
deficiencies and actually improve the areas of energy efficiency, day- indeed, are process problems.
emerson.indd 1 10/12/10 12:49:21

For refineries with frequent crude maintenance strategy keeps the unit the firebox can become explosive.
oil switching, disturbances in crude operating and minimises spurious Measurements of oxygen and
unit operations often propagate into process tripping. As a result, carbon monoxide/combustibles
bigger issues downstream. It only unscheduled slowdowns and shut- from the flue gas composition
makes sense to diminish such downs are reduced or eliminated, analysers located in the radiant
disturbances at their source to and the unit operates reliably section of the heater firebox indicate
achieve effective and reliable opera- within safe limits, thereby improv- when there is enough combustion
tions throughout the refinery. ing profitability. air for safe operations. Smart
Managing the change from one Not all changes require large analysers with health-monitoring
incoming crude to another requires capital investments to deliver fast capabilities support console opera-
a regulatory control layer with the and lasting returns. For example, tor confidence in the accuracy of
dynamic performance necessary to adding missing measurement points flue gas measurements. As a result,
respond quickly and precisely to to aid optimisation, adding smart, fuel-to-air ratios can be optimised
setpoint changes. Yet, the impor- microprocessor-based instruments safely by trimming costly excess
tance of the regulatory control layer for asset health information and combustion air to the heater.
is often overlooked in older advanced process control can be Advanced process controls can be
systems. For example, energy implemented on key operating employed to optimise the heater
consumption and material balance parameters at minimal expense to operation for maximum energy effi-
must be re-established following a produce a significant ROI in a ciency. Modern digital process
switch to bring the intermediate short time. control systems with embedded
products within specifications. APC functionality allow for faster
Advanced process controls shift the Benefits of technology implementation, easier maintenance
burden of managing crude switch- Without question, the application of and greater uptime than traditional
ing from the operator to a advanced technologies can improve methods of implementing APC.
fractionator optimisation package Optimum energy efficiency typi-
that minimises the chance for cally requires more measurements
human error, hastens the transition Smart field devices than provided for in the design of
time and mitigates crude unit most crude units. For example,
disruption during switching. produce a great deal temperature measurements around
It is also important to effectively each heat exchanger bundle are
use the levels in crude unit process
of useful information often acquired manually only when
vessels as a disturbance buffer. This
may require a shift in thinking for
that is easily preparing for an upcoming turna-
round to determine which
operators to allow intermediate accessed and stored exchangers need to be cleaned.
levels to fluctuate from 25–75% full Today’s wireless technology makes
and not try to maintain a given by advanced asset it easy and cost effective to add
setpoint such as 50%. If distur- measurement points to obtain the
bances are absorbed in the crude management software missing measurements needed to
unit, the intermediate feedstocks monitor heat exchanger performance.
can be processed more effectively Another important area for
in downstream units. the performance of most crude consideration is the transfer of heat
units in today’s refineries with from hot downstream products to
Install digital instrumentation respect to energy efficiency, reliabil- preheat incoming crude, because
Digital instrumentation improves ity, utilisation and safety. heat exchanger tube fouling nega-
asset reliability and utilisation of tively impacts the effectiveness of
crude unit production equipment. Energy efficiency the heat transfer. A 10% decrease in
Smart field devices produce a great Significant energy savings can be heat transfer efficiency in the
deal of useful information that is achieved by reducing the amount of preheat exchanger train will require
easily accessed and stored by excess combustion air to the crude a commensurate increase of energy
advanced asset management soft- and vacuum heaters. The challenge for the crude heater. Further reduc-
ware. With the availability of near is to minimise excess combustion air tions in crude preheat exchanger
real-time information on the condi- while maintaining a sufficient air performance will cause the crude
tion of measurement instruments, supply for full, safe combustion. If heater to reach its firing limit,
final control elements and other combustion air is not sufficient, making it necessary to reduce the
assets, refiners can predict when after-burning can take place in the throughput of crude oil.
these assets will require attention upper parts of the heater, resulting
and fix them before the process is in higher temperatures than Reliability
adversely affected. In addition, designed for that section. This can The asset failures that cause
unnecessary maintenance is avoided damage the heater tubes, tube many process slowdowns or total
on those assets that do not need supports and firebox structure. In shutdowns can be greatly reduced
immediate work. This predictive extreme cases, the fuel mixture in through the use of the diagnostics
emerson.indd 2 10/12/10 21:19:06

produced by smart field instrumen- process conditions such as vibration, demand while minimising operat-
tation and digital valve controllers. temperature, flow, pressure and ing disturbances to operations.
This data is easily accessed by desalter interface levels, it also gives However, verification of movement
advanced asset management soft- refinery personnel insight into the does not guarantee a safety shut-
ware and presented for use by health of the field assets. Root cause down valve will stroke fully when
refinery personnel. When one of the information enables people to be required. Safety shutdown valves
monitored devices begins operating well prepared before they ever go that may not actually move for
outside its normal parameters, an into the field. Maintenance based on years could have a build-up of
alarm is raised, indicating that point field-generated information is the precipitated salts, scale or corrosion
needs to be evaluated. In addition, least costly type of maintenance and on the valve stem, preventing full
detailed information on every asset contributes substantially to maxi- travel when needed. Documented
on the control network is main- mum utilisation of refinery assets. comprehensive partial stroke test-
tained in a database for use in The SmartProcess fractionator ing provides both verification of
various routine maintenance tasks, optimisation package, for instance, movement and how much the valve
including loop checkout, configura- can be applied to improve crude is capable of travelling — a valua-
tion, calibration, troubleshooting unit yields and flexibility, especially ble tool for safety instrumented
and accurate documentation of with smart field devices capable of system life cycle management.
maintenance performed. responding rapidly to setpoint
Most non-critical rotating machin- changes. Such devices also aid in Conclusions
ery is monitored periodically by detecting the onset of fractionator Nearly all crude and vacuum units
technicians using vibration data flooding so that operators can take present an opportunity for improve-
analysers along pre-established appropriate actions in a timely ment. Modern process control
routes to develop a view of the manner. These solutions serve to systems with embedded APC func-
operating condition of motors, improve crude and vacuum unit tionality continuously monitor loop
pumps, fans, compressors, turbines utilisation, and reduce excess performance, identify issues and
and the like. Those assets that are energy consumption. proactively address loop-tuning
most likely to fail can be identified issues. Digital instrumentation
by changes in vibration levels due to Safety generates a vast amount of informa-
poor shaft alignment, worn bearings, Safer operating conditions can be tion that can be used to drive
loose or broken foundation mounts, achieved through modern automa- automatic alerts, predictive mainte-
a cracked impeller or cavitation. tion functions and features, nance, diagnostic data archives and
Critical machinery can be monitored including operator training simula- environmental reports. This diag-
continuously online using perma- tion, smart instrument health nostic technology greatly reduces
nently installed sensors. For essential monitoring and smart safety logic the amount of time required for
assets not currently wired, wireless solvers with automated partial tasks such as configuration, loop
vibration transmitters are available stroke testing of safety shutdown checkout and commissioning,
to greatly reduce the cost barriers to valves. Training simulations provide instrument calibration and trouble-
continuous monitoring. Even second- console operators with realistic shooting compared to analog
and third-tier rotating assets can be scenarios to practise infrequent instrumentation connected to
continuously monitored, enabling events such as startup, shutdown or conventional control systems.
maintenance personnel to identify sudden emergencies. With deeper
and act on developing problems. knowledge and more familiarity
These advanced monitoring and with standard operating procedures, Tim Olsen is a Refining Consultant within
the PlantWeb global refining industry group
analysis technologies are capable of operators are able to react immedi-
of Emerson Process Management where he
raising alarms if field assets develop ately, properly and confidently
supports Emerson’s technical and business
symptoms of failure, so corrective when required by an infrequent but strategy. He is a Vice Chair of the AIChE
action can be taken to prevent a rapidly evolving situation. National Fuels & Petrochemicals Division (FPD),
shutdown and potential safety or The diagnostic capabilities of has a BS in chemical engineering from Iowa
environmental incidents. It is also smart instruments can also improve State University, with emphasis in industrial
possible to determine which repairs both the availability and reliability engineering and process control, and an MBA
can be delayed until a scheduled of safety instrumented systems from the University of Iowa.
maintenance period or other appro- (SIS). These diagnostics give refin- Email: Tim.Olsen@Emerson.com
priate time. This is the essence of ery managers confidence that the Gary Hawkins has been a Global Refining
cost-effective predictive mainte- SIS function is performing properly. Business Consultant for Emerson Process
Management since 2007. Prior to joining
nance — an important factor for They also help avoid unnecessary
Emerson, he worked for UOP for nearly 31
increased equipment reliability and shutdowns by indicating when
years developing the UOP Standard
greater unit utilisation. maintenance is required (as Specifications for process control and
described above). managing the instrumentation and controls
Utilisation Partial stroke testing of safety group in UOP’s engineering department. Gary
Smart digital technology not only shutdown valves verifies the capa- holds a BS in chemical engineering from the
provides accurate measurements of bility of valves to move upon University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
emerson.indd 3 10/12/10 21:19:24

PARIS, FRANCE, 8-11 MARCH 2011
THE EUROPEAN
FUELS CONFERENCE
12TH ANNUAL MEETING
REACHING OPTIMAL PROCESSING MARGINS & EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS
www.wraconferences.com/europeanfuels
The most proficient business platform you will attend in 2011, attracting
the entire value chain from engines manufacturers to refineries.
The only event to provide a strong overall view of the fuels sector and expert insight into
how these trends are impacting the European fuels market
Discuss the developments of engines processing cleaner fuels with the automotive, aviation,
marine and bunker fuel sectors and how they strive to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions
Gain insight into how European refineries are maintaining profitability and improving
efficiency in the current economic environment
Discuss best practice case studies on refineries modernisation and alternative fuels
technology how to select
A number of prominent industry leaders have already joined our speaker panel:
Jean-Jacques Mosconi, Senior Vice President, Strategy & Development, TOTAL
Sandra Schwimbersky, Biofuels Policy Implementation Advisor, BP
John Gale, Managing Director, IEA GHG
Johannes Benigni, Managing Director, JBC ENERGY
Giorgio Cervi, Planning and Development Director, CESKA REFINERSKA
Paul Nash, Head of Alternative Fuels, AIRBUS
Robert Gmyrek, Director of Biofuels, PKN ORLEN
Philippe Schulz, Senior Manager Strategic Environmental Planning, RENAULT
Ian Adams, Chief Executive, INTERNATIONAL BUNKER INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION (IBIA)
ALTERNATIVE FUELS SYMPOSIUM EUROPEAN FUELS CONFERENCE CO2 & ENERGY EFFICIENCY FORUM
08 March 09 & 10 March 11 March
CO-HOST: SPONSORS:
REGISTER ONLINE at www.wraconferences.com/europeanfuels

or CALL +44 (0) 20 7067 1800
Register before 17 December 2010 and save up to £400. Quote PTQ
wra.indd 1 9/12/10 13:30:35

Technology in Action
current or historical data, to perform case studies for

Energy modelling at Gdansk refinery planning or to evaluate alternatives for better operation
of the energy system.
Energy management systems at Grupa Lotos’s Gdansk As a result of the project, the information of the refin-
refinery in Poland have been integrated into a single ery energy system has been organised into one model
model developed with Soteica. The model is available and a single environment to which everyone has
plant-wide and has widened the understanding of access. Furthermore, the project has enabled an under-
the impact of process variables on energy performance. standing of all the decision variables and the associated
Grupa Lotos is a vertically integrated oil company constraints, which sometimes are hidden or ignored.
engaged in crude oil production and refining, as well Additionally, centralisation of the responsibilities for
as the distribution of oil products. Gdansk refinery’s the energy system’s optimal operation has been
throughput capacity is 6 million t/y of crude oil. An achieved.
expansion is currently under way to achieve a through-
put capacity of 10.5 million tonnes of crude oil
annually. Its energy system is based on several steam
pressure levels, with a set of fired boilers producing
Multi-unit coordination supports
high-pressure steam, a set of steam turbo generators diesel programme
producing electricity and a set of process heaters that
can run with fuel gas and fuel oil. Implementation of a multi-unit coordination tool at the
Different economic trade-offs provide many chal- Chevron Pembroke refinery in south Wales has
lenges to operate the site-wide energy system at supported a successful programme for the improve-
minimum cost. For instance, the trade-offs among elec- ment of diesel production by enabling operators to be
trical power, steam and fuels networks. In addition, more responsive to changes in operating conditions.
ash, NOx and SO2 emissions limits must be taken into The Pembroke refinery blends middle distillates
account. directly from the process unit to hydrotreaters. The
day-to-day operation of the two downstream
hydrotreating units is challenging as the throughput
The project has enabled an has to be maximised subject to a variety of process
constraints and the availability of the various feed
understanding of all the decision components, which include kerosene, several straight-
variables and the associated run gas oil streams and FCCU product streams such as
HHCN and LCGO. The decision-making process for
constraints, which sometimes these blends involves several refinery areas and console
operators in different control rooms across the site.
are hidden or ignored Hence, as part of the improvement programme, a
new large-scale multi-unit coordination tool was imple-
mented. The GDOT software supplied by Apex
A detailed model of the steam, fuels, electricity, boiler Optimisation is used within Chevron Pembroke for
feed water and condensates systems has been built, medium-term optimisation problems. This system,
including all of the interactions among these systems, which is basically an on-line refinery linear program-
real plant constraints and the degrees of freedom of ming model, is running in closed loop and has been in
their operation. Such a model is scheduled to perform service at Pembroke with essentially 100% utilisation
automatic executions of the optimisation of the entire even during significant changes in crude slates.
system and is continually populated with validated There are essentially 18 variables available to control
live data from the process. A calculation of equipment the production rates and the qualities of the three
efficiencies is done as part of the performance monitor- middle distillate products of the refinery: kerosene,
ing activity of the model. Other monitoring aspects diesel and gas oil. One of the important challenges is to
include the continuous audit of the energy system so train the CDU, cracking and VDU operators so that
that the data can be relied upon for evaluating the they are more aware of the operating objectives and
value of energy production and usage, and waste can constraints of downstream units when making moves
be eliminated. on their units. In large and complex refineries, opera-
Recommendations given by the model are taken into tors traditionally control to the targets that have been
account by operations on a daily basis. The same specified for their particular unit and are not necessar-
model used for online, real-time optimisation is also ily aware of operational constraints on downstream
used in standalone mode, populated with either units and any opportunities to minimise giveaway on
case studies copy.indd 1 10/12/10 10:16:28

the product rundown lines. The training required The ULSD improvements project did not require any
for the console operators is mainly related to an major unit upgrades or revamps and took nine months
understanding of the concept of on-line coordination of from start to finish. Payback was achieved in a few
multiple process units, intermediate product flow rates weeks. Another conclusion from this project, according
and quality targets. The GDOT tool can significantly to Chevron, is that multi-unit coordination systems
improve this decision-making process, making sure that should be considered as one of the next logical steps
the upstream units are optimised in a coordinated for a refinery to improve operation further with an
manner, keeping all units within acceptable operating existing configuration.
ranges. This enables the operators to work better
together and achieve an improved overall performance.
Chevron has selected the GDOT tool for coordination Keeping emissions balance at deeper
of production areas such as the diesel system. It is
important to note that the system does not require any
partial burn
specialised staff and is maintained by the same process
control engineers who are responsible for the multi- By installing a lance-based technology that injects
variable predictive control (MPC) applications. heated oxygen into the flue gas duct between the
GDOT provides an on-line console interface for engi- regenerator and the CO boiler or heat recovery boiler, a
neers and operators. For this project, however, it was refinery was able to keep its NOx emissions levels at
decided to let the console operators use the interface of their current level when operating its FCC unit deeper
the 12 MPC controllers (based on DMC-plus) instead. in partial burn for enhanced production of motor fuels.
It was also configured to track the status and the limits The refinery had been struggling to control NOx from
of the MPC variables. By using the existing interface, the FCC regenerator and was taking a significant
operators did not need to be retrained, resulting in a penalty to keep emissions below permitted limits.
smoother transition and faster operator acceptance. However, an increase in flue gas CO of 0.75% would
However, the user interfaces of the individual MPC increase the yield of motor fuel products by about 0.5%.
controllers could obviously not give the complete The yield improvement is based on operating at a higher
picture of the current optimised solution for the entire catalyst-to-oil ratio at a constant reactor temperature
diesel production system. Hence, customised database allowed by the lower regenerator temperature. However,
the higher CO levels also bring higher levels of NOx
precursors and ultimately higher stack NOx emissions.
Process data and models Applying Praxair’s CONOx technology would enable
them to go deeper into partial burn to achieve the yield
available from the existing benefit without exceeding the NOx limits.
MPC systems were sufficient FCC regenerator flue gas is one of the larger CO and
NOx emission sources in the refinery and will continue
to develop most of the models to be regulated heavily in attempts to minimise the
refinery’s environmental impact. The reported low
required for GDOT capital cost of implementing CONOx means that the
technology can be used in conjunction with other emis-
sions control devices to achieve larger reductions in
displays have been made available to operations and emissions.
production planning staff. The technology is based on a specialised lance that
Process data and models available from the existing injects heated oxygen into the flue gas duct between
MPC systems were sufficient to develop most of the the regenerator and the CO boiler or heat recovery
models required for GDOT. This meant that the project boiler. It delivers a high-velocity jet of heated oxygen
was able to proceed with minimum impact on the that rapidly mixes with process gases. The lance also
refinery operation. The preparatory site work included creates high concentrations of free radicals, enabling
the installation and configuration of a server on the rapid reactions at lower bulk temperatures. Due to the
process control network. jet-mixing characteristics and the free radicals achieved,
The diesel production improvement project has been the technology is said to be more effective at initiating
a great success, with overall benefits valued at $10 low-temperature reactions than a standard oxygen jet.
million, including a large increase in diesel production. In partial-burn regenerators, the lance is operated
The main benefit of the GDOT system is that it enables such that the flue gas remains deficient in oxygen after
operation instructions and strategies to be consistently all oxygen from the lance is consumed, resulting in
implemented, minute by minute, driving the units significant reductions in NOx precursors; namely,
towards more profitable operation and improving the ammonia and hydrocyanic acid.
competitive position of the refinery. The system deals By reducing the availability of NOx precursors in the
with daily operational issues. The modelling approach, duct prior to conversion to NOx in the CO boiler, stack
using dynamic, non-linear models, is capable of adapt- NOx can be reduced considerably. Consequently, the
ing to all expected and unexpected operating scenarios technology can be used to debottleneck operations due
and has proven to be very robust. to CO boiler or NOx limits.
case studies copy.indd 2 10/12/10 10:16:40

Industry News
SGS, Praxair form NOx-cutting selected utilities and offsite Rosneft’s Far Eastern
partnership operations. refining giant
Shell Global Solutions and Praxair The Comperj complex will be able Rosneft, Russia’s largest oil producer,
are introducing technology to process 165 000 barrels of heavy plans to complete a refining complex
designed to reduce nitrogen oxide crude per day when its first refining at the end of a pipeline across east-
(NOx) emissions from fluid catalytic unit begins operations in 2013, and ern Siberia to the Pacific coast by
cracking (FCC) units in refineries. the same amount in a second unit 2016. Rosneft may look for a part-
According to the partners, the tech- expected five years later. This ner for the plant, at Nakhodka in
nology helps refiners address investment in Brazil’s refining the country’s Far East. The facility
increasingly stringent regulatory capacity will help support the coun- will be able to process 20 million
requirements while providing oper- try’s expanding oil production. The tonnes of crude a year, or 400 000
ational flexibility and lowering project is also expected to generate b/d, and may cost $14 billion.
capital and operating costs. more than 200 000 direct and indi-
The technology, called CONOx, is rect jobs during construction. Albemarle, Petrobras sign
a high-velocity, highly reactive The Comperj project is one of the catalyst plant deal
oxygen jet with mixing capabilities first in Brazil to use a main automa- Albemarle Corporation and
that enable rapid reactions of tion contractor, which aims to Petrobras have signed a memoran-
carbon monoxide and NOx precur- improve coordination of projects dum of understanding to build a
sors at typical flue gas temperatures. involving multiple suppliers and world-scale hydroprocessing cata-
A reduction in NOx emissions of up lyst production plant on the site of
to 60% can be achieved in both full- their existing joint venture, Fabrica
and partial-burn regenerators, say With a low cost of Carioca de Catalisadores, in Santa
the developers. With a low cost of Cruz, Brazil. The new facility will
implementation, the CONOx system implementation, The complement existing production of
can be combined with other control fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
technologies to achieve even larger
CONOx system can be catalysts.
reductions in NOx emissions.
The CONOx system creates a
combined with other The plant will be constructed
ahead of significant demand growth
high-temperature, reactive, oxygen- control technologies for hydroprocessing catalysts, as
rich stream that can be integrated Brazil begins to implement more
into existing flue gas duct work to achieve even larger stringent specifications for ultra-low
with minimal modifications. Shell sulphur diesel and as Petrobras
Global Solutions will be involved in reductions in NOx begins to introduce new hydrotreat-
marketing CONOx and will also ers to existing and new refineries
work with Praxair to update and emissions over the coming years.
improve the technology. Praxair Albemarle will provide Fabrica
will carry out process design engi- contractors. Emerson will provide a Carioca de Catalisadores with its
neering in concert, provide the broad scope of automation products technology for the manufacture of
CONOx lance and gas flow control and services. In addition to systems hydroprocessing catalysts, enabling
equipment, and participate in safety for process control, safety, fire and the production of Stars products,
reviews, start-up and optimisation. gas detection, machinery monitor- which serve the market for produc-
ing, and management of process tion of low-sulphur fuels in North
Emerson takes petrochems and maintenance information, the America, Western Europe and
control contract company will supply measurement Japan. The plant will supply equiv-
Petrobras has selected Emerson instruments, control valves, pres- alent markets in South America.
Process Management to provide sure regulators, and other related Petrobras and Albemarle are also
process automation technologies products and services. taking part in a joint technical coop-
and services for the Petrochemical Engineering work has already eration aimed at the further
Complex of Rio de Janeiro begun, with hardware delivery to development of hydroprocessing
(Comperj) in Brazil. As main auto- start in 2011. Automation tasks will catalysts. Petrobras says that by
mation contractor for Comperj, be led by a team in Rio de Janeiro 2016 its requirement for catalyst is
Emerson will deliver engineering and São Paulo. In late 2009, expected to be five times higher
services and technologies for Emerson announced a $35 million than its current consumption.
process automation and systems expansion of its Sorocaba manufac- This development is particularly
integration of the refining unit, turing and operations site. important to guarantee market-
ind news copy 6.indd 1 13/12/10 13:29:18

competitive sourcing over the long Investment in the refinery totalled metal troughs and will mimic an
term. CNY 2.55 billion. The refinery will ecosystem through varying flow
increase the annual crude oil currents and using sunlight to
CNOOC invests for LNG and processing capacity of CNPC Jilin promote algae growth, according to
petrochems production subsidiary from 7.5 million tonnes the DEP. Nearly 40 gallons of waste
China National Offshore Oil Corp. to 10 million tonnes. It is expected water will be poured a minute into
(CNOOC) has begun construction to contribute sales revenue of CNY the machine to grow the algae.
of a new petrochemical refinery in 7.7 billion per year. The algae, grown in 10- to 14-day
southern China’s island province of CNPC Jilin subsidiary will intervals, will then be removed and
Hainan. The industrial park in increase production of chemical shipped to a chemical plant at the
Dongfang City is scheduled to materials by 860 000 tonnes annu- University of Arkansas, where it
begin production of LPG and chem- ally and increase the proportion of will be converted into biofuels.
icals using petroleum from the high-standard gasoline production Jamaica Bay has been losing large
South China Sea by December 2012. to 70% of its total production from amounts of its wetlands over the
Spending in phase one of the the current 50%. last 70 years due to excess nitrogen
project will total $650 million. The releases and the city has pledged
company plans to spend a compa- HPCL opts for small footprint hundreds of millions of dollars over
rable amount for phase two of the India’s state-owned Hindustan the next decade to stop the decay.
project, which will produce vinyl Petroleum Corp. Ltd (HPCL) plans Future upgrades to the waste water
products by April 2013. to invest $6.7 billion to set up an 18 treatment plants located around the
China’s largest oil and gas million t/y refinery in the state of bay will ensure less discharge.
producer, CNOOC’s production Maharashtra. The new refinery was
reached 48 million tonnes of oil intended to make up for space Coking project in La Plata
equivalent, and its refinery and constraints at HPCL’s existing Foster Wheeler’s Global Engineering
chemical output was 32 million Mumbai refinery. The 6.5 million t/ and Construction Group has been
tonnes. y Mumbai refinery is situated in a awarded a contract by YPF for a
plot measuring just 350 acres new delayed coking unit to be built
Technip’s revamp award for compared with a standard require- at YPF’s Complejo Industrial La
North Africa ment of over 2000 acres of land for Plata in Argentina. Foster Wheeler’s
Technip has won a contract worth a refinery of this size. Currently, scope of work includes detailed
$908 million to revamp and expand 1800 acres of land is available with engineering, procurement services
an Algerian refinery. The refurbish- Maharashtra Industrial Development, and support to construction and
ment of existing installations owned and the company has asked for an plant start-up.
by Sonatrach, Algeria’s national oil additional 1000 acres between The unit will use Selective Yield
company, will raise refining capac- Ratnagiri and Raigad. Delayed Coking (Sydec) technology.
ity to 3.6 million tonnes annually Engineers India has been The new facility will have a capac-
from a current 2.7 million tonnes, appointed to carry out a feasibility ity of 28 000 b/d and will produce
according to Technip. report on the proposed refinery. The anode coke to be used in the alumi-
The new units will enable the options are for a single unit of 18 num industry. Foster Wheeler has
refinery to produce gasoline to million t/y or two units of 9 million been working with YPF since 2008
specifications similar to those t/y capacity each. to develop coking technology for
needed for Europe. the Complejo Industrial La Plata.
In addition to the Algeria tender, NYC grows algae to save Foster Wheeler’s Sydec process is
Technip says that it is also studying wetlands a thermal conversion process used
tenders in Brazil for new vessels, in New York’s Department of by refiners to upgrade heavy resi-
the Middle East for “selective” Environmental Protection (DEP) is due feed and process it into
onshore projects, especially Saudi building a pilot project at its transportation fuels and coke prod-
Arabia, and in China. Rockaway Waste water treatment ucts for fuel and metallurgical
The company also won an order plant that includes conversion of markets. The process can be
from Total to raise capacity at the algae into biofuels. Wastewater designed to maximise clean liquid
Normandy refinery in Gonfreville, from the plant currently produces yields while minimising fuel coke
France. The project, which will excess nitrogen, which is eventually yields, or to minimise heavy gas oil
enable the facility to make more discharged into Jamaica Bay near yields or produce specific grades of
diesel and kerosene, will cost $132 the city. coke for industrial use.
million. Although nitrates have been
damaging local saltwater marsh- Neste merges business areas
CNPC ramps up gasoline lands, the pilot scheme would use Neste Oil has reorganised its opera-
production the same waste water to grow algae tions now that its renewable fuels
China National Petroleum Corpora- that would be converted to business is entering an advanced
tion has started up its 10 million biofuels. phase following two major invest-
tonnes refinery in Jilin province. The plant will have two 100-metre ment projects. The Oil Products and

Renewable Fuels business areas about $400 million. The deal is Both refineries will employ UOP’s
have been merged to create Oil subject to regulatory approval and Unicracking hydrocracking process
Products and Renewables. Matti was expected to close in Q1 2011. and the Unionfining hydrotreating
Lehmus, currently Executive Vice PBF is owned by the private process to upgrade feedstocks to
President, Oil Products, has been equity firms The Blackstone Group ultra-low sulphur diesel. Selective
appointed Executive Vice President, and First Reserve Corporation. The Yield Delayed Coking technology
Oil Products and Renewables. The property is the third refinery PBF provided by Foster Wheeler USA
change took effect in late December acquired in 2010, for a total produc- will also be employed to maximise
2010. Neste Oil’s financial reporting tion capacity of about 530 000 b/d. diesel production by converting the
will remain unchanged, however. The Toledo plant can produce about residue portion of the crude oil to
Oil Products and Renewable Fuels 170 000 b/d. an intermediate product used in
will continue to form separate The new operating company, diesel production. UOP will also
reporting segments. called Toledo Refining, will pay serve as the front-end engineering
According to Neste, the reorgani- $200 million cash and a $200 million design (FEED) contractor to provide
sation will bring greater operational two-year note for the property. An a basis for procurement and
efficiency and clear benefits. By additional payment of up to $125 construction at the site. Design of
integrating the businesses, the million based on the future profit- the crude and vacuum systems in
company wants enhanced cost ability of the plant is also part of the refineries will be provided by
efficiency. the deal. Process Consulting Services through
Neste Oil recently commissioned Toledo Refining will purchase the a partnership with UOP.
the world’s largest renewable diesel crude oil and refined product
plant in Singapore and is moving inventory at the refinery at the time 3D training for refinery workers
towards completion of a similar- of the closing at market prices. Invensys Operations Management
sized plant in Rotterdam, due to Sunoco expects pre-tax cash and Eni Refining and Marketing
come on stream at the end of the proceeds from the sale of those have launched a 3D simulation
first half of 2011. The first plant products of about $200 million. The training service for refiners. The
based on the company’s NExBTL sale will leave Philadelphia-based service features training kiosks
biofuels process was built at Neste Sunoco with two refineries. fitted with Invensys’s SimSci-Esscor
Oil’s Porvoo refining site. Eyesim software and employing
Completion of these investments UOP processes for max diesel Eni’s refining expertise. Field opera-
means that renewable fuels-related in Brazil tors are trained on generic and
activities will shift into a normal Petrobras has selected UOP to specific process tasks in the kiosks
business model. provide all of the process technolo- so that safety and productivity can
gies for two new maximum diesel be improved. A pilot project will be
Socar’s refiners make two refineries to be built in Brazil. installed at Eni’s Gela refinery on
into one UOP’s hydrocracking and the Southern coast of Sicily. The
State Oil Company of Azerbaijan hydrotreating technologies will be kiosks will then be deployed at
(Socar) plans to build a refinery in used to produce diesel fuel from other Eni sites.
Baku by 2020, replacing the compa- Brazilian national crude oils at two The kiosks integrate SimSci-
ny’s two existing plants. The new refineries. Petrobras plans to Esscor simulation software with
company plans to build a plant construct a two-train 600 000 b/d games console controllers. Using 3D
with an annual capacity of 10 facility in Maranhao, Brazil, to be navigation techniques, trainees and
million tonnes. known as Premium I, and a single- plant personnel can learn process
The new refinery, to be built in train 300 000 b/d facility in Ceara, operations and procedures from an
the city’s Karadakh area, will Brazil, to be known as Premium II. interactive tutorial. They can also
produce only Euro-5 standard fuels, Basic engineering for the refiner- score their performance.
the strictest category of European ies is currently under way. The development aims to reduce
fuels. The Novo-Bakinskiy plant, Commissioning of the first train at risk in refineries. According to the
formerly known as Azneftyanajag, the Premium I site is planned in two companies, Eyesim is the first
will close once the new plant is 2014, and of the Premium II facility industrial virtual reality training
completed. Batinskiy, the second in 2017. system. Engineers and operators are
plant formerly known as According to OPEC, global able to see and safely interact with
Azeneftyag, will also shut down demand for diesel fuels is expected the plant and the processes they
around the same time. The Novo- to grow from 24.5 million bpd to control. It is based on first-principle
Bakinskiy plant has 212 000 b/d 34.2 million bpd by 2030, driven by simulation and augmented reality.
processing capacity, while Batinskiy an increasing share of diesel cars in Eyesim uses and applies gaming
can refine 230 000 b/d. developing regions around the and other skill sets. Employees who
world. Diesel production is are new to engineering and plant,
Sunoco 2 PBF 3 projected to account for 60% of the working alongside experienced
Sunoco aims to sell its oil refinery rise in oil demand expected over engineers, are expected to use the
in Toledo, Ohio, to PBF Holding for the next 20 years. system.

Alphabetical list of advertisers
ABB Global Consulting 91 Linde 80
Albemarle Catalysts Company 11 Lurgi 92
Axens OBC Marsulex Refinery Services 74
BASF Catalyst 27 Merichem Company 63 & 65
Bryan Research & Engineering 28 Michell Intruments 9
Burckhardt Compression 53 & 59 MPR Services 23 & 44
CB&I 21 NPRA Annual Meeting 105
Criterion Catalyst & Technologies 4 OHL Gutermuth Industrial Valves 48
Det Norske Veritas 110
Process Consulting Services 14
Emerson Process Management 18
Prosim 55
Enersul 100
Rentech Boiler Systems 32
Euro Petroleum Consultants 39
Sabin Metal Corporation 56
Flexim 41
Samson 47
Flexitallic 86
Saudi Downstream 2011 IBC
Foster Wheeler 68
Grabner Instruments 6 Shell Global Solutions 4
Haldor Topsøe IFC Spectro Analytical Instrument 8
Hoerbiger Kompressortechnik Holding 51 Sulzer Chemtech 71
Intertek PARC 99 Tricat Catalyst Service 72
ITW 13 & 42 Weka 108
Johnson Screens 36 World Refining Association 114
KBC Advanced Technologies 2 www.Coking.com 106
KBR 7 Yokogawa Europe 12
For more information on these advertisers, go to www.ptqenquiry.com
ad index copy 8.indd 1 13/12/10 13:32:08

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axens.indd 1 13/9/10 13:27:18

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ptq

petroleum technology quarterly

cover and spine copy 6.indd 1 9/12/10 13:10:44

Are you looking to step up plant performance?

The next generation BRIM™ catalysts display

We look forward to stepping up your performance!

haldor.indd 1 8/12/10 14:42:48

19 Clean diesel project

29 Simulation model increases visbreaker conversion

37 Drivers for zero discharge in refineries

43 Rental strategies counter seasonal performance problems

49 Independent verification of refineries

57 Bottom of the barrel upgrading

75 Steps towards optimal refinery blending

81 Processing high TAN crude: part II

87 Maximisation of VGO through deep-cut distillation

93 Renewable fuels and biofuels in a petroleum refinery

101 Protection analysis in refining

111 Improving crude unit operation

115 Technology in Action

117 Industry News

contents/ed com copy 9.indt 1 10/12/10 20:57:03

Your Company + KBC Produces NextGen Performancen

kbc.indd 1 9/3/10 14:03:08

contents/ed com copy 9.indt 2 9/12/10 20:55:34

criterion.indd 1 8/12/10 14:40:30

www.eptq.com PTQ Q1 2011 5

outlook copy.indd 1 9/12/10 14:10:22

outlook copy.indd 2 9/12/10 14:10:51

PTQ-Q1_2011_VCC_Due 12_3_2010.indd 1 12/8/2010 3:40:54 PM

The Europe/Middle East r

crude slates has been difficult. In other cases, there

venture between BPCL and Oman Oil Co) is

outlook copy.indd 4 9/12/10 14:12:02

10 PTQ Q1 2011 www.eptq.com

outlook copy.indd 5 9/12/10 14:12:33

Albemarle’s success has always depended on anticipating the challenges and

Lara’s mother works for Albemarle.

Lara_Aug.2010.indd 1 3/9/10 09:49:19

outlook copy.indd 6 9/12/10 21:09:17

HIRING EXPERIENCED PROFESSIONALS WORLDWIDE

outlook copy.indd 7 9/12/10 21:09:33

Functional safety management related system satisfactorily performing the required

1 Hazard and risk assessment

2 Allocation of safety functions to

Safety lifecycle structure and planning

3 Safety requirements specification for

4 Design and engineering of the

6 Operation and maintenance

Figure 1 The safety life cycle

www.eptq.com PTQ Q1 2011 15

proc trends copy 6.indd 1 9/12/10 21:12:18

Systematic safety integrity

16 PTQ Q1 2011 www.eptq.com

proc trends copy 6.indd 2 10/12/10 13:20:28

Functional safety assessment and validation

Validation against customer specification

Sales Project Basic Detailed Implementation/ Internal Acceptance Commissioning/ Close

Modification? “Back to the appropriate phase”

1BSUJDMFT 7$*

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