Compost can be defined as ‘‘the

Developing a Vegetable Fertility Program Using product of a managed process

Organic Amendments and Inorganic Fertilizers through which microorganisms break
down plant and animal materials into
more available forms suitable for ap-
Monica Ozores-Hampton1 plication to the soil’’ (Florida Depart-
ment of Environmental Protection,
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. cover crops, compost, raw animal manure, nitrogen
1989). The technological and scien-
mineralization, nutrient management, best management practices, BMP tific advances in compost production
(DeBertodi et al., 1987; Epstein,
SUMMARY. This review integrates information from common organic amendments 1997), utilization (Stoffella and
used in conventional vegetable production, including 1) cover crops (legumes and Kahn, 2001), microbiology (Insam,
nonlegumes), 2) compost generated from yard wastes, biosolids, municipal solid waste
et al., 2010), and engineering (Haug,
(MSW), animal manures, and other biodegradable waste by-products, and 3) raw
animal manure (with and without bedding). Environmental monitoring has shown 1993), which has occurred during the
elevated nitrate concentration to be widespread in both surface and groundwater, past two decades, and implications that
often occurring in regions with concentrated horticultural production. Therefore, the compost is environmental ‘‘friendly’’
objective of this review was to calculate the nutrient content from organic amend- and sustainable have been the reasons
ments, since these are not considered nutrient sources. Common organic amendments for the tremendous increase in world-
affect soil bulk density, water-holding capacity, soil structure, soil carbon content, wide compost usage. In areas of high
macro- and micronutrients, pH, soluble salts, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and population, there are a variety of non-
biological properties (microbial biomass). The first step in building a conventional hazardous wastes suitable for compost-
tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fertility program will be to take a soil sample and send ing and land application that can
it to a soil laboratory for a nutrient analysis. These results should be compared with the
local crop recommendations. Second, select the organic amendments based on local
provide an economically sound and
cover crop suitability and availability of compost, raw animal manure, or both. Then, environmentally acceptable option for
determine the nutrients available from cover crops and other applied organic utilization, but the majority of these
amendments and use inorganic fertilizer sources to satisfy the crop nutrient re- wastes are currently landfilled or burned
quirements not supplied from these other sources. (Ozores-Hampton et al., 1998). Or-
ganic amendments composed of wastes
produced by urban populations include

V
egetable production systems the sustainability of the system by
in the United States include recycling unused nutrients from pre- MSW; yard trimming; food wastes from
plasticulture and open bed. restaurants, grocery stores, and institu-
vious vegetable crops, improve soil
These production systems have been tions; wood wastes from construction,
structure, increase soil organic matter
effective for commercial production demolition, or both; wastewater (from
(SOM) and fertility, retain moisture,
with resulting economic return. Plas- water treatment plants); and biosolids
prevent leaching of nutrients, decrease
ticulture generally includes raised beds, (sewage sludge). Agriculture produces
soil density, suppress weeds, increase other organic wastes that can be com-
fumigation, polyethylene mulch, irri- population of beneficial insects, control
gation, and soluble fertilizer applica- posted: poultry, dairy, horse, feedlot,
erosion, manage plant-parasitic nema- and swine manures; wastes from food-
tion; open bed production includes todes, increase soil biological activity,
herbicides, irrigation, and soluble fer- processing plants; spoiled feeds; and
and increase yields (Abdul-Baki et al., harvest wastes (Ozores-Hampton
tilizer application. However, conven- 1997a, 1997b; McSorley, 1998; Sainju
tional vegetable growers rarely add et al., 1998, 2005; Ozores-Hampton,
and Singh, 1997; Stivers-Young, 1998; 2006). The use of organic amendments
organic amendments because the use Sullivan, 2003; Treadwell et al., 2008a).
of concentrated, relatively inexpensive may improve soil quality and enhance
Some benefits may occur during the the utilization of fertilizer, thus improv-
(compared with the value of the crop), cover crop life cycle, while other bene-
and readily available synthetic fertilizers ing the performance of vegetable crops
fits may take effect after the cover crop is (Ozores-Hampton et al., 1998, 2011;
results in high yields with maximum
incorporated (Treadwell et al., 2008b). Ozores-Hampton and Peach, 2002).
short-term profits (Kelly, 1990). The
Disadvantages of growing cover crops In addition, compost application may
most common organic amendments
that conventional vegetables growers within a vegetable production system control weeds (Ozores-Hampton et al.,
can use are cover crops, compost, and include additional production cost, 2001a, 2001b), suppress plant diseases
raw manures (Ozores-Hampton et al., delayed vegetable planting, increased (Hoitink and Fachy, 1986; Hoitink
2012). pest pressure, immobilization of fertil- et al., 2001), increase SOM, decrease
Incorporating cover crops into izer nitrogen (N), and difficult to con- erosion by water and wind (Tyler,
vegetable production may enhance trol ratoon vegetable crop (Treadwell 2001), and reduce nutrient leaching
et al., 2008c). (Jaber et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2007).
Southwest Florida Research and Education Center,
University of Florida, Immokalee, FL 34142
This paper was part of the workshop ‘‘Nutrient and Units
Water Management Practices for Improving Crop
To convert U.S. to SI, To convert SI to U.S.,
Growth, Yield, and Quality’’ held 26 Sept. 2011 at
the ASHS Conference, Waikoloa, HI, and sponsored multiply by U.S. unit SI unit multiply by
by the Plant Nutrient Management (PNM) Working 0.4536 lb kg 2.2046
Group. 1.1209 lb/acre kg
ha–1 0.8922
1
Corresponding author. E-mail: ozores@ufl.edu. (F – 32) O 1.8 F C (C · 1.8) + 32

• December 2012 22(6) 743

WORKSHOP

Increased SOM improves physical Table 1. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) concentrations, and
properties by decreasing bulk density N mineralization rates of cover crops, compost, and raw animal manures for
and increasing available water-holding conventional vegetable crop production.
capacity; chemical properties by in- Annual rate
creasing CEC, pH, and macro- and N Py Ky of N release
micronutrient supplies (Ozores- Organic materialz (%)
Hampton et al., 2011; Sikora and x
Legume cover crops
Szmidt, 2001); and biological proper-
Buckwheat 1.25 0.2–0.4 2.0–4.0 30–50
ties by increasing soil microbial activity
Cowpea 1.4–4.0 0.4 1.4 30–50
(Ozores-Hampton et al., 2011).
Crimson clover 2.7 0.4 3.4 30–50
Raw manures supply macro- and
Crimsom clover 3.5 0.4 3.4 30–50
micronutrients, and SOM. Increasing
Hairy vetch 4.3 0.6 4.1 30–50
SOM improves soil structure or tilth,
Rye 1.6 0.3 1.9 30–50
increases the water-holding capacity, im-
Sesbania 4.3 0.6 3.5 30–50
proves drainage, provides a source of
Soybean 2.3–7.5 0.7 2.4 30–50
slow-release nutrients, reduces wind and
Sunnhemp 1.7–2.3 0.5 3.2 30–50
water erosion, and promotes growth of
Sweetclover 2.0–3.0 0.5 3.2 30–50
earthworms and other beneficial soil
Nonlegume cover cropsx
organisms (Rosen and Bierman, 2005).
Millet 1.0 0.2–0.4 2.0–4.0 30–50
However, in areas of intense animal
Sorghum-sudangrass 1.5 0.2–0.4 2.0–4.0 30–50
production, overfertilization with animal
Compost
manure often occurs (Paik et al., 1996).
Biosolids 3–6 2–3 0.10–0.15 3.0–20
The result is often manifested by nutri-
Brewery waste solids 1.3–1.8 0.02 0.13–0.18 5.0–10
ents entering adjacent water bodies. To
Dairy manure 1.2–1.5 0.3 0.9 6.0–15
obtain maximum economic value of
Feedlot manure 1.9–2.2 0.3–1.2 0.6–3.2 3.0–15
plant nutrients in animal manure and
Fruit and vegetable wastes 1.39 0.26 1.19 10
to protect water supplies from excessive
Gin trash 1.2–3.8 0.2 1.2 10
nutrient runoff or leaching, animal ma-
Horse manure 0.5 0.2 0.4 10
nure should be applied to match the
Food waste 1.1–1.8 0.03–0.09 0.35–0.45 2.0–12
most environmentally limiting nutrient
Municipal solid waste 2.3 1.11 0.64 3.0–10
needs of a crop. In some states, applica-
Mushrooms 2.5 1.3 0.9 10
tion of higher manure rates than the
Olive mill waste 3.5 0.17 2.3 20
most limiting environmentally sensitive
Poultry manure 1.3–5 3.0 2.0 20
nutrient that are required by the vegeta-
Yard waste 1.0–1.2 0.2–0.3 0.2–1.4 2.0–10
ble crop [N or phosphorous (P)] is
Animal manure
illegal. The remaining nutrient amount,
Beef (no bedding) 0.6–0.7 0.35–0.45 0.5–0.65 35
if any, must be supplied through the use
Beef (with bedding) 25
of synthetic fertilizers.
Dairy (no bedding) 0.5 0.15–0.3 0.3–0.45 35
Dairy (with bedding) 0.45 0.2 0.6 25
Developing the nutrient budget Goat fresh 1.1 0.6 0.9 25
in conventional vegetable Horse (fresh) 0.6 0.3 0.6 20
production Mature compost 0.8–1.5 0.3–0.5 1.5 10
Poultry litter pellets 4.0 2.0 2.0 21
Those using cover crops, com-
Poultry broiler house litter 3.6 3.9 2.3 45
posts, and raw animal manures must
Poultry layer–deep pit 1.9 2.8 1.5 45
practice sound soil fertility management
Poultry layer-under cage 1.3 1.6 1 50
to prevent nutrient imbalances and
Poultry stock piled litter 1.8 4 1.7 45
associated health risks, as well as surface
Rabbit (fresh) 1.2 1.2 0.7 20
water and groundwater contamination.
Sheep (fresh) 1.1 0.5 1.0 25
Matching amendment-supplied nutri-
Sheep with bedding 0.9 0.4 1.0 20
ents to vegetable nutrient requirements
Swine (fresh) 0.6 0.5 0.3–0.5 50
should the goal of a conventional
Swine (with bedding) 0.6 0.3 0.5 25
vegetable fertility program (Ozores- z
Altieri and Esposito, 2010; Ahmad et al., 2008; Aram and Rangarajan, 2005; Bellows, 2003; Chellemi and
Hampton et al., 2011). Overfertiliza- Lazarovits, 2002; Creamer, et al., 1997; Diver, et al., 1999; Drinkwater, 2007; Gaskell, 2009; Gaskell and Smith
tion will be inefficient and expensive, 2006, 2007; Gaskell and Klauer, 2004; Greer and Adam, 2005; Hartz and Johnstone, 2006; Hartz et al., 2000;
which may contribute to nutrient runoff, Kuepper and Everett 2004; Marr et al., 1998; Prasad, 2009a, 2009b; Pressman, 2009; Sooby et al., 2007; Sullivan,
2003; Rosen and Bierman, 2005; VanTine and Verlinden, 2003; University of California, 2009; Zhang and Li,
groundwater pollution, soil toxicity, pest 2003.
and disease susceptibility, excessive pro- y
P · 2.2910 = P2O5, K · 1.2047 = K2O.
x
duction of foliage, and reduced vegetable Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum), hairy
vetch (Vicia villosa), rye (Secale cereale), sesbania (Sesbania exaltata), soybean (Glycine max), sun hemp
quality and yields. Similarly, underfertili- (Crotalaria juncea), sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis), millet (Pennisetum glaucum), sorghum-sudangrass
zation can reduce vegetable yield, qual- (Sorghum bicolor · S. sudanense).
ity, or both. Table 1 provides an analysis
of cover crop, compost, and raw animal
744 • December 2012 22(6)
manure suitable for vegetable produc- must remain between 131 and 170 F can be incorporated into most fertility
tion. Since actual nutrient content varies for 3 d in an in-vessel or static aerated programs. The nutrient content in ma-
considerably between organic amend- pile or 15 d in windrows, which must be nures varies with animal type, bedding,
ment sources, a representative product turned at least five times during this storage, and processing. Nutrient anal-
sample should be sent to a laboratory for period (USEPA, 1994, 1995, 1999). ysis of manure may be required by law
analysis of moisture and nutrient content More than 90% of the total N in com- in some cases, but analysis is always
such as total N, phosphate (P2O5), post will be in an organic form and only recommended and should include total
potash (K2O), calcium (Ca), magnesium 10% will be in the inorganic forms of N, NH4-N, P2O5, and K2O. Usually
(Mg), and micronutrients analysis. Addi- NO3-N or NH4-N (Hartz et al., 2000). 25% to 50% of the organic-N in fresh
tionally, for compost and animal manure Therefore, application time may not be manure will be available during the first
nitrate (NO3) and ammonium (NH4), as critical as compared with raw animal year (Table 1; Rosen and Bierman,
N is recommended. Accurate manure manures. The composting process con- 2005). If the manure contains bedding
or compost analysis requires that a rep- verted raw organic materials such as raw or is composted, the percentage of
resentative sample be submitted; so manure high in NH4 and NO3, which is organic N will be lower. Raw animal
several subsamples should be collected susceptible to runoff or leaching, to manure contains more NH4-N content
and combined for analysis. It is impor- a humus-stable form minimizing the than compost, which increases the risk
tant to know the mineralization (de- environmental impact on air and of volatilization to ammonia (NH3) gas.
composition or microbial breakdown) groundwater contamination. Compost Therefore, raw animal manure should
rate of the organic amendment before N mineralization rates or N availability be field incorporated within 12 h of
determining its application rate to veg- will vary depending on compost feed- application to decrease NH3-N losses
etables. The rate of N release or avail- stocks, soil characteristics, and environ- (Rosen and Bierman, 2005).
ability is especially important because mental conditions. It is generally Proposed P availability from vari-
this nutrient moves readily through considered that N immobilization oc- ous compost made from different feed-
sandy soils. Evaluations of N mineral- curs in composts when the initial carbon stock relative to superphosphate are
ization in situ can be used to improve to nitrogen (C:N) ratio is greater than available for spent mushroom compost
N use efficiency. However, the direct, 20:1 and mineralization occurs when (100%), animal manures (90%), sewage
quantitative measurement of N miner- C:N ratio is lower than 20:1. However, sludge (85%), source-separated food
alization in situ is difficult because of C:N ratio as a predictor of N minerali- waste (75%), and yard waste (60%)
the complex and dynamic nature of N zation is not exact, as it may depend on (Prasad, 2009b). However, generally
transformations in the soil environ- the type of C (Prasad, 2009a; Rosen and for compost or raw animal manures,
ment (Preusch et al., 2002). Bierman, 2005; Wallace, 2006). Miner- 70% to 80% of the P and 80% to 90% of
COVER CROPS. There are legume alization N rates guidelines developed by the K will be available from manure
and nonlegume cover crops that can be Wallace (2006) indicated that the avail- during the first year after application
used in a conventional vegetable pro- ability of N will be 0% to 20% or even (Rosen and Bierman, 2005). To cal-
duction system (Table 2). Biomass, N negative in the first year and 0% to 8% in culate the correct application rate of
content, or both can be increased by the following years. However, P and compost or raw animal manure, mul-
a cover crop mixture. Cover crops pro- potassium (K) will not react as N when tiply by availability factors (70% to 80%
vide organic N, which benefits succeed- compost will be added to soil. P and K in for P and 80% to 90% for K) to obtain
ing vegetable crops, for example, 1.0 compost will be readily available to plants the amount of P and K that will be
and 2.0 lb per 100 lb of dry weight as commercial fertilizer. This is because available to vegetables from the appli-
for grasses and legumes, respectively the OM content in the compost will cation of composted or raw animal
(Treadwell et al., 2008b). However, block sites where P will be adsorbed; in manure. Then, multiply the total P by
the availability of N from the cover addition the compost biological activity 2.2910 and K by 1.2047 to obtain
crops may not coincide with the N can cause the release of soil-bound P P2O5 and K2O (Table 1). The advan-
uptake requirements of the vegetable resulting in a net P up-take by the crop. tage using compost rather than raw
crop. Thus, vegetable yield and quality There were no differences between com- manure will be that, although P can be
may be adversely affected by short-term post and commercial P in studies using overapplied with compost, the im-
shortages or a short lag time between biosolids compost or manure compost provement in soil structure with the
the release of the N from the cover crop (Preusch et al., 2002; Sikora and Enkiri, compost OM application will increase
and subsequent vegetable crop uptake 2003). Hence, a compost end user water infiltration and reduce runoff,
can result in NO3-N pollution by should be cautious when using com- thereby decreasing the total P trans-
leaching (Weinert et al., 2002). post as an N fertilizer because only ported over the land surface to poten-
C OMPOST AND COMPOSTING . a portion of the N (5% to 30%) will tially pollute surface water (Spargo
There are no U.S. government restric- behave as a commercial fertilizer during et al., 2006).
tions on how and when compost can the first year, but all the P and K in the For successful integration of or-
be used in vegetable production, except compost will react as a commercial ganic amendments into conventional
compost derived from sewage sludge or fertilizer. Therefore, compost applica- vegetable fertility programs, we recom-
biosolids [Ozores-Hampton and Peach, tion on sensitive land to P addition mended the construction of an N–P–K
2002; U.S. Environmental Protection should be done based on crop P rather crop mass balance where the fertility
Agency (USEPA), 1994, 1995, 1999]. than N crop requirements (Preusch inputs and net release of N will be
To eliminate or reduce human and plant et al., 2002; Sikora and Enkiri, 2003). quantified, and vegetable crop N–P2O5–
pathogen, nematodes, and weeds, the RAW ANIMAL MANURES. Manures K2O requirement will be taken into
temperature during the compost process are an excellent source of nutrients and consideration (Table 3). Calculating
• December 2012 22(6) 745
WORKSHOP

Table 2. Cover crop biomass dry weight production, location, total nitrogen (N) contributions, and source.
Biomass dry
Cover crop Scientific name Locationz wt (kg
haL1)y N (kg
haL1) Source
Aeschynomene Aeschynomene virginica FL 2,240–4,480 56–112 Crow and Dunn, 2010
Alfalfa Medicago sativa ME 3,682–5,659 105–174 Griffin et al., 2000
Alyce clover Alysicarpus vaginalis FL 1,680–3,920 22–73 Crow and Dunn, 2010
Black oat Avena strigosa GA 2,150–5,193 71–78 Schomberg and Endale, 2006
Berseem clover Trifolium alexandrinum NC 800–7,700 26–169 Parr et al., 2011
VA 1,100 70 Prunty, 2009
Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum NC 3,545 48 Creamer and Baldwin, 1999
Common vetch Vicia sativa NC 2,300–5,400 60–188 Parr et al., 2011
AL 4,900 118 Touchton et al., 1984
GA 4,300 134 Hargrove. 1986
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata SC 6,930 205 Harrison et al., 2004
CA 4,256–5,376 63–81 University of California, 2009
FL 2,250–5,050 56–100 Newman et al., 2010
Crimson clover Trifolium incarnatum NC 2,000–7,800 32–179 Parr et al., 2011
VA 1,400 100 Prunty, 2009
GA 6,130–6,310 147–225 Sainju et al., 2000
GA 2,029–5,052 50.4–146 Schomberg and Endale, 2006
FL 1,685–5,050 40–135 Newman et al., 2010
Hairy vetch Vicia villosa MD 3,300–4,500 126–169 Abdul-Baki et al., 1997a
FL 1,685–6,180 40–168 Newman et al., 2010
GA 4,250 153 Hargrove, 1986
VA 1,750 110 Prunty, 2009
GA 4,730–4,870 167–208 Sainju et al., 2000
Lupin Lupinus angustifolius NC 300–2,300 10–60 Parr et al., 2011
FL 2,250–5,050 50–134 Newman et al., 2010
Pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum NC 6,664 65 Creamer and Baldwin, 1999
FL 6,720–8,960 62–78 Crow and Dunn, 2010
Oat Avena sativa ON 970–1,170 15–22 Vyn et al., 2000
Oil seed radish Raphanus sativa ON 890–1,270 18–21 Vyn et al., 2000
GA 3,267–6,240 75–95 Schomberg and Endale, 2006
MI 6,262 311 Wang et al., 2008
Red clover Trifolium pratense ON 1,240–4,020 43–134 Vyn et al., 2000
Rye Secale cereale ON 610–2,120 12–40 Vyn et al., 2000
CO 690–7,399 27–296 Dabney et al., 2001
GA 5,642–9,397 80–103 Schomberg and Endale, 2006
GA 6,030–6,710 76–137 Sainju et al., 2000
ME 4,071–6,619 52–66 Griffin et al., 2000
Sesame Sesamum indicum NC 3,762 46 Creamer and Baldwin, 1999
Sesbania Sesbania exaltata NC 4,794 97 Creamer and Baldwin, 1999
FL 2,240–8,960 39–90 Crow and Dunn, 2010
Soybeans Glycine max SC 7,740 218 Harrison et al., 2004
NC 3,935 80 Creamer and Baldwin, 1999
Subterranean clover Trifolium subterraneum NC 900–7,600 16–102 Parr et al., 2011
Sorghum-sudangrass Sorghum bicolor · S. sudanense MI 8,032 264 Wang et al., 2008
FL 7,300–10,670 62–90 Newman et al., 2010
NC 8,783 87 Creamer and Baldwin, 1999
Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea FL 5,050–11,235 100–200 Newman et al., 2010
Sweetclover Melilotus officinalis NC 3,920 134 Sullivan, 2003
VA 1,750 120 Prunty, 2009
Velvet bean Mucuna pruriens SC 5,890 218 Harrison et al., 2004
NC 1,419 33 Creamer and Baldwin, 1999
FL 2,470–4,500 56–95 Newman et al., 2010
Wheat Triticum aestivum CO 454–2,203 18–74 Dabney et al., 2001
White clover Trifolium repens NC 1,685–2,250 225 University of California, 2009
z
U.S. Postal Service abbreviations for U.S. states and Canadian provinces.
y
1 kg
ha–1 = 0.8922 lb/acre.

746 • December 2012 22(6)

Table 3. Florida nutrient mass budget for conventional tomato production. Tomato nutrient requirements based on
224 kg
haL1 (i.e., 200 lb/acre) of nitrogen (N), 112 kg
haL1 (i.e., 100 lb/acre) phosphoric acid (P2O5), and 112 kg
haL1
potassium oxide (K2O) with medium soil test levels of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), respectively (Olson et al., 2010).
Application rate N rate N mineralization Total NO3 Total P2O5 Total K2O
Material inputsz (kg
haL1 dry wt)z (kg
haL1) rate (%) (kg
haL1)y (kg
haL1)x (kg
haL1)x
Soil and organic amendments application
Sorghum-sudangrass with 8,783 131.7 23 30.3 28.2 168.7
1.5% N, 0.2% P, and 2% K
with 70% P and 80% K availability
Yard waste compost at 10 Mg
ha–1 6000 60.0 10 6.0 19.2 38.4
(40% moisture and 1% N, 0.2% P,
and 0.8% K with 70% P
and 80% K availability
Subtotal 14783 191.7 — 36.3 47.4 207.1
Inorganic fertilizer applicationw
Ammonium nitrate 552.1 187.7 — —
Triple phosphate 140.4 — 64.6 —
Total — — 224 112 112
z
1 Mg
ha–1 = 0.4461 ton/acre, 1 kg
ha–1 = 0.8922 lb/acre.
y
NO3 = nitrate.
x
P2O5 · 0.4365 = P, K2O · 0.8301 = K.
w
Ammonium nitrate (34% N), triple phosphate (46% P2O5).

Fig. 1. Diagram of process for calculating the contribution of nutrients from selected organic sources to satisfy the crop nutrient
requirements for commercial vegetable production using the tables in this document.

N availability from organic amend- fertility program for Florida is provided nutrient requirements of tomato crop
ments can be complex as N must be as a guide (Table 3). A flowchart (Fig. 1) by taking a soil sample for analysis of N–
transformed by soil microorganisms be- shows the calculations diagrammatically. P–K and micronutrients. These results
fore it can be used by the vegetable crop The first step in building the tomato can be compared with the local crop
as NO3-N. An example of a tomato fertility program is to determine the recommendations for N–P2O5–K2O.
• December 2012 22(6) 747
WORKSHOP

This information can be found in a local Ahmad, R., M. Naveed, M. Aslam, Z.A. management. 1 Mar. 2012. <http://ofrf.
state or regional ‘‘vegetable production Zahir, M. Arshad, and G. Jilani. 2008. org/funded/summaries/drinkwater-03s1-
handbook,’’ or contact a local extension Economizing the use of nitrogen fertilizer nutrient%20budgets.pdf>.
faculty. Then, the identification of cover in wheat production through enriched
compost. Renewable Agr. Food Systems Epstein, E. 1997. The science of com-
crops suitable for the location and locally posting. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
23:243–249.
available compost and raw animal ma-
nures can be obtained from the local Altieri, R. and A. Esposito. 2010. Evalu- Gaskell, M. 2009. In-season fertilization
ation of the fertilizing effect of olive mill in organic systems. 28 July 2011. <http://
state or regional ‘‘vegetable production
waste compost in short-term crops. Intl. cesantabarbara.ucdavis.edu/files/75469.
handbook,’’ or contact a local exten- pdf>.
sion faculty. Once cover crop, com- Biodeterior. Biodegradation 64:124–
128. Gaskell, M. and H. Klauer. 2004. The
post, and raw animal manure are
located and identified, determine the Aram, K. and A. Rangarajan. 2005. Com- effect of green manure, compost and
nutrient content and N, P, and K post for nitrogen fertility management of feather meal on soil nitrogen dynamics
availability from laboratory analysis or bell pepper in a drip-irrigated plasticulture and bell pepper yield. 1 Mar. 2012.
system. HortScience 40:577–581. <http://ofrf.org/funded/reports/gaskell_
other sources as shown in Table 2. The
99-64.pdf>.
microbial activity involved in the N Bellows, B. 2003. Protecting water qual-
cycles, which is accelerated by high ity on organic farms, p. 1–36. In: J. Ridle Gaskell, M. and R. Smith. 2006. Soil
temperatures and slowed down with and J. Ford (eds.). Organic crops work- fertility management for organic crops.
low temperatures needs to be consid- book: A guide to sustainable and allowed 28 July 2011. <http://ucanr.org/freepubs/
ered and N release rate adjusted as practices. Natl. Ctr. Appropriate Tech- docs/7249.pdf>.
needed. The next step will be the nol., Fayetteville, AR. Gaskell, M. and R. Smith. 2007. Nitrogen
calculation of the cover crop biomass Chellemi, D.O. and G. Lazarovits. 2002. sources for organic vegetable crops. 11
production (dry weight), and compost Effect of organic fertilizer applications on Jan. 2011. <http://vric.ucdavis.edu/
and raw animal manure application growth, yield and pests of vegetables slectnewtopic.organic.htm>.
rates to supply recommended amounts crops. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc.
Greer, L. and K.L. Adam. 2005. Plug and
of N, P2O5, and K2O to the tomato 115:315–321.
transplant production for organic sys-
crop so that yield estimates are realized Creamer, N.G. and K.R. Baldwin. 1999. tems. Appropriate technology transfer
(Tables 1 and 2). Finally, determine Summer cover crops. North Carolina for rural areas. 12 Feb. 2011. <http://
whether application of inorganic com- Coop. Ext. Serv. HIL-37. 3 Mar. 2012. attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/plugs.
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