Table

of Contents
Introduction 1.1
Plan 1.2
Lecture 1 1.3
Lecture 2 1.4
Lecture 3 1.5
Lecture 4 1.6
Lecture 5 1.7
Practice 1.8

1
Introduction

Python lecture series

Note : This tutorial book can be downloaded from:

https://www.gitbook.com/book/nitish6174/python-lecture-series/details

Which version of Python :

We will be using python 3 in this series.

It is preferred to use Python 3.6 which is the latest version although any version higher than
3.4 is fine.

Running Python :
Ubuntu and Mac already have python3 in terminal.
Write your code in a file and run the file in terminal with python3 command
Windows user can install Python 3 in Command Prompt and run files with python3
command (similar to Ubuntu)

Alternately, install IDLE (Python GUI) application.

Running online : https://try.jupyter.org/

Choose New -> Python3

Type code in textbox area and then use run cell button.

Text editors :
Sublime Text
Atom
PyCharm
Spyder

See Sublime Text tweaks for a list of useful plugins in Sublime Text

Online resources :
TheNewBoston video tutorials
Udacity video tutorials

2
Introduction

Python documentation
Tutorials point reference

Speaker :
Nitish Garg

3
Plan

Python lecture series - plan

Lecture 1
Topics :

Input and output

Variables and basic data types
Typecasting (between int, float, str)
Arithmetic and logical operators
Decision making (if-elif-else)
Looping (for, while)

Application programs :

Simple Calculator
Greatest of 3 numbers
Table of a number
Factorial
Pattern printing
ex approximation

Lecture 2
Topics :

Loops (pending portion from Lecture 1)

Comments
Arrays (lists)
Lists - insert, delete, merge, extend
Strings
Operations - split, join, stats, find, sort

Application programs :

Printing multiples of a number

Decimal to binary
Finding square of numbers in a list
Mean and median in list
Find primes using sieve method

4
Plan

Lecture 3
Topics :

Functions
Modules and import
Mapping
Recursion
Array/string splicing
List comprehensions

Application programs :

nCr and nPr

Date format conversion
Tower of Hanoi
Binary search
Palindrome
Finding pending assignments

Lecture 4
Topics :

Tuples
zip function
Sets
Dictionary
Array of dictionary
Comprehensions with dictionary
Determining datatype of variable

Application programs :

Adding 2 matrices
Frequency analysis in array
Update course registration

Lecture 5

5
Plan

Topics :

File input/output
JSON data file
pip
CSV files

Application programs :

Sort lines in file

Article title
Contest Leaderboard

Lecture 6
Topics :

sys library
os library
Error handling

Lecture 7
Topics :

urllib library
using curl

Lecture 8
Topics :

regex

Lecture 9
Topics :

Functional programming
map, filter, reduce
Iterators

Other topics

6
Plan

Object-oriented programming
Web development using Django, Flask
Data analysis with pandas, numpy, scipy, matplotlib
Machine learning using scikit
Image processing using OpenCV
Machine learning using scikit
GUI development using GTK

7
Lecture 1

Python lecture series - Lecture 1

Topics :

Input and output

Variables and basic data types
Typecasting (between int, float, str)
Arithmetic and logical operators
Decision making (if-elif-else)
Looping (for, while)

Application programs :

Simple Calculator
Greatest of 3 numbers
Table of a number
Factorial
Pattern printing
ex approximation

Running our first program

Open a new file, say main.py
Type the following in file :

print("My first program")

Save file and in terminal/command prompt, cd to the directory where the file is saved
Run python3 main.py

Input and Output

input() - take input from console
print() - output to console

Example :

We will take in a name from user and greet him

8
Lecture 1

print("Enter your name")

name = input()
print("Hello, "+name)

Variables and basic data types

Basic types of data that we use :

Text data :
Characters
Strings
Numerical data :
Integers
Decimals (floating-point numbers)

Rules on variable naming :

Start with letter or underscore

Rest name can have letters, numbers, underscore
Do not use reserved words (for,sum,in etc)

Assigning or changing value of a variable :

On LHS of = symbol, keep the variable in which we want to store the value or result of
calculation which will be on RHS

myVariable = value or expression

Following code adds the value of variable n with 5 and stores the result back in n itself.

n = n+5

Below is the short notation form for n = n + 2

n += 2

Typecasting (converting a variable to another type) :

input() always gives us string type of data. But if the input was intended to be numerical

data, we must convert the string type variable to numerical form.

If a variable is of string type but has number-type value, we can get the integer form by
passing the variable to int() function

9
Lecture 1

a = '5'
b = int(a)

Thus, to take integer type input, we can directly pass input() to int() function :

n = int( input() )

Similarly, to get decimal value from string, use float() function

a = '5.82'
b = float(a)

To convert numerical variable to string, use str() function

a = 3
b = str(a)

Arithmetic operators
+ : Addition

- : Subtraction

* : Multiplication

/ : Division

% : Modulus (remainder)

** : Exponent (power)

Logical operators
To check equality between LHS and RHS. Answer is True or False

== : is equal to

< : is less than

> : is greater than

<= : is less than or equal to

<= : is greater than or equal to

Joining strings and more on printing

10
Lecture 1

Strings can simply be joined with +

a = "one"
b = "two"
c = "three"
d = a+b+c
e = a+" "+b
print(d)
print(e)
print(e+","+c)

Output of above code:

onetwothree
one two
one two,three

Both the variables on either side of + should be of same type i.e. numerical value cannot
be added with string value.

So, the following code will give error as count is integer type variable and we are adding it
with string :

count = 5
print("There are "+count+" students")

To fix this, you must typecast count variable to string form with str() :

count = 5
print("There are "+str(count)+" students")

An easier way to print numerical and string values together in a print() while avoiding
typecasting is to use commas ( , ) :

count = 5
print("There are",count,"students")

Note : , puts extra space in print while + does not.

How to avoid print() coming on next line automatically

Add end="" inside the print() function.

11
Lecture 1

print("line1",end="")
print("line2",end="@")
print("line3",end="\n")
print("line4",end=" ")
print("line5",end=":")

Output :

line1line2@line3
line4 line5:

Decision making
Syntax of if-elif-else :

if var==0:
print("answer is 0")
elif var>0:
print("answer is positive")
else:
print("answer is negative")

It starts with one if statement, followed by any number of elif statements (there might
even be no elif at all) and else is used if we want to do something if none of the above
conditions match. Hence, else can be omitted when not needed.

Application : Simple calculator

This program will take 2 numbers and a symbol as input, decide which arithmetic operation
is to be performed based on symbol and display the answer

12
Lecture 1

print("Enter first number")

a = int(input())
print("Enter second number")
b = int(input())
print("Enter symbol")
c = input()

if symbol=='+':
print("Sum is",a+b)
elif symbol=='-':
print("Difference is",a-b)
elif symbol=='*':
print("Product is",a*b)
elif symbol=='/':
print("Division is",a/b)
elif symbol=='%':
print("Remainder is",a%b)
else:
print("Not a valid symbol")

Application : Greatest of 3 numbers

This program will take 3 numbers and find the largest of them.

The logic is that we first compare first 2 numbers. If first is greater, we compare first with
third and greater of them will be the answer. Similarly, if second number was greater or
equal to first number, we find the answer by comparing second and third number.

print("Enter first number")

a = int(input())
print("Enter second number")
b = int(input())
print("Enter third number")
c = int(input())

if a>b:
if a>c:
print(a,"is the largest")
else:
print(c,"is the largest")
else:
if b>c:
print(b,"is the largest")
else:
print(c,"is the largest")

13
Lecture 1

Looping

for loop
Syntax :

for counter_variable in range( start_from , stop_before , increment_by ) :

statement1
statement2

Example :

for i in range(4,13,1):
print(i)

We use variable i as the loop counter i.e. i will start from value 4 , then becomes
5 , then 6 , ... and finally 12 . It will never reach or exceed 13.

If we want our counter to increase by 2 every time instead of 1-1, we write:

for i in range(4,13,2):

This way, i will take values 4, 6, 8, 10, 12.

Since most of the time we want to increase our loop counter by 1-1, we can just give the
start_from and stop_before values and python will automatically set increment_by to

1 :

for j in range(2,6):

In this code, j will take values 2, 3, 4, 5

Also, many times, we want to start from value 0 and increment by 1-1. In that case, we
can just give on value i.e. stop_before and python will take care of other 2 values :

for k in range(5):

In this code, k will take values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

If we want to do reverse counting, say 10 to 1, we will start from 10, stop before 0 and
increment loop counter by -1 :

14
Lecture 1

for i in range(10,0,-1):

This will make i take values 10, 9, 8, . . . , 2, 1

while loop
Syntax :

while condition:
statement1
statement2

Example :

count = 1
while count < 5 :
print(count)
count += 1

We set the initial value of count to be 1. Then, as long as count is less than 5, the
loop body will run. In the loop body, we are displaying the value of count and then
increasing count by 1.

Hence, count will take on values 1, 2, 3, 4. As soon as it becomes 5, the loop will end.

Application : Table of a number

This program will take a number, say n and display its table.

We need to loop from 1 to 10 and multiply n with the loop counter.

print("Enter a number to find its table")

n = int(input())

for i in range(1,11):
print(n*i)

Awesome! Just 4 lines of code.

Further, replace print(n*i) with print(n,"x",i,"=",n*i) to get the exact format which we
have in tables.

15
Lecture 1

Application : Factorial
Factorial of a number n = 1 x 2 x 3 .... x n

This program will take a number, say n as input and display its factorial.

We begin with 1 as our product. Then, we need to loop from 1 to n and update the current
product by multiplying it with loop counter.

print("Enter a number to find its factorial")

n = int(input())

answer = 1
for i in range(1,n+1):
answer = answer * i

print("Factorial of",n,"is",answer)

Application : Pattern printing

Let us write a program to make a rectangle of 5 lines each containing 10 o .

For this, we need to keep a loop for 5 rows and inside this loop, another loop to print o 10
times.

Note that, after printing every o , we don't want to come on next line. So, we add end="" in
print() to handle that. Once we have printed 10 o in a line i.e. inner loop is complete, we

write print("") to come on the next line.

for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,11):
print("o",end="")
print("")

Output :

oooooooooo
oooooooooo
oooooooooo
oooooooooo
oooooooooo

Let's modify the above program to print triangle instead of rectangle.

st nd th

16
Lecture 1

st nd th
So now, we want 1 symbol in 1 row, 2 in 2 row, ..... , i in i row. Thus, we want the inner
loop to run i times (row number is i)

for i in range(1,6):
for j in range(1,i+1):
print("*",end="")
print("")

Output :

*
**
***
****
*****

Application : ex approximation
We will use the formula :

ex = 1 + x1/1! + x2/2! + x3/3! + x4/4! + . . . . . . . . .

But this is an infinite series. We can't keep on adding infinite number of terms in our
program.

So let's add just the first few terms, say first 10.

We notice that numerator of ith term is xi-1 and denominator is (i-1)!

Thus, numerator of first term is 1 and gets multiplied by x in every next term. Similarly,
denominator of first term is 1 and gets multiplied by 1, then 2, then 3 and so on in each next
term.

So, in the below program, we start with variables answer as 0, numerator and
denominator as 1. Then we loop from 1 to 10 using loop variable i . In the loop, we add

the value of numerator / denominator to answer and then multiply numerator by x and
denominator by the loop variable i.e. i

17
Lecture 1

print("Enter x :")
x = int(input())

answer = 0
numerator = 1
denominator = 1

for i in range(1,11):
term = numerator / denominator
answer += term
numerator *= x
denominator *= i

print("e^x =",answer)

Sample run of this program :

Enter x :
1
e^x = 2.7182815255731922

Quite close to exact value of e. Looks good !

But this program works well only for small value of x (gave good enough answer upto x =
6). As we enter higher value of x in our program, the answer will become less accurate.
This was bound to happen as we are considering only 10 terms of an infinite series. For
small value of x, xi is not that big as compared to i ! and so the terms after 10th term could
be neglected without losing much accuracy. For higher value of x, we need to take the sum
of more terms to get close to correct sum.

If we simply run the loop more times, say 1000000 times, the program will consider many
more terms thus calculating accurate answer for quite large values of x. But we know that
the terms in this infinite series keep on getting smaller eventually and so the sum of all the
terms which are very small won't affect the answer much. Thus, simply running the loop a
huge number of times will unnecessarily add terms having negligible value.

To fix this, we will only consider the terms which are more than 0.1 . Once the terms are
smaller than 0.1 , we will stop.

In the below program, we have increased the loop range and used break to stop the loop if
term is less than 0.1 :

18
Lecture 1

print("Enter x :")
x = int(input())

answer = 0
numerator = 1
denominator = 1

for i in range(1,1000000):
term = numerator / denominator
answer += term
numerator *= x
denominator *= i
if term < 0.1 :
break

print("e^x =",answer)

We can change 0.1 to smaller value like 0.001 to improve the accuracy as then, the
program would consider more terms.

Here is the same program written with while loop :

print("Enter x :")
x = int(input())

answer = 0
numerator = 1
denominator = 1
i = 1
term = numerator / denominator

while term > 0.001 :

term = numerator / denominator
answer += term
numerator *= x
denominator *= i
i += 1

print("e^x =",answer)

19
Lecture 2

Python lecture series - Lecture 2

Topics :

Loops (pending portion from Lecture 1)

Comments
Arrays (lists)
Lists - insert, delete, merge, extend
Strings
Operations - split, join, stats, find, sort

Application programs :

Printing multiples of a number

Decimal to binary
Finding square of numbers in a list
Mean and median in list
Find primes using sieve method

Application : Printing multiples of a number

Let's say we want to print all multiples of a number n which are between 1 and 100.

Multiple approaches are possible :

n = 7
for i in range(1,101):
if i%n==0:
print i

n = 7
for i in range(n,101,n):
print i

n = 7
multiple = n
while multiple<=100:
print multiple
multiple += n

20
Lecture 2

Application : Decimal to binary

To convert a number to binary, we repetitively take its remainder by 2 and reduce the
number to half.

print("Enter the number to convert")

n = int(input())

while n>0:
digit = n%2
print(digit)
n = int(n/2)

But this program is printing digits in reverse order. Lets fix that by storing answer in a string.

print("Enter the number to convert")

n = int(input())

answer = ""

while n>0:
digit = n%2
answer = str(digit) + answer
n = int(n/2)

print(answer)

Comments
Anything written in a line after # is a comment in Python and is ignored while running
program.

To use multi-line comments or in a block, use triple quotes.

# This is a comment
n = int(input()) # Take input from user
"""
This is a multi-line comment.
We display the square of entered number below.
"""
print(n*n)

21
Lecture 2

Arrays (lists)
Making a list

# List of integers
runs = [ 78 , 93 , 69 , 84 , 48 ]

# List of strings
names = [ "Sachin" , "Kohli" , "Dhoni" , "Yuvraj" , "Dhawan" ]

# Lists can be printed directly

print(runs)

Getting value of ith item of list

For computers, counting starts from 0.

So, first item in a list is represented with index 0. Similarly, index of 2nd element is 1 and so
on.

To get the value of item having index i , we put [i] after the list name.

runs = [ 78 , 93 , 69 , 84 , 48 ]
answer = runs[2] # answer will become 69
print(runs[4]) # 48 will be printed

Also, to get the ith item from the last, we use index -i

runs = [ 78 , 93 , 69 , 84 , 48 ]
# runs[-1] refers to last element of list
print(runs[-1]) # 48
print(runs[-4]) # 93

Inserting items in list

Use the append() function on list to add item in the end.

runs = [ 78 , 93 , 69 , 84 , 48 ]
runs.append(21) # give the item to be inserted in append()
print(runs)

# Output will be : [78, 93, 69, 84, 48, 21]

To insert in middle of the list say at index pos , use insert() function.

22
Lecture 2

runs = [ 78 , 93 , 69 , 84 , 48 ]
runs.insert(2,21) # give the position and item to be inserted
print(runs)

# Output will be : [78, 93, 21, 69, 84, 48]

Deleting items from list

Use the del() function to delete the element at given index.

runs = [ 78 , 93 , 69 , 84 , 48 ]
del(runs[1]) # Delete item at index 1 in runs
print(runs)

# Output will be : [78, 69, 84, 48]

To remove a particular value from the list, use the remove() function on list.

runs = [ 78 , 93 , 69 , 84 , 48 ]
runs.remove(84) # Remove the first 84 in the list
print(runs)

# Output will be : [78, 93, 69, 48]

Merging lists

Merging or concatenating lists in Python is as easy as adding numbers

# Make 3 lists
a = [ 4 , 8 , 2 , 1 ]
b = [ 7 , 2 ]
c = [ 9 , 4 , 3 ]
# Add the 3 lists
d = a + b + c

print(d)
# Output will be : [4, 8, 2, 1, 7, 2, 9, 4, 3]

Extending lists

To add all the numbers of a list b to list a , we can either simply add the lists back to a
(same as merging) or, we can use the extend() function

23
Lecture 2

# Method 1
a = [ 4 , 8 , 2 , 1 ]
b = [ 7 , 2 ]
# Add elements of b to a
a.extend(b)

print(a)
# Output will be : [4, 8, 2, 1, 7, 2]

# Method 2 : Merging
a = [ 4 , 8 , 2 , 1 ]
b = [ 7 , 2 ]
# Add elements of b to a
a = a + b

print(a)
# Same output as method 1

Application : Finding square of numbers in a list

Write a program to convert each number in a list to its square.

First, the program should ask the number of elements we want to insert in the list. Then we
run a loop to enter that many numbers and append them to the list. Finally, we loop through
the indices of array and print square of the number at that index.

print("Enter the number of elements :")

n = int(input())

a = [] # Start with an empty list

# Loop n times to enter numbers

for i in range(n):
print("Enter number",i)
num = int(input())
a.append(num) # Insert the number in list

# Go through each index and convert element to its square

for i in range(n):
num = a[i] # Get the element at index i
sq = num*num
a[i] = sq # Store the square back at that index

print(a)

nd

24
Lecture 2

nd
The 2 loop in the above program can simply be written as :

for i in range(n):
a[i] = a[i] * a[i]

Strings
Strings can be seen as a list of characters and so, there are many operation that can be
performed on lists as well as strings.

Just like arrays, the ith character in a string s can be accessed using s[i-1] as ith
character has index i-1 .
Strings can be concatenated/added as seen earlier using +
But unlike arrays where we can assign value at an index using statements like a[i] =
5 , characters in a string cannot be changed. Thus, statements like s[2] = 'a' are not

allowed.
We can split a string into list on the basis of some string.

s = "this is a sentence"
a = s.split(" ") # Break s at every space found
print(a)
# output : ['this', 'is', 'a', 'sentence']

s = "49-+-3438-+-22-+-91"
a = s.split("-+-")
print(a)
# output : ['49', '3438', '22', '91']

This helps in taking a list as input in a single line separated by space as we can quickly
get the array by splitting the input.

a = input().split(" ")
print(a)
# Sample input : 56 2 9 45 27 332
# Sample output : ['56', '2', '9', '45', '27', '332']

Operations on list and string

There are a huge number of operations available on string and list. We discuss some of
them. See Python documentation / reference guides for use of others.

25
Lecture 2

join : Join is just the opposite of split() . It takes a list of strings and converts it into a
string while joining the elements with a given string.

a = [ "one" , "two" , "three" , "four" , "five" ]

s = "/".join(a)
print(s)
# Output : one/two/three/four/five

len : len function can be applied on strings as well as lists and gives the length of
given variable.

a = [ 3 , 6 , 1 , 0 ]
b = [ "phy" , "chem" , "maths" ]
s = "python"

print( len(a) ) # 4
print( len(b) ) # 3
print( len(s) ) # 6

min : For a list of numbers, min function gives the smallest number in the list; for a list
of strings, it gives the alphabetically smallest string; and for a string, it gives the smallest
character in that string.

a = [ 3 , 6 , 1 , 0 ]
b = [ "phy" , "chem" , "maths" ]
s = "python"

print( min(a) ) # 0
print( min(b) ) # chem
print( min(s) ) # h

max : Similar usage as min function

a = [ 3 , 6 , 1 , 0 ]
b = [ "phy" , "chem" , "maths" ]
s = "python"

print( max(a) ) # 6
print( max(b) ) # phy
print( max(s) ) # y

sum : sum function is used on list of numbers.

26
Lecture 2

a = [ 3 , 6 , 1 , 0 ]

print( sum(a) ) # 10

sort : List of numbers as well as list of strings can be sorted

a = [ 3 , 6 , 1 , 0 ]
b = [ "one" , "two" , "three" , "four" , "five" ]

a.sort()
b.sort()

print(a) # Output : [0, 1, 3, 6]

print(b) # Output : ['five', 'four', 'one', 'three', 'two']

find : To check if a value is present in a list or string, we use the expression if value in
listname

a = [ 3 , 6 , 1 , 0 ]

if 1 in a :
print("present")
else:
print("not present")

# Output : present

b = [ "one" , "two" , "three" , "four" , "five" ]

if "six" in b :
print("present")
else:
print("not present")

# Output : not present

s = "python"

if "o" in s :
print("present")
else:
print("not present")

# Output : present

27
Lecture 2

Application : Mean and median in list

Mean of a list can be easily found by dividing sum of list by its length

a = [ 8 , 2 , 3 , 12 , 5 , 3 , 7 , 9 ]

mean = sum(a) / len(a)

print(mean)

For median, we need to sort the list and look at the middle index. If there are even numbers
in list, we have 2 middle positions hence take average of the numbers at those index.

a = [ 8 , 2 , 3 , 12 , 5 , 3 , 7 , 9 ]

a.sort()
l = len(a)

if l%2 == 1 :
medianPos = (l-1) / 2
median = a[medianPos]
else:
upperMedianPos = l / 2
lowerMedianPos = upperMedianPos - 1
median = ( a[lowerMedianPos] + a[upperMedianPos] ) / 2

print(median)

Application : Find primes using sieve method

Find the prime numbers till 100.

We make an array a to store the status of 100 numbers. If a[i] is 1, then it means that
i is a prime number and if a[i] is 0, then it is composite.

Initially, we assume that all numbers are prime and so our array is filled with 1s. Since all
multiples of 2 are definitely not prime, we make a[4] , a[6] , a[8] , . . . , a[100] to be 0.
Then look for next prime number i.e. next value of i such that a[i] is still 1. Repeat the
process of striking off multiples of current prime number and looking for next prime number.

28
Lecture 2

a = [1]*101 # Since we need a[100], list should have 101 elements

for i in range(2,101): # Loop from 2 to 100

if a[i]==1: # If the element has not been striked-off already
for j in range(2*i,101,i): # Loop for multiples of current element
a[j] = 0 # Strike-off the multiple

for i in range(2,101): # Run loop to see final status of numbers

if a[i]==1: # If a[i] is not striked-off, it is prime
print(i,"is prime")

29
Lecture 3

Python lecture series - Lecture 3

Topics :

Functions
Modules and import
Mapping
Recursion
Array/string splicing
List comprehensions

Application programs :

nCr and nPr

Date format conversion
Tower of Hanoi
Binary search
Palindrome
Finding pending assignments

Functions
Declaring and using a function :

The variables which we pass to functions are called parameters.

def cube(n):
ans = n*n*n
return ans

number = int(input("Enter number : "))

print( cube(number) )

30
Lecture 3

def average(a,b):
return (a+b)/2

a = int(input("Enter number 1 : "))

b = int(input("Enter number 2 : "))

avg = average(a,b)

print("Average is",avg)

Application : nCr and nPr

We will make functions for factorial, nCr and nPr

def factorial(n):
p = 1
for i in range(2,n+1):
p *= i

def nPr(n,r):
answer = factorial(n) / factorial(r)

def nCr(n,r):
answer = factorial(n) / ( factorial(r) * factorial(n-r) )

print("Enter n : ",end="")
n = int(input())
print("Enter r : ",end="")
r = int(input())

if n<r or r<0 :
print("Invalid n/r")
else:
result1 = nCr(n,r)
result2 = nPr(n,r)
print(n,"C",r,"=",result1)
print(n,"P",r,"=",result2)

Modules and import

Module is a python file containing functions which we want to use in another python
file/program.

31
Lecture 3

Python comes with many useful modules which we can use by importing that module in our
program. We can also make our own module and import it.

Using Python in-built module :

# Import math module containing many mathematical functions

import math

a = 16
b = math.sqrt(a) # Use the square root function from math module
print(b)

print(math.pi)
print(math.e)

We can directly import particular functions from a module.

# Import sin, cos functions from math module

from math import sin,ceil
# Now, instead of math.sin(), we can directly use sin()
a = 1.123
b = sin(a)
c = ceil(a)
print(b)
print(c)

Or, import all functions of that module, use:

from math import *

Making our own module :

Make a file, say combination.py . Write the factorial, nCr, nPr functions in it.

Now, in another file, say main.py , import the above made file and use those functions :

from combination import *

n,r = 4,2
print( nCr(n,r) )

Mapping

32
Lecture 3

To apply a function on each item in a list, we will have to go through the list and call that
function on the element.

The shortcut way to do this is use mapping. map() takes two parameters: the function
name which is to be applied on each item of list and the list variable. Also, we need to
convert the result back into list form, so we use list() function on the result.

def cube(n):
return n*n*n

a = [ 3 , 1 , 6 , 8 , 2 ]
b = map( cube , a )
b = list(b)
print(b)

We often use map() and split() to input a list of numbers in a single line from console.

a = input().split()
b = list( map(int,a) )
# Sample input: 4 3 -2 9 0 10
# a will become : ['4', '3', '-2', '9', '0', '10']
# b will become : [4, 3, -2, 9, 0, 10]

or combining the 2 lines of code :

a = list( map( int , input().split() ) )

Application : Date format conversion

We have a list of dates in mm-dd-yyyy format. The dates are to converted to dd-mm-yyyy
format.

We make a function which takes a date in mm-dd-yyyy format and gives back the converted
date. Then, to apply this function on each item of the list, use mapping.

33
Lecture 3

# Function to convert date from mm-dd-yyyy to dd-mm-yyyy format

def convert(old_date):
l = list(old_date) # Get the string in list form
l[0],l[3] = l[3],l[0] # Swap first digits of date and month
l[1],l[4] = l[4],l[1] # Swap second digits of date and month
new_date = ''.join(l) # Convert list back into string
return new_date

# Make a list of dates in mm-dd-yyyy format

date_list = [ "08-13-2017" , "12-31-2016" , "01-26-2017" , "05-01-2016" ]
# Map the convert function on this list
converted_dates = list(map(convert,date_list))

print(converted_dates)

Recursion
We use recursive technique to solve a problem by breaking it into smaller problem.

Ex: To find n!, we find (n-1)! instead and keep on reducing our number till the base case
which is 0!

A function which calls itself is called a recursive function.

Recursively finding sum of array :

def recursive_sum(a,pos):
if pos==len(a):
return 0
else:
return a[pos]+recursive_sum(a,pos+1)

a = [ 5 , -2 , 3 , 4 , -1 ]
s = recursive_sum(a,0)
print(s)

Application : Tower of Hanoi

This famous puzzle has a simple recursive solution.

The problem of moving n disks from Pole A to Pole C can be broken down into 3 steps:

Move n-1 disks from A to B

Move the nth disk from A to C

34
Lecture 3

Move n-1 disks from B to C

This way, the problem is reduced recursively until we have only 1 disk to be moved.

def hanoi(size, start, middle, end):

if size > 0 :
hanoi( size-1 , start , end , middle )
print( "Move disk" , size , "from" , start , "to" , end )
hanoi( size-1 , middle , end , start )

n = int(input())
hanoi(n,"A","B","C")

Application : Binary search

def bin_search(a,value,left,right):
if left>right:
return False
else:
mid = int( (left+right)/2 )
if value == a[mid] :
return True
elif value > a[mid] :
return bin_search(a,value,mid+1,right)
else :
return bin_search(a,value,left,mid-1)

def search(a,value):
r = len(a)-1
if bin_search(a,value,0,r) == True :
print("Found")
else :
print("Not found")

a = [ -34 , -20 , -3 , 2 , 9 , 94 , 482 , 3693 ]

search(a,-3)
search(a,67)

Array/string splicing

35
Lecture 3

Just like the element at index i in an array or string can be accessed with a[i] , we can
select a sub-array or substring using a[start:end] which will take the elements from index
start upto index end (start index is inclusive, end index is exclusive)

a = [ -34 , -20 , -3 , 2 , 9 , 94 , 482 , 3693 ]

b = "this is a sentence"

c = a[2:6]
d = b[3:15]

print(c) # Output : [-3, 2, 9, 94]

print(d) # Output : s is a sente

To take alternate elements, we can add :2 in the square brackets. Similarly, that number
can be used to control the steps to jump while splicing the list/string. By default, this jump
value is 1.

a = [ -34 , -20 , -3 , 2 , 9 , 94 , 482 , 3693 ]

b = "this is a sentence"

c = a[2:7:2]
d = b[3:15:3]

print(c) # Output : [-3, 9, 482]

print(d) # Output : ss n

We can omit start index to take the list/string from beginning. Similarly, end index index can
be omitted to take upto the last item.

a = [ -34 , -20 , -3 , 2 , 9 , 94 , 482 , 3693 ]

b = "this is a sentence"

c = a[:6]
d = b[3:]

print(c) # Output : [-34, -20, -3, 2, 9, 94]

print(d) # Output : s is a sentence

To get the list/string in reverse order, the jump value should be kept negative.

36
Lecture 3

a = [ -34 , -20 , -3 , 2 , 9 , 94 , 482 , 3693 ]

b = "this is a sentence"

c = a[::-1]
d = b[:3:-3]

print(c) # Output : [3693, 482, 94, 9, 2, -3, -20, -34]

print(d) # Output : eeeai

Application : Palindrome
Check whether a string is a palindrome or not.

def palindrome(s):
if s == s[::-1]:
print("Yes")
else:
print("No")

a = "abcdcba"
b = "nfiebfie"
c = "aa"
d = "r"
palindrome(a) # Yes
palindrome(b) # No
palindrome(c) # Yes
palindrome(d) # Yes

List comprehensions
Till now, we have seen that to go through a list, we loop through the indices and access the
element at given index i using a[i]

for i in range( len(a) ):

val = a[i]
print(val)

Alternate way to access the elements of the list is to use this syntax :

for item in a:
print(item)

37
Lecture 3

In the first method, variable i stores indices 0, 1, 2, . . . and we use look for the element at
that index.

Whereas, in the second way, the variable item is directly holding the elements of list one
by one. This syntax makes it easier to access the elements. The only drawback is that we
cannot update the elements of loop.

Now, to extract the even numbers from a list, we can do :

a = [ 5 , 49 , 20 , 28 , 95 , 68 , 394 ]

b = []
for val in a:
if val%2 == 0 :
b.append(val)

print(b)

List comprehensions are a short way to achieve this.

Syntax :

new_list = [ expression(item) for item in old_list if condition(item) ]

Using list comprehensions, the above program can be written as :

a = [ 5 , 49 , 20 , 28 , 95 , 68 , 394 ]

b = [ val for val in a if val%2==0 ]

print(b)

The second line in code means : b is composed of every such val such that val is
present in a and val%2 is 0.

DIY : Extract out the palindromic items from a list of strings

Another usage of list comprehensions is with range()

a = [ p for p in range(5,20) ]
print(a)

The variable a will be populated with every such p which lies in the range of 5 to 20 (20
exclusive)

38
Lecture 3

DIY : Find the first 10 powers of 2

Application : Finding pending assignments

Two lists are given : one containing all the due assignments and another containing those
which you have completed. Find the ones which are still pending.

assignments = [ "CS101" , "MA102" , "PH102" , "BT101" , "ME101" , "EE110" ]

completed = [ "PH102" , "CS101" ]

pending = [ item for item in assignments if item not in completed ]

print(pending)

39
Lecture 4

Python lecture series - Lecture 4

Topics :

Tuples
zip function
Sets
Dictionary
Array of dictionary
Comprehensions with dictionary
Determining datatype of variable

Application programs :

Adding 2 matrices
Frequency analysis in array
Update course registration

Tuples
Used to represent objects with 2 or more attributes. Eg : Points in 2-D plane are tuples of
form (x,y)

Just like arrays, we use p[i] to access ith index of a tuple p . However, a tuple element
cannot be re-assigned.

The following program takes as input a list of 3-D points each of which is stored as tuple :

n = int(input("Enter the number of points : "))

points = []
print("Enter 3 decimals separated by space for each point")

for i in range(n):
print("Coordinates of point",i+1,":",end=" ")
x,y,z = map(float,input().split())
p = (x,y,z)
points.append(p)

print(points)

40
Lecture 4

zip function
zip() function iterates through elements of passed array one by one and returns them as a

tuple.

a = [ 5, 6, 8, 9, 1, 0 ]
b = [ 8, 2, 10, 0, 5, 7 ]

ans = list( zip(a,b) )

print(ans) # [(5, 8), (6, 2), (8, 10), (9, 0), (1, 5), (0, 7)]

If the lists given to zip function are of different sizes, the shortest list will determine how
many elements are to be considered.

a = [ 5, 6, 8, 9, 1, 0 ]
b = [ 9, 2, 4, 6 ]
c = [ 8, 2, 10, 0, 5 ]

ans = list( zip(a,b,c) )

print(ans) # [(5, 9, 8), (6, 2, 2), (8, 4, 10), (9, 6, 0)]

Application : Adding 2 matrices

We will deal with 2 dimensional array here i.e list of lists.

To add the matrices, loop through the row numbers and in each row, loop through the
column numbers and add the elements from both matrices at that position.

41
Lecture 4

a = [ [ 3, -5, -7, 9 ],
[ 13, 0, -2, 1 ],
[ -9, 8, 3, -1 ] ]

b = [ [ 0, -5, 10, 6 ],
[ 6, 8, 13, -4 ],
[ 8, 9, -7, -1 ] ]

# First check if dimensions of a and b are same

# For this, see len() of both to check no of rows
# Then, loop through rows and compare len() of each row

r = len(a) # No of rows
c = len(a[0]) # No of cols

ans = [] # Start with empty list as result

for i in range(r):
ans.append([]) # Append new row in c
for j in range(c):
ans[i].append(a[i][j]+b[i][j]) # Append element in current row of c

print(ans)

Further, using list comprehensions, we can write the above code as :

# Declare a and b here and check their dimensions

r = len(a) # No of rows
c = len(a[0]) # No of cols

ans = [] # Start with empty list as result

for i in range(r):
ans.append( [ x+y for (x,y) in zip(a[i],b[i]) ] ) # Add entire ith row of a and b

print(ans)

Sets
List, tuple and set can be converted from each other using list() , tuple() and set()
function.

A new set can be made as :

42
Lecture 4

rolls = set({2,4,7,2}) # Duplicate values will be removed

print(rolls) # {2, 4, 7}
rolls2 = set() # Make empty set

Sets do not have index to access element. Instead, to go through its elements, we can
use the following syntax :

for x in rolls:
print(x)

add() , remove() , len() functions have their usual meaning.

clear() function removes all elements from set. This function is also available for lists.

Searching in list, tuple and set can be done in the same way :

if val in a :
print("yes")
else:
print("no")

Various set operations can performed using intuitive symbols or by using functions :

rolls1 = {2,4,7,6,5,8}
rolls2 = {1,6,8,3,9,7}

rolls_uni = rolls1 | rolls2

rolls_int = rolls1 & rolls2
rolls_xor = rolls1 ^ rolls2
rolls_1d2 = rolls1 - rolls2
rolls_2d1 = rolls2 - rolls1

print(rolls_uni) # {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
print(rolls_int) # {8, 6, 7}
print(rolls_xor) # {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9}
print(rolls_1d2) # {2, 4, 5}
print(rolls_2d1) # {1, 3, 9}

Sets can be compared similarly :

43
Lecture 4

rolls1 = {1,3,5,6}
rolls2 = {1,5}
rolls3 = {2,4}

if rolls2 <= rolls1 :

print("rolls2 is subset of rolls1")

if rolls1.isdisjoint(rolls3) :
print("disjoint sets")

Dictionary
In arrays, numbers are used for indexing. Dictionary can be thought as an array where
anything can be used for indexing.

student = {}
student["name"] = "ABC"
student["year"] = 1
student["cpi"] = 9.0
student["dept"] = "CSE"
student["courses"] = [ "CS101" , "MA102" , "CS110" ]
student["gratuated"] = False

print(student)
print(student["courses"])

The second way of creating a dictionary is :

glossary = {
"word1" : "meaning1",
"word2" : "meaning2",
"word3" : "meaning3",
"word4" : "meaning4",
"word5" : "meaning5"
}

print(glossary)
print(glossary["word3"])

Iterating through dictionary

Let's see what the following code gives when run on a dictionary:

for k in student:
print(k)

44
Lecture 4

We see that this gives all the keys (index names) of the dictionary.

Also, we have already seen that the value corresponding to key k in a dictionary student
can be accessed by student[k]

Combining these, we use the following code :

for k in student:
print(k,"=",student[k])

Also, if you want to avoid using student[k] , there is another option:

for k,v in student.items():

print(k,"=",v)

Adding key to dictionary

We already saw this above. When writing student[k] = something , if the the key k is not
there in the dictionary, it will be created otherwise the value for that key will get updated.

Checking if a key exists in dictionary

if "cpi" in student:
print("Student dictionary contains cpi key")
else:
print("Student dictionary does not contain cpi key")

Deleting key from dictionary

if "cpi" in student:
del student["cpi"]

OR

student.pop("cpi, None)

Application : Element frequency in array

This can be done very easily using a dictionary. Start with an empty dictionary and add
elements of list as a key in the dictionary with value 1 which denotes its frequency. In case
the element was alreayd present in the dictionary, just increment the value of corresponding
key.

45
Lecture 4

a = list(map(int,input.split())) # Input the list of numbers

d = {} # Start with empty dictionary

for x in a:
if x not in d: # If this element occures first time
d[x] = 1 # Add new key to dictionary with value 1
else: # If this element has already occured
d[x] += 1 # Increase count of this element

print(d)

Array of dictionary
A python list can contain any type of element: Number, String, Boolean, list . . .

Similarly, we can have a dictionary as an element of an array.

contacts = [
{
"name1" : 9999999999,
"name2" : 9999999999,
"name3" : 9999999999
},
{
"name4" : 9999999999,
"name2" : 9999999999
},
{
"name3" : 9999999999,
"name5" : 9999999999,
"name6" : 9999999999
}
]

Below is an example showing dictionary of dictionary :

46
Lecture 4

contacts = {
"school" : {
"name1" : 9999999999,
"name2" : 9999999999,
"name3" : 9999999999
},
"college" : {
"name4" : 9999999999,
"name2" : 9999999999
},
"work" : {
"name3" : 9999999999,
"name5" : 9999999999,
"name6" : 9999999999
}
}

Comprehensions with dictionary

Given a list of dictionaries where each dictionary stores details of a student, get all the
names.

data = [
{
"name" : "name1",
"year" : 1,
"cpi" : 8.5,
"dept" : "ECE"
},
{
"name" : "name2",
"year" : 2,
"cpi" : 8.2,
"dept" : "MNC"
},
{
"name" : "name2",
"year" : 3,
"cpi" : 8.1,
"dept" : "CSE"
}
]

names = [ x["name"] for x in data ]

print(names)

47
Lecture 4

Application : Update course registration

Consider the following task :

There is a dictionary of students where roll no is used as key and we store the list of courses
which the student has completed as the value. The result of recent semester is given in the
form of dictionary which has course no as key and the list of students who have passed that
course as the value. Update the list of completed course list for each student by looking the
new courses in which he has passed recently.

students = {
"140101001" : [ "CS101" , "EE101" , "CS201" ],
"140102001" : [ "MA101" , "EE101" , "EE201" ],
"140103001" : [ "CS101" , "ME101" ],
"140123001" : [ "MA101" , "CS101" , "MA201" ]
}

result = {
"MA321" : [ "140101001" , "140123001" ],
"EE301" : [ "140102001" , "140103001" ],
"ME301" : [ "140103001" ]
}

for course in result:

for roll in result[course]:
students[roll].append(course)

print(students)

Determining datatype of variable

Pass the variable in type() function to get its type. To check if the variable is of certain
type, use isinstance() function

48
Lecture 4

a = 9
b = [1,2,3]
c = '78'
d = 'qwerty'

print( type(a) )
print( type(b) )

if type(c)==type(d):
print("same type")
else:
print("different type")

if isinstance(b,list):
print("b is list type")

49
Lecture 5

Python lecture series - Lecture 5

Topics :

File input/output
JSON data file
pip
CSV files

Application programs :

Sort lines in file

Find article title
Contest Leaderboard

Note : Download the Lecture-5 folder from this link for the data files used in this lecture.

File input/output

f = open("sample.txt","r")

This enables reading sample.txt file with the variable f . The string "r" stands for
reading mode.

To write to file, use "w" instead of "r" . Note that this overwrites the entire content of file.

Similarly, using "a" option will allow appending text to end of file.

After you are done reading/modifying the file, it must be closed :

f.close()

Reading from file

This line will copy entire content of file opened with f as a string to variable s :

s = f.read()

50
Lecture 5

Or, to read line by line, use this syntax :

for s in f:
print(s)

To read first 5 lines, this syntax is better :

for i in range(5):
s = f.readline()
print(s)

To directly get all the lines in an array, just use readlines()

a = f.readlines()
print(a)

Note : Use strip() or rstrip() function to avoid newline coming in each line of file
text

Writing to file

Use the following functions:

write(s) : Writes string s to file.

writelines(a) : Write each string in array a to file.

Appending to file

Appending is same as writing and uses same functions. Only, the previous contents of that
file are not erased.

Application : Sort lines in files

You have some files say list1.txt , list2.txt , list3.txt containing some numbers.
Merge the contents of these files into a single file with the data sorted.

51
Lecture 5

f1 = open("rolls/list1.txt","r")
f2 = open("rolls/list2.txt","r")
f3 = open("rolls/list3.txt","r")
fw = open("rolls/result.txt","w")
# Read content from files
l1 = f1.readlines()
l2 = f2.readlines()
l3 = f3.readlines()
# Merge lines
l = l1 + l2 + l3
# Convert to integer array
l = [ int(x.strip()) for x in l ]
# Sort
l.sort()
# Convert back to string form
l = [ str(x)+"\n" for x in l ]
# Write to result file
fw.writelines(l)
# Close files
f1.close()
f2.close()
f3.close()
fw.close()

Note : To avoid closing file explicitly, use the following syntax :

with open("sample.txt","r") as f:
s = f.read()

# Rest program

Application : Find article title

You have some text files containing article on some topic. The files are not labelled and you
have to determine the topic on which each file is.

We can solve this by finding the most important word in each file i.e., the most frequently
occuring word. However, words like the , is etc will occur more than the required word.
This will give wrong result. But, such common words will occur in each file whereas, the
required title word will not be occuring frequently in other files.

So, one way to assign importance of a word is : frequency in particular file / total
frequency in each file

52
Lecture 5

Then, the word with highest importance will give us the title for article.

This basic formula can improved further to give correct result in even more situations.

def main():
# Read content from files
with open("articles/wiki1.txt","r") as f1:
text1 = f1.read()
with open("articles/wiki2.txt","r") as f2:
text2 = f2.read()
with open("articles/wiki3.txt","r") as f3:
text3 = f3.read()
# Split text to get words
words1 = text1.split()
words2 = text2.split()
words3 = text3.split()
# Clean the words and convert to lower case
words1 = [ (x.lower()).strip(",-\"\'().") for x in words1 ]
words2 = [ (x.lower()).strip(",-\"\'().") for x in words2 ]
words3 = [ (x.lower()).strip(",-\"\'().") for x in words3 ]
# Get frequency dictionary of above lists
d1 = frequency(words1)
d2 = frequency(words2)
d3 = frequency(words3)
# List of these dictionaries
dlist = [d1, d2, d3]

# See words in sorted by frequency

# print(sorted(d1,key=d1.__getitem__))
# print(sorted(d2,key=d2.__getitem__))
# print(sorted(d3,key=d3.__getitem__))

# Use the function to get answer

print(mostImp(d1,dlist))
print(mostImp(d2,dlist))
print(mostImp(d3,dlist))

# Function to get frequency dictionary for an array of words

def frequency(wordlist):
d = {}
for x in wordlist:
if x in d:
d[x] += 1
else:
d[x] = 1
return d

# Function to calculate importance of a word in a particular document

def importance(word, d, dlist):
freq_doc = d[word]
freq_total = 0
for x in dlist:

53
Lecture 5

if word in x:
freq_total += x[word]
return freq_doc / freq_total

# Function to find most important word in a document

def mostImp(d, dlist):
max_score = 0
max_doc_freq = 0
for word in d:
doc_freq = d[word]
score = importance(word, d, dlist)
if (score>max_score) or (score==max_score and doc_freq>max_doc_freq):
ans = word
max_score = score
max_doc_freq = doc_freq
return ans

main()

JSON data file

We can store data in various ways. There are various database softwares to choose from.

But for simple and small data, we can simply use files. Even a text file with a fixed pattern
might do.

Also, when making web applications, we need to transfer data in a proper format from the
server to the user's device. JSON is the most popular format for this currently. JSON files
( .json ) are also used for various purpose.

JSON data looks pretty much like a nested combination of Python dictionary and lists. See
the JSON files in the folder whose link is given above.

Here's how to read data from a JSON file in Python:

import json

f = open("sample.json",'r')
data = json.load(f)
f.close()

print(data)
# Or to print in a clean format, use the below line
# print( json.dumps(data,indent=2) )

or

54
Lecture 5

import json

with open("sample.json",'r') as f:
data = json.load(f)

print(data)
# Or to print in a clean format, use the below line
# print( json.dumps(data,indent=2) )

Application : Contest Leaderboard

Let's store records of users participating in a contest using JSON file.

We need to provide functionality to add more users, remove users and display the
leaderboard.

import json

filename = "json/sample.json"

def main():
choice = 1
while choice>0:
print("0) Exit")
print("1) Add record")
print("2) Delete record")
print("3) Show leaderbord")
choice = int(input("Enter choice : "))
print("")
if choice==1:
addRecord()
elif choice==2:
deleteRecord()
elif choice==3:
showLeaderboard()
print("")

def addRecord():
with open(filename,"r") as f:
data = json.load(f)
username = input("Enter username : ")
name = input("Enter name : ")
age = int(input("Enter age : "))
score = int(input("Enter score : "))
d = {
"username" : username,
"name" : name,
"age" : age,

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Lecture 5

"score" : score
}
data[username] = d
with open(filename,"w") as f:
f.write(json.dumps(data,indent=4))

def deleteRecord():
with open(filename,"r") as f:
data = json.load(f)
username = input("Enter username to delete : ")
if username in data:
del data[username]
with open(filename,"w") as f:
f.write(json.dumps(data,indent=4))
else:
print("Username not found")

def showLeaderboard():
with open(filename,"r") as f:
data = json.load(f)
profiles = [v for k,v in data.items()]
profiles.sort(key=lambda x: x["score"],reverse=True)
for x in profiles:
print(x["name"],x["score"])

main()

pip
pip is the package manager for Python.

We have seen some modules like math and json which are built-in with Python.

There are many such modules which do not come with Python and need to be installed
separately.

pip enables us to install these modules/libraries easily.

Install pip in your system using this command in terminal:

sudo apt-get install python3-pip

Check the version of pip using pip --version

Note : If pip corresponds to python2 in your system or does not exist, use pip3 . e.g.
- pip3 --version

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Lecture 5

To install the python module csv , use the following command in terminal:

pip install csv

To use pip behind proxy, use :

pip install --proxy=user:pass@host:port csv

Note : Learn to use virtual environments once comfortable with pip stuff

CSV files
To store data in tabular form, CSV is the simplest way.

CSV file is like simplifed excel sheet. It can be opened in any software which is used for
excel sheets.

Each line is a row and we use commas(,) to separate columns in a row.

See the CSV files in the folder whose link is given above.

Read data from CSV file

import csv

filename = "csv/credits.csv"

f = open(filename,'rt')
reader = csv.reader(f)

for row in reader:

print(row)

f.close()

Write data to CSV file

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Lecture 5

import csv

filename = "csv/new.csv"

data = [
[1,2,3],
[4,5,6]
]

f = open(filename,'w')
writer = csv.writer(f)

for row in data:

writer.writerow(row)

f.close()

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Practice

Python lecture series - Practice problems

1) Fibonacci numbers
Make a program which takes an integer n as input and prints the first n fibonacci
numbers.

Sample input :

10

Sample output :

0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34

2) Print the abbreviation

Input a list of names/terms and print the initials/abbreviations of each.

Sample input :

New York
Shah Rukh Khan
Counter Strike : Global Offensive
Blue Screen of Death

Sample output :

NY
SRK
CS:GO
BSoD

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Practice

Note : Try to shorten code using list comprehensions and mapping

3) GCD
Make a function which takes 2 integers and returns their GCD.

You must have done Euclid's method to find GCD in mathematics. Use that method.

The function can be written in 2 different ways :

Recursion
Using while loop

4) Commas in number
Input a list of numbers and display them in international format (with a comma after every 3
digits).

You can either use loop or to reduce code, use recursion and splicing in your function.

Sample input :

12345
165616
656
1589
89494942942

Sample output :

12,345
165,616
656
1,589
89,494,942,942

5) Frequency of each element of list

Make a function which takes a list and displays the count of each distinct element in that list.

There are multiple approaches to this problem. One of the simple approaches is to sort the
list and loop through the elements. Even simpler way is to use dictionary to keep count of
elements.

Sample input :

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Practice

7 1 9 3 7 2 8 9 3

Sample output :

1 : 1
2 : 1
3 : 2
7 : 2
8 : 1
9 : 2

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