Applied Energy: Sciencedirect

Applied Energy 229 (2018) 1072–1094
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy
Performance comparison between optimized design of a centralized and T

semi-decentralized community size solar district heating system
⁎
Hassam ur Rehman , Janne Hirvonen, Kai Sirén
Aalto University, School of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, HVAC Group, PO Box PL 14400/Vi 351, 00760 Aalto, Finland
H I GH L IG H T S
• Centralized and semi-decentralized solar district heating systems are studied.

• Multi-objective optimization is carried out for both the systems and compared.
• High performance in decentralized system is realized at 35% lower lifecycle cost.
• The centralization of domestic hot water network increased the losses by 40–12%.
• Collector area vary to 5400 m in centralized and 3000 m in decentralized system.
2 2
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Solar thermal energy is widely recognized as one of the most important renewable energy resources. However, in
Solar community high latitudes, due to various climatic and mismatch challenges, such solar district heating networks are difficult to
Seasonal storage implement. The objective of the paper is to optimize and compare two different design layouts and control stra-
Centralized solar district tegies for solar district heating systems in Finnish conditions. The two different designs proposed are a centralized
Decentralized solar district
and a semi-decentralized solar district heating system. The centralized system consists of two centralized short-
Cold climate
term tanks operating at different temperature levels charged by a solar collector and heat pumps. Borehole thermal
Multi-objective optimization
energy storage is also charged via these two centralized tanks. In contrast, the semi-decentralized system consists of
one centralized low temperature tank charged by a solar collector and a borehole thermal energy storage and
decentralized high temperature tank charged by an individual heat pump in each house. In this case, borehole
thermal energy storage is charged only by the centralized warm tank. These systems are designed using the dy-
namic simulation software TRNSYS for Finnish conditions. Later on, multi-objective optimization is carried out
with a genetic algorithm using the MOBO (Multi-objective building optimizer) optimization tool, where two ob-
jectives, i.e. purchased electricity and life cycle costs, are minimized. Various design variables are considered,
which included both component sizes and control parameters as inputs to the optimization. The optimization
results show that in terms of life cycle cost and purchased electricity, the decentralized system clearly outperforms
the centralized system. With a similar energy performance, the reduction in life cycle cost is up to 35% for the
decentralized system. Both systems can achieve close to 90% renewable energy fraction. These systems are also
sensitive to the prices. Furthermore, the results show that the solar thermal collector area and seasonal storage
volume can be reduced in a decentralized system to reduce the cost compared to a centralized system. The losses in
the centralized system are 40–12% higher compared to the decentralized system. The results also show that in both
systems, high performance is achieved when the borehole storage is wider with less depth, as it allows better direct
utilization of seasonally stored heat. The system layout and controls varied the performance and life cycle cost;
therefore it is essential to consider these when implementing such systems.
1. Introduction production has resulted in a huge environmental problems and

emissions. Therefore, the increase in energy prices, the reduction in
Global energy consumption has been growing in the last few fossil fuel resources, and the impact on climate change have forced the
decades. Moreover, the combustion of fossil fuels for energy masses to explore alternative and renewable sources in order to
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hassam.rehman@aalto.fi (H.u. Rehman).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.08.064
Received 28 March 2018; Received in revised form 3 August 2018; Accepted 14 August 2018
0306-2619/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.u. Rehman et al. Applied Energy 229 (2018) 1072–1094
Nomenclature EEXP exported electricity to the grid (kWh/m2/yr)

EHP heat pump electricity consumption (kWh/m2/yr)
ae discounting factor EONC on-site electricity demand, met by photo voltaic panel
BTES borehole thermal energy system generation (kWh/m2/yr)
CB building investment cost (€/m2) EPUMP auxiliary pumps electricity consumption (kWh/m2/yr)
CBTES borehole cost (€/m3) EPUR purchased electricity from the grid (kWh/m2/yr)
CE exported electricity price (c/kWh) EPV electricity produced by the photovoltaic panels (kWh/m2/
CFins building floor insulation cost (€/m3) yr)
CHR building heat recovery cost (€) ESTIF European solar thermal industry federation
CHT hot tank cost (€/m3) EU European Union
CI imported electricity price (c/kWh) HP heat pump
CPV photovoltaic panels cost (€/m2) HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
CRins building roof insulation cost (€/m3) ir interest rate
CST solar thermal collectors cost (€/m2) IEA international energy agency
CWIND building windows cost (€/m2) LCC life cycle costs
CWins building walls insulation cost (€/m3) LCOE levelized cost of electricity
CWT warm tank cost (€/m3) MOBO multi-objective building optimizer
CO2 carbon dioxide NSGA-II Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II
COP coefficient of performance OEFelec onsite energy fraction for electricity
DHW domestic hot water OSF official statistics of Finland
DLSC Drake Landing Solar Community PV photo voltaic panels
ep electricity price escalation rate REFheat renewable energy fraction for heating
EBH direct electric backup heater electricity consumption SPH space heating
(kWh/m2/yr) ST solar thermal collectors
EBUL building appliances electricity consumption (kWh/m2/yr) TES thermal energy storage
EDEM total electricity demand of the system (kWh/m2/yr)
provide a sustainable future. On any sunny day, solar energy systems small systems [12], and large seasonal storage is feasible in large-
collect more energy than is needed for direct use [1]. Solar thermal is scale applications [13].
one of the most attractive renewable energy technologies and has In a community-sized solar energy system, heat storage can play an
huge market potential. It has been predicted that by 2020, the Eur- important role due to the mismatch between the demand and the
opean Union (EU) will reach a total operational solar thermal capacity generation. The cost advantage, due to the size and ability to operate
of around 320 GW [2]. However, the challenge is to develop efficient at a seasonal scale allows ground thermal storage to be feasible
methods to collect, convert, store and utilize solar energy at affordable technically and economically compared to short term storage [14].
cost [3]. There are two main drawbacks in developing solar heating Moreover, the integration of seasonal storage in district heating net-
systems in Nordic region: (1) the resulting energy costs are not yet work has the potential to mitigate the CO2 [15]. Among many types of
competitive and (2) solar energy is not available when needed. Re- ground storage, borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) is more at-
search efforts are being made to develop methodologies that can help tractive than other methods of seasonal storages. The main reasons
to overcome these challenges-developing low cost solar energy system are: its simplicity of design, its adaptability, its flexibility in term of
architecture is one of those methodology [4]. the location and its cost effectiveness [16]. The issue with ground
The key to develop a low cost and high performing solar heating thermal storage is the heat loss [17]. The ground stores the heat in
system is to build a large scale community sized solar heating net- sensible form. To maximize the performance of the storage the heat
works, instead of a small or single building level heating system. loss needs to be minimized. The losses through the BTES depend on
Generally the main advantage of community sized district heating two main ground properties which are (1) thermal conductivity of the
systems is their environmental benefits compared to a single boundary layer and (2) groundwater level. Therefore, it is necessary to
building heating system [5]. It is found that a community-scale estimate the ground storage temperature to predict the losses and
system and district heating are more beneficial than a single-house thermal conductivity of the ground. Beier et al. [18] provided an
scale [6], as each building has a unique energy demand profile due analytical model to estimate the vertical temperature profile of the
to the different schedules in people’s lives. This means that for a ground storage. Numerical model is proposed to optimize the BTES
building cluster, a local energy generation or storage system can be operation by simulation, the objective is to minimize the losses
sized to a lower capacity than for a single building [7]. A community through the BTES [19]. Spitler et al. [20] modelled techniques to re-
has more controllable loads than a single building, therefore the duce the losses in the BTES. They proposed that instead of low per-
matching is better. One option for a communal energy system is the meability grout, groundwater is filled in the annular space between
centralized design where many buildings utilize a shared system. In the U-tube and the borehole wall. Welsch et al. [21] performed si-
a single-scale design, each building has its own generation and sto- mulation to investigate the environmental and economic benefits of
rage [8]. Joining single-building generation and energy storage units integrating borehole thermal energy storage in district heating net-
and controlling them centrally can improve the energy performance work. It is found that with growing share of renewable energy mix, a
of the community [9]. Micro-girds are also proposed as an alter- combination of solar thermal, combined heat and power plant and
native to single building energy systems, where a micro grid can be borehole thermal energy storage can be economical with no subsidies.
built within the neighbourhood to share the energy [10]. A prob- In the present study borehole thermal energy storage is used as sea-
abilistic portfolio-based model for financial valuation of community sonal storage. The average thermal ground conductivity of rocks in
solar is proposed by Shakouri et al. and they found that community Finland is around 3.2–3.5 W/m K, the ground water is located at the
sized systems has shortest payback period [11]. The benefit of depth of 1–4 m below the surface and, the bedrock in Finland is un-
community is that the unit price is lower for large systems than for broken with little or no ground water flow [22].
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Majority of the solar heating networks are designed to meet the Experiments show that the solar fraction can be very high in the
space heating demand only. This approach allows lowering the losses in summer when the heat load is low and the weather is sunny. On the
the storage [23]. The lower temperature can be raised using a heat other hand, during winters, when solar radiation is low, the collector
pump (HP) depending on the demand. Heat pumps are economical [24] produces low quantity of solar heat. Therefore, the solar fraction in the
and the primary energy consumption of heat pump is lower than coal- winter can be very low. This phenomenon is usual for the Nordic re-
fired boiler, gas boiler, direct electric heating mode therefore it is en- gions [40]. The whole system is centralized with a back wood chip
vironmentally friendly [25]. Heat pump can be used with or without boiler [41]. Several small-scale solar district heating systems with
solar charged ground storage [24]. It is beneficial to charge the ground various seasonal storages have been built and put into operation, e.g. in
with solar energy as it can provides higher temperature at the eva- Bilbao, Spain and Warsaw, Poland. The system in Bilbao provides space
porator side of the heat pump. Many simulations are done to analyse heating for a building of around 1000 m2. It has ground hot water
solar district heating systems. A solar-assisted heat pump heating storage integrated with a heat pump and gas boiler to provide heating
system is modelled using TRNSYS software and compared to a tradi- for the buildings [34]. Similarly in Warsaw, a small-scale district
tional solar domestic hot water system and an electric domestic hot heating network is built to provide space heating for a hospital
water system. The results showed that a dual tank indirect-style solar- building. It also has a hot water tank integrated with a heat pump and
assisted heat pump system is energy efficient and had the lowest annual gas boiler [34]. Various district heating systems have been realized in
operating costs [26]. It is also found that by utilizing solar energy and a Northern America, for instance in Drake Landing Solar Community,
heat pump, the system could provide 83–97% and 50% of the hot water Canada [42]. In China it is also being studied to utilize solar based
demands in summer and winter, respectively [27]. Two TRNSYS si- energy system for the future demand [43]. In Finland, Eko-Viikki is a
mulation models of heating network with heat pumps are compared by test site for ecological construction located in southern Latokartano,
Poppi et al. [28] and it is found that heat pump integrated with solar Helsinki. The apartments are provided heat via solar energy. However,
thermal collector performed better than the one without solar collector. reports are found that mentioned that the average energy demand of
In China, studies showed that a solar-assisted air source heat pump can the solar district heating demand exceeded expectations [44]. There-
provide up to 60% of the heat via solar energy in cold regions [29]. In fore, the system did not perform as expected.
cold regions, if heat pump is used without solar thermal heat stored in It is found in the literature that solar district heating energy systems
the ground it can cause soil thermal imbalances in seasonal storage are widely divided into two broader typologies, i.e. centralized and de-
[30], and it can greatly deteriorate the system practical performance as centralized systems. First, in the centralized system, all the heat gen-
well. Therefore, a system has to be designed with optimum control eration, storage and supply are at a central location. Most of the plants
strategies to maintain better soil thermal balance [30]. The ground built in Germany and Denmark are centralized plants. The solar district
storage connection controls can also alter the heat pump performance heating network plants are mostly operated at higher temperatures [45].
[31]. Many strategies can be used to integrate heat pump with solar The storage and distribution network are usually centralized. Secondly,
energy. In Finland, heat pumps integrated with solar thermal collector the system can be partially decentralized (decentralized system), where
and seasonal storages have not yet been widely used for a community usually the heat generation and seasonal storage are centralized, while
size, and this approach has been considered in present study. supply and short term storage tanks are decentralized. A new housing
Another important parameter in the community is the building. area is proposed in Zum Feld lager, Germany. The area consists of 131
Buildings can play a significant role in the early design stage of such buildings on a land area of 115,000 m2. To provide the buildings with
solar district heating systems. The building needs to be constructed space heating a semi-decentralized district network is proposed by the
according to the advance standards to improve the efficiency [32]. authors instead of a complete distributed system [46]. In proposed study
Especially in the cold regions, where the heating demands are high, the distribution supply temperature in semi-decentralized system is as-
energy efficiency is an important design parameter while designing sumed to be 40 °C, which is lower than 70 °C supply temperature if the
solar energy systems [33]. Usually buildings are studied separately system is assumed to be completely centralized. The simulation results
while district energy systems are designed separately [34]. Therefore, showed that in the centralized district heating network ≈ 18% dis-
when such large solar heating systems are integrated with the actual tribution heat losses occur within one operating year. On the other hand,
buildings, the performance is not up to the expectations [34]. An in- in the decentralized district heating network ≈ 5.5% distribution heat
tegrated design approach is needed where both the buildings as a de- losses occurs [46]. District networks has an advantage to the economy of
sign variable and the solar district heating networks are modelled and scale, where large size components that can be installed at a district scale
simulated together for the Nordic Conditions to estimate the behaviour can be cheaper compared to smaller size components that can be in-
of the whole system. stalled at a building scale level. Moreover, to make the district network
In addition to modelling and simulation, a few solar district heating competitive the distribution network needs to be highly efficient (lower
plants have been built for real applications in the world. In Europe since losses) in order to ensure economic feasibility. Another study [47] si-
1970s till 2011 around 141 large scale solar heating plants have been mulated two cascade heat pump system without solar energy, where
built. All these plants have solar collector area of 500 m2 or above [35]. central heat pump distributed low temperature in central network while
There are pilot scale plants located in Germany [36] and Sweden [37]. small booster heat pump is used to provide high temperature in the
For instance, in Germany, four types of storage units have been de- building. This improved the heat pump performance and reduced the
veloped for seasonal storage. The first pilot systems for a solar district losses in the network [47]. Similarly, in the Drake Landing Solar Com-
heating supply with long-term heat storage went into operation in 1996 munity in Canada, space heating is provided through a centralized
in Hamburg. Similar projects had been built in Neckarsulm to provide system, where distribution, generation and storage are centralized [42],
solar district heating to the community. The differences between these while domestic hot water is provided through separate distributed col-
projects are the process layouts and storages [38]. Currently the solar lector and storage tanks in each house. In present study both concepts of
district heating market is on the rise in Denmark due to its competitive the centralized and semi-decentralized solar heating systems are de-
price in comparison to the gas [39]. Hybrid solar district heating plant signed and compared against each other for Nordic conditions.
with collector and parabolic trough collector are designed and tested in A community sized solar district heating network integrated with
Denmark [40]. At Marstal, Denmark, a 9000 m2 solar collector has been heat pump, buildings and borehole thermal energy system has neither
used to provide heat to 1469 end users with a yearly demand of 28,000 been fully investigate nor applied in Finnish conditions [14]. As dis-
MWh. The system is able to provide a solar fraction of 30%. Here the cussed above the challenges in developing such systems in Nordic
solar fraction is defined as the ratio between the solar heat generated conditions needs to be taken into account. Moreover, systems from
and the heat demand [40]. It is found solar fraction can vary seasonally. other countries cannot be transferred directly to a new location due to
1074
different weather and ground conditions [48]. Therefore, such issues energy storage (BTES) system. A heat pump is integrated to provide
call for a system that is adapted to the local conditions and designed heat energy in the absence of solar energy. The on-site electricity is
accordingly. It is also important to optimize the system based on the generated through photovoltaic (PV) panels. The on-site demand of the
local conditions. Due to the complexity of the energy system design, energy system (pumps, heat pumps and backup electric heaters) and
variation in the energy production by the solar collector and the costs, it building appliances are primarily met through locally generated solar
is difficult to find the best combinations of the design variables. electricity. Furthermore, electricity is imported or exported via a grid to
Therefore, multi-objective optimization is needed to resolve such issues compensate for the mismatch between electricity demand and genera-
[49]. tion. The main features and differences between the two proposed en-
The novelty in this paper is the design of two novel solar district ergy systems are described below. In addition to the two proposed
heating networks typologies i.e. centralized and semi-decentralized energy systems a reference case is simulated for the comparisons.
solar district heating systems and their control strategies in Nordic The first concept introduced in this paper is inspired by a previously
conditions. In the proposed architectures, controlled changes are made published study, a Danish project in Braedstrupand a German project in
such that both centralized and semi-decentralized systems are closely Crailsheim [54] where borehole are used as seasonal storage. However,
comparable. At the same time both the systems are multi-objective the difference is in the seasonal storage and heat pump integration in
optimized. The objective and aim of this research is to optimize, com- this study. In this paper, the word ‘centralization’ and ‘semi-decen-
pare and investigate the differences in the performances of two dif- tralization’ is used to define the heating network and thermal heat
ferent concepts in Northern European conditions—i.e., centralized and generation typology. Photovoltaic panels and electricity generation are
semi-decentralized solar district heating. Two different types of con- centralized in both the cases. The schematic representation is shown in
figurations are proposed, and the impact of each particular configura- Fig. 1. The energy system consists of:
tion on the final energy consumption has been evaluated. Purchased
electricity and life cycle cost (LCC) are the two objectives that are • Centralized system (Fig. 1):
minimized. In addition, the heating renewable energy fraction and o A central collector (ST) field.
onsite energy fraction for electricity are also evaluated to analyse o Centralized photovoltaic panels (PV) in an open central field.
overall performance. Both the physical and control parameters are o Two large centralized short-term storage tanks, i.e. warm and hot
considered as design variables. Additionally, the sensitivity of both the tanks present at a centralized energy building.
proposed systems with respect to the prices and the physical compo- o Warm and hot tanks also known as short term storage tanks, are
nents are carried out and compared. The design variables considered for charged in parallel by the collector during the summer.
the optimization are solar thermal (ST) area, photovoltaic panels area, o Borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) is located in the energy
short-term storage tank volume, borehole volume, borehole aspect ratio centre at a centralized location. It is charged via the warm and hot
and density, hot and warm tank charging set points, and building de- tanks if excess energy is available in the tanks.
sign. Furthermore, a detailed focus is on the set points and the borehole o A central heat pump (HP) is used to charge a hot tank by taking
shapes. The study is performed using the dynamic simulations approach heat energy from a warm tank during periods when solar energy is
using TRNSYS [50] due to the complexity of the proposed system. not available.
MOBO (multi-objective building optimizer) [51] is used to run the o Domestic hot water (DHW) and space heating (SPH) is provided
NSGA-II algorithm and TRNSYS model together for the optimization of through this centralized system.
the two objectives. The scope of the study is limited to the computa-
tional study. The purpose is to provide basic knowledge and compu- The second concept is a semi-decentralized concept based on a low
tational model for the future real plant in Finland, as no such solar temperature district heating network. It has decentralized domestic hot
district heating network projects exists in Finland. However, to verify water and centralized low temperature seasonal storage. It is based on the
and compare the TRNSYS model in Finnish conditions, the presented Canadian experience regarding centralized low temperature networks
simulation model is compared against three real projects, namely in [42]. However, the difference in both systems is that in the Canadian
Neckarsulm-Germany [52], in Carilsheim-Germany [36], and in Drake project, domestic hot water is not integrated with the centralized energy
Landing Solar Community-Canada [42]. The simulation result is com- system and therefore is not included in the system performance calcula-
pared against these real projects because, no such solar community tions. In the current paper, the decentralized hot water is integrated with
district heating network project exists in Finland at the moment and the system and included in the overall system performance calculations.
these projects are somehow close to the working principles of the Although the decentralized system is a semi-decentralized system, for ease
presented models. of understanding, it is referred to as a decentralized system in the manu-
script. The schematic representation is shown in Fig. 2. The centralized
2. Energy systems section of the energy system (i.e. the solar thermal collector, photovoltaic
panels, seasonal storage and warm tank) along with the decentralized
Two distinct large scale solar district heating networks typologies section of the energy system (i.e. the heat pump and the hot tank in each
are designed for cold climate in the paper. In order to show the benefits house) is shown in Fig. 2. The heat supply system consists of:
of the proposed community sized solar district heating networks a re-
ference case is also used. • Semi-decentralized system (Fig. 2):
o A central collector (ST) field.
2.1. Proposed community sized solar district network: Centralized and semi- o Centralized photovoltaic panels (PV) in an open central field.
decentralized systems o It is a semi-centralized system where the low temperature warm
tank is large and centralized in the energy building while small
The study is performed for a virtual Finnish community with two hot tanks are distributed in each house. Both the tanks are also
different and dedicated solar district heating networks. It is modelled known as short term storage tanks.
on TRNSYS 17 introduced earlier in [53], and dynamic simulations are o Solar thermal collector (ST) charges the warm tank only during
performed. summer.
The community consists of 100 houses with a heated area of 100 m2 o Borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) is located in the energy
each. Generally, in both the energy systems, solar thermal collectors are centre at a centralized location. It is charged via the warm tank
used to collect heat and store it in short-term tanks operating at two only if excess energy is available in the tanks.
temperature levels. Excess energy is stored in the borehole thermal o Distributed heat pumps (HP) are used to charge distributed hot
1075
Fig. 1. Simple schematic representation of the centralized energy system.
tanks by taking heat energy from space heating (SPH) return 2.2. The system controls description
network.
o The domestic hot water (DHW) is provided through the decen- Both the centralized and decentralized system is designed to max-
tralized hot tanks, and space heating (SPH) is provided mainly imize the use of solar energy. Solar energy is used to meet the heating
from the centralized warm tank. demand and also to charge the borehole thermal energy storage. The
Electrical hub- 45 - 50 °C
100 buildings Energy system
lta
ic
Solar thermal collector
20 - 40 °C
vo
to (ST)
Electrical grid o
Ph V)
(P
Electricity for
Appliances
50 °C
+ -
Heat 45 °C Seasonal
Exchanger Heat Pump Storage (BTES)
(HP) Short-term storage
tank (Warm Tank)
30 - 35 °C
30 - 50 °C
65 °C 20 - 30 °C
40 °C
40 °C
Space heating
(SPH)
Domestic hot water

Centralized section
(DHW)
Short-term storage
tank (Hot Tank) 30 °C
60 °C
10 °C
100 Houses
Sewer Cold Water
De-centralized section
Fig. 2. Simple schematic representation of the decentralized energy system.
1076
overall control strategies of both systems are described here. The in- The space heating is provided by passing the water both through the
dividual features of each of the energy systems are described in the centralized warm tank and the bottom node of the decentralized hot tank
following subsections of the paper (Sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2). when the warm tank is not at an adequate temperature level to maintain
the supply temperature [53]. The heated water is then provided to the
buildings at a temperature between 27 °C and 40 °C, depending on the
2.2.1. Centralized system
outdoor temperature. The water is heated up to 58 °C before being sup-
The solar thermal is first used to charge the short-term tanks, and if
plied to the tap. The schematic representation is shown in Fig. 2.
solar energy is not available, the borehole and heat pump are used to
charge the short-term tanks, while the short-term tanks are used to
provide space heating and domestic hot water (DHW) to the buildings. 3. Simulation methodology
If the warm tank temperature is lower than 40 °C, it is heated to 45 °C.
Similarly, if the hot tank temperature is lower than 65 °C, it is heated to A dynamic simulation software (TRNSYS) is used for the simulations
70 °C by the collector. If no energy is available from the collector, the of the proposed energy systems. A time step of 0.125 h is used. The time
heat is transferred directly from the BTES to the warm tank. If the warm step is small to have accuracy in the calculations; however it is not too
tank temperature is lower than 35 °C and the BTES average temperature small to increase the simulation time. It is found that 1 h simulation can
is higher than the warm tank top temperature, the tank is charged via take 485 s. While 0.1 h takes 983 s. Therefore as a compromise 0.125 h
the BTES. For the hot tank, if the temperature is lower than 60 °C, it is is taken which takes 582 s for single simulation. TRNSYS [50] Type 1b,
charged to 65 °C by the centralized heat pump. The heat pump takes Type 543, Type 557a, Type 668, Type 194, and Type 15 are used for the
energy from the warm tank. Any excess energy is transferred to the solar thermal collector, buffer tanks, borehole thermal energy storage
BTES from both the hot and warm tanks in order to charge the seasonal (BTES), heat pump, photovoltaic panels, and weather data, respectively
storage. BTES is charged by both tanks. If the warm tank temperature is [53]. These input parameters have already been defined in [53]. The
higher than 50 °C, the heat is transferred to the BTES until it reaches application of both the centralized and decentralized systems is for the
45 °C. Similarly, if the hot tank temperature is higher than 75 °C, the residential community with 100 houses each of 100 m2 floor area. No
heat is transferred to the BTES until it reaches 70 °C [53]. commercial, high density buildings or public buildings are considered.
Space heating is provided by passing the water through the warm tank The TRNSYS simulation tool has been validated by Drake Landing Solar
and through the bottom node of the hot tank to provide space heating to Community, Canada. The simulation results showed conformity with
the houses between 27 °C and 40 °C, depending on the outdoor tempera- the measured data of the real plant [42].
ture. The domestic hot water (DHW) is provided by passing the cold water
through both the warm and hot tanks [53]. The water is heated up to 58 °C 3.1. Piping networks
before being supplied to the tap. There is also backup heating provided by
a direct electric heater in case the system is not able to provide sufficient The distribution piping for domestic hot water for 100 buildings is
heat. The schematic representation is shown in Fig. 1. assumed to be around 4000 m for the centralized system and 400 m for
the decentralized system. In centralized system the hot tank is assumed
2.2.2. Decentralized system to be present at a central location or plant, therefore it has longer
In this setup, a centralized warm tank is charged only via a col- distribution network to connect each building. The length for the do-
lector. If the warm tank temperature is lower than 40 °C, it is heated to mestic hot water network in decentralized system is reduced because it
45 °C by the collector. The BTES is charged only by the warm tank (in is assumed that each decentralized hot tank is placed inside the
contrast to the centralized energy system, where the BTES is charged by building. A commercially available pipe type DN40 is used, with
both the warm tanks and the hot tanks). If the warm tank temperature polyurethane (PUR) insulation having insulation conductivity of
is higher than 50 °C, excess heat is transferred to the BTES until it 0.023 W/m K [55]. The piping network is simulated in the TRNSYS
reaches 45 °C. When solar energy is not available, the warm tank is using Type 709 [50]. The losses through the pipes are simulated as an
charged via the BTES directly. If the warm tank temperature is lower output by the Type 709 in TRNSYS [55].
than 35 °C and the BTES average temperature is higher than the warm
tank top node temperature, the tank is charged via the BTES [53]. 3.2. Weather profile and demand profile
The decentralized hot tank in each building is charged only by the
decentralized heat pump in each building. The energy from this cen- The weather profile chosen for the simulation is of Southern
tralized warm tank is distributed in the low temperature space heating Finland. Regarding the weather data, Finnish test reference year is used
district heating network of the community. The heat pump takes energy in TRNSYS through Type 15 [53]. The ambient temperature and total
from the space heating return line to charge the hot tank. Generally, in the radiation are shown in Fig. 3a. Fig. 3b shows the hourly demand for
base case scenario, if the hot tank temperature is lower than 60 °C, it is space heating (37 kWh/m2/yr) and DHW (45 kWh/m2/yr) demand for
heated to 65 °C by the heat pump. However, in this study, the hot tank the analysed building. An appliance electricity demand of 40 kWh/m2/
charging set point via the heat pump is used as a design variable [53]. yr is used [56].
0.05 40
Domestic Hot Water Space Heating Demand
Ambient temperature (oC)
Ambient Temperature (oC)
1000 35
Energy Demand (kWh/m2)
Total radiation Ambient temperature 30

Ambient temperature
Solar radiation (W/m2)
800 25 0.04 20
15 10
600 0.03
5 0
400 -10
-5 0.02
-20
200 -15
0.01 -30
0 -25 -40
1
366
731
1096
1461
1826
2191
2556
2921
3286
3651
4016
4381
4746
5111
5476
5841
6206
6571
6936
7301
7666
8031
8396
0 -50
1
314
627
940
1253
1566
1879
2192
2505
2818
3131
3444
3757
4070
4383
4696
5009
5322
5635
5948
6261
6574
6887
7200
7513
7826
8139
8452
Time (hrs)
Year (hrs)
Fig. 3. Finland (a) Hourly solar radiation and ambient temperature; (b) building hourly energy demand (37 kWh/m2/yr space heating demand).
1077
3.3. Reference case electricity includes both the factors. Additionally, photovoltaic panels
are used to supply electricity to both the system and houses electricity
The reference case consists of a typical single building, integrated demand.
with a heat pump (1.8 kW) in Finnish conditions. It has no seasonal The mathematical expression for purchased electricity is:
storage and renewable energy generation sources namely, collector and
EPUR = EPUMP + EHP + EBH + EBUL−EONC , (1)
photovoltaic. The building has a heating demand of 50 kWh/m2/yr si-
tuated in Finland and it meets the minimum C3 National Building code where EPUR is the purchased electricity, EPUMP is the energy consumed
of Finland [57]. An appliance electricity demand of 40 kWh/m2/yr is by all flow circulation pumps, EHP is the heat pump energy, EBH is the
used [56]. The building contains a hot tank of 1 m3 to store hot water energy used by the direct electric backup heating (used to maintain the
for heating demand. The heat pump is integrated with the ground temperature in the space heating and domestic hot water network in
(depth 50 m) to charge the hot tank. case the heat pump and solar energy are not sufficient), EBUL is the
appliance electricity demand of buildings, and EONC is the on-site
4. Optimization methodology electricity demand that is met by the PV panels. It is assumed that the
electricity produced by the PV is used by the energy system and also by
4.1. Problem definition the building appliances. The electricity production by the PV panels
faces the same problem as heat production by the collector: the mis-
The focus in this paper is to optimize, compare and investigate the match between supply and demand curves. In this paper the energy
differences in the performances of two different concepts in Northern flows (for the heat and electricity) are balanced for every time step. All
European conditions—i.e., centralized and semi-decentralized solar heating demand has to be met by the local system. However, for elec-
district heating. The application of the proposed energy systems is for tricity, excess energy generated via PV is exported to the gird due to the
the residential buildings. Therefore, firstly, both the energy systems are lack of electrical storage device in present study. Any shortfall is ba-
modelled and then optimized using a multi-objective optimization al- lanced by the imported electricity from the grid, while excess is ex-
gorithm (NSGA-II), where purchased electricity and life cycle costs are ported.
minimized together in ideal conditions. Lastly, both systems are com- The second function—life cycle costs—is the sum of the present
pared to analyse the differences between the two systems based on value of the investment cost of the system and discounted energy cost
various criteria. The renewable energy fraction [53], final purchased for 25 years. It is expressed as:
electricity, and life cycle costs (LCC) are calculated to evaluate the 25
system. LCC = CST + CPV + CBTES + CWT + CHT + CB + ∑ ae CI EPUR
In this kind of building optimization problems, the use of two n=1
25
(contradictory) objective functions has proven to be a good approach
[58]. The objective functions are usually representing the system per-
− ∑ ae CE EEXP ,
n=1 (2)
formance (purchased electricity) and cost (LCC). The better performing
system, the less energy needs to be purchased but the higher is the cost the CB, EEXP and ae used in Eq. (2) is defined as,
and vice versa. Therefore, both the objectives i.e. system performance CB = CWins + CRins + CFins + CWIND + CHR, (3)
(purchased electricity) and cost (LCC) are contradictory and does not
follow same trend of development. Furthermore, in this way a Pareto EEXP = EPV −EDEM, (4)
front including numerous non-dominated solutions (Pareto-optimal set)
and,
is achieved. Using LCC, single-objective optimization leads to only one
optimal solution. This minimum cost solution is one amongst the multi- ae = 1−(1 + r )−25/ r (5)
objective results (Pareto-optimal set). So, the multi-objective approach
is giving dozens of optimal solutions with different technical perfor- where r in Eq. (5) is defined as,
mance and different cost. On the contrary, the LCC single optimal ap- r = (ir −ep)/(1 + ep), (6)
proach is giving only one of these solutions. The benefit of multi-ob-
jective approach is evident in such problems and therefore used in in Eq. (2) LCC is the life cycle cost, which includes the investments and
present study. operation costs for 25 years. CST is the solar collector investment, CPV is
the photovoltaic, CBTES is the borehole (includes excavation and drilling
costs), CWT is the warm tank, CHT is the hot tank, and CB is the building
4.2. Objective functions
investments. CI is the imported electricity price, and CE is the exported
electricity price. The import electricity price of 11.10 c/kWh and export
In this study, purchased electricity and life cycle costs (LCC) are set
electricity of 4.04 c/kWh is used. All these prices are based on 2016
as the objective functions to be minimized. The motivation to use
electricity prices [59]. The ‘ae’ is the discounting factor that takes into
purchased electricity and the life cycle costs (LCC) are of primary in-
account the interest rate ‘ir’ and price escalation ‘ep’. The discounting
terest because purchasing electricity and operational costs (and en-
factor ‘ae’ is explained in Eq. (5) [60]. The factor ‘r’ in Eq. (5) is cal-
vironmental issues in general) are of interest to the end users and the
culated by using ‘ir’ and ‘ep’ and it is explained in Eq. (6) [60]. The price
contractors. Therefore it is important to evaluate all these quantities in
escalation rate ‘ep’ of 1% is used because of the decreasing trend in
order to provide the overall performance of the system.
electricity prices in the Nordic market [61]. The interest rate ‘ir’ of 3% is
The optimization problem can be formulated as follows:
used [62]. In Eqs. (2) and (3), the CB is the building investment, which
Min {EPUR (x) = Purchased electricity, LCC (x) includes the cost of the building’s insulation material, wall (CWins), roof
(CRins), and floor (CFins), and the cost of windows (CWIND) and building
= Life cycle costs (LCC)}, for all x = [x1, x2 , …, x n],
heat recovery (CHR) as defined in Table 1 and in Table 2. The variables
where EPUR is the purchased electricity for the system together with the explained in Eq. (3) changes with respect to the type of the building
building appliances, and LCC is the life cycle costs of the system, and ‘x’ quality selected in each optimization case. A detailed explanation re-
is the vector of the design variables (x1, x2 , …, x n ) as defined in Section garding building cost is provided in Table 1 and in Table 2. In Eq. (4),
4.3. In this problem, there are ten design variables that are considered. the EEXP is the excess electricity that is produced by PV panels and
To provide an overall performance of the community that includes both exported, EPV is the electricity produced by the PV panels, and EDEM is
the energy system and building appliances demand. The purchased the total electricity demand of the system that includes pumps, heat
1078
Table 1 electricity produced by PV is not considered in the calculation of the

Cost of building efficiency components [56,66]. REFheat in Eq. (7) and accounts only the heating energy, therefore any
Parameters Details Prices Variables used in electricity produced by PV and consumed on-site is not included in the
Eq. (3) REFheat calculation. The household appliances electricity demand is
also not included in the calculations. In the optimization, varying of the
External wall Mineral wool 65 €/m3 CWins
solar thermal area, tanks volume, seasonal storage shape and volume,
insulation
Roof insulation Blow in wool 37 €/m3 CRins
also vary the REF, until it reaches certain saturation level. After this
Floor insulation Polyurethane 114 €/m3 CFin saturation level there is no further increase or decrease in the purchased
Windows type U-value = 1 W/m2 K 252 €/m2 CWIND electricity and REF simultaneously. All the design variables mentioned
U-value = 0.8 W/m2 K 252 €/m2 in Section 4.3 has an effect on the heat pump performance and back up
U-value = 0.6 W/m2 K 252 €/m2
heating, which ultimately vary both the purchased electricity and REF.
Ventilation heat Efficiency = 80% 4138 CHR
recovery €/house Purchased electricity is used as an objective to be reduced instead of
efficiency Efficiency = 70% 3835 REF.
€/house The onsite energy fraction (OEFelec) of electricity is also calculated.
Efficiency = 90% 3533
OEFelec indicates the portion of the electricity demand met by the onsite
€/house
electricity generation i.e. by PV [64]. In the present study, grid elec-
tricity is the only external source, the OEFelec for the whole system is
pump, backup heating and building appliances. EEXP is used to calculate defined using the ratio of annually purchased electricity vs. the total
the LCC as shown in Eq. (2). No maintenance costs replacement or electricity demand of the community. This includes both the house
disposal costs are considered in LCC, as the presented calculation is an appliance and energy system demands. No electrical storage device is
economical life cycle analysis as proposed [63]. As the application is considered for electricity in present study.
computationally expensive, a five-year simulation is not feasible.
Therefore, as a compromise, the system is simulated for three years for
4.3. Design variables
estimating the performance of the system.
The solar fraction is also known as renewable energy fraction (REF)
The performance of the energy system depends on the ten design
or on-site energy fraction of solar utilization [64]. The renewable en-
variables that are defined and considered in this paper, namely: (1) the
ergy fraction for heating i.e. REFheat and onsite energy fraction for
ST collector area, (2) warm short-term storage tank volume, (3) hot
electricity i.e. OEFelec are calculated separately.
short-term storage tank volume, (4) BTES volume, (5) photovoltaic
In this system solar district network is supported by ground-source
area, (6) the building’s heating demand, (7) BTES aspect ratio, (8) BTES
heat pump (HP), seasonal storage and short term tanks, therefore total
borehole density, (9) hot warm tank charging set point, and (10) warm
solar energy generation couldn’t be used directly for the calculation of
tank charging set point. The reference point for the design variables
renewable energy fraction. Instead, REF for heating or REFheat is cal-
values are from Drake Landing Solar Community, Canada [42]. Similar
culated indirectly to avoid confusion. Due to the utilization of short-
values are used in the optimization. However, the mentioned project
term tank and seasonal storage, as well as heat pump, the total solar
has fixed values for all the design variables. To provide a wide range of
energy generation could not be used for the calculation of the REFheat
possible optimal solutions a wide range of design variables are assumed
because there are significant losses and energy conversion from elec-
for the simulation and optimization.
tricity to heat. Therefore, REFheat is calculated by determining the
It is assumed that in a new community, the buildings would have
electricity consumption of all heat related systems (heat pumps, back
minimum basic construction cost for the structure which needs to be
up heating and pumping) and assuming remaining energy is generated
paid. This basic construction cost is assumed to be ‘0’ and used as a
by solar thermal collector for heating demand. For heating the renew-
reference. Any additional cost of building efficiency components are
able energy fraction is defined as a ratio of total electricity needed to
given as a difference to this reference cost ‘0’. Costs of building effi-
run the heating system and the total heating demand met by the system.
ciency components are reported in Table 1 and the optimal building
Any onsite produced electricity by PV is not compensated for the cal-
configurations selected for further energy simulations are shown in
culation of REFheat. This is done to show the impact of the heat related
Table 2 [53].
system on the heating demand.
The values or range of the design variables are shown in Table 3.
The renewable energy fraction for heating is defined as [65],
The investment costs are related to the design variables, which are also
Renewable energy fractionheat (REFheat ) shown in Table 3. All the values of the design variables defined in
(HP + backup direct heating + pumping ) electricity consumption per year Table 3 are the total values for all the 100 buildings. Only hot tank
= 1− , volume is specified as volume/house. In order to provide a wide range
SPH demand per year + DHW demand per year
of solutions very small to large values of the variables are used to find
(7)
best combinations of the design variables. A constant price unit is used
the above Eq. (7) accounts the direct-use and ground stored heat energy for some components as shown in Table 3. The cost of the collector
as it reduces the need for the direct electric backup heating and heat (Fig. 4), photovoltaic panels (Fig. 4), and tanks (Fig. 5) are assumed to
pump compressor operation. It also accounts the heat losses through the go down with larger sizes. The lowering of the costs is due to economies
grid. SPH in Eq. (7) is the space heating demand (SPH) as mentioned in of scale as supplier companies tend to sell more at slightly lower price.
Table 2. It includes both the ventilation heating and space heating. For each selected size of the collector, photovoltaic and tanks by the
DHW in Eq. (7) is the domestic hot water (DHW) demand. Solar optimizer, the corresponding price of the components are selected from
Table 2
Building configurations used as possible options in the community optimization [53].
Building configuration SPH demand (kWh/m2/yr) Wall (W/m2) Floor (W/m2) Roof (W/m2) Windows (W/m2) Heat recovery efficiency (%) Price (€)/building
1 50 0.17 0.17 0.09 1 60 12,655 €/building

2 37 0.17 0.17 0.09 1 80 13,260 €/building
3 25 0.13 0.17 0.07 0.6 80 15,628 €/building
1079
Table 3
System configuration variations for the simulations and investment cost of the components used in energy systems.
Design variables Types of System type Range/Values (total for 100 houses) Prices (€) References
variables
ST area (m2) Continuous Decentralized 50–6000 1000–550 €/m2 [67]

Centralized 500–6000 600–550 €/m2 [67]
PV area (m2) Continuous Both systems 50–6000 450–200 €//m2 [68]
Hot tank volume/house Continuous Decentralized 0.5–5/house 900–810 €/m3 [67]
(m3) Centralized 1–5/house 850–810 €/m3 [67]
Warm tank volume (m3) Continuous Decentralized 300–500 900–810 €/m3 [67]
Centralized 150–500
BTES aspect ratio Continuous Both systems 0.25–5 3€/m3(excavation for insulation and [66,69]
BTES borehole density 0.05–0.25 piping) + 33.5€/m(drill) + 88€/m3 (1.5 m thick insulation)
BTES volume (m3) 10,000–70,000
Hot tank charge set Continuous Decentralized 60–75 °C (for heat pump)
points (°C) Centralized 68–83 °C (for collector)
Warm tank charge set Continuous Both systems 35–50 °C
points (°C)
Building quality/ Discrete Both systems Type 1: heating 15,628 €/building [53]
configuration demand = 25 kWh/m2/yr
Type 2: heating 13,260 €/building
demand = 37 kWh/m2/yr
Type 3: heating 12,655 €/building
demand = 50 kWh/m2/yr
Figs. 4 and 5 respectively, by the simulation. All the costs used are II algorithm is selected [58]. The NSGA-II algorithm is selected because
market prices and no incentives are included in the calculations. it can solve a multi-objective problem, while handling the constraints,
There are two major changes in the design variables selection in the discrete and continuous variables. Furthermore, parallel computing is
centralized and decentralized systems in Table 3. The two changes are possible with this algorithm [58]. It is not only computationally ex-
in the solar collector area and the hot tank charging set point. First, in a pensive to explore all designs, it is computationally infeasible. Hence, a
decentralized system, the solar collector area design variable can be multi-objective non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) is
reduced to 50 m2 as a starting point, compared to a centralized system used to perform the exploration [56].
where the lowest collector area is 500 m2. It is adjusted because in a An automated simulation-based optimization method is performed
decentralized system, only a warm tank is charged via the collector at using the NSGA-II algorithm combined with TRNSYS. It avoids the re-
lower temperatures, hence there is leverage to reduce the collector petition, keeps all the iterations in an archive, and uses them in a non-
area. Secondly, in a decentralized system, the hot tank is charged via a dominated sorting process. An initial population of 16 individuals is
heat pump; and in a centralized system the hot tank is charged mainly selected in MOBO [71]. Fig. 6 shows the flow diagram of the multi-
via the collector. Therefore in both cases, the design variables are dif- objective optimization process. Deb et al. [58] provides a detailed de-
ferent for the hot tank charging set point. scription of the algorithm. All the design variables random values are
generated by the algorithm to be evaluated in the TRNSYS simulation
software and later the results are sorted by MOBO based on the ob-
4.4. Optimization algorithm
jective functions.
The speed of convergence of an optimization method can be de-
In the present approach, the TRNSYS system models and multi-ob-
termined by using the hypervolume indication as explained in [72].
jective building optimizer (MOBO) are combined to perform the opti-
Hypervolume describes the area or volume enclosed by the non-domi-
mization. MOBO [70] is freeware optimization software that can handle
nated front and some reference point. The distribution of points on the
both discrete and continuous variables and allows the use of evolu-
Pareto front has an effect on hypervolume. The smaller the hypervo-
tionary and classical optimization algorithms. For this study, the NSGA-
lume value is, the closer the Pareto front is from the global/true optimal
Fig. 4. Cost profile of the rooftop solar thermal [67] and solar electric panels
systems [68]. Fig. 5. Cost profile of the hot and warm tanks [67].
1080
Pre-simulated data of building
Building design
Building simulation variables (walls, floor,
roof insulations etc.)
TRNSYS
Simulation
Optimization
Output file
Objective functions Max Evaluate in the

MOBO gen. Create input TRNSYS
reached
Initial design variables (collector TRNSYS

area, PV area, BTES volume etc.) MOBO-Optimizer
Optimization results
Fig. 6. The flow diagram of the multi-objective optimization process and its integration with the simulation.
front. In Fig. 7, the vertical axis shows the hypervolume (area enclosed in the future, as a result of increase competitiveness in the market
by the Pareto front, correspond to that generation number), and the caused by increase in the demand and supply of these components [74].
horizontal axis shows the number of generations (in each generation 16 In both the centralized and decentralized systems, the electricity price
simulations are done). It is found that the hypervolume of the Pareto is assumed to increase by 25%, the PV and collector prices are assumed
front reduced by increasing the number of generations, as shown in to decrease by 25%. These values are used to estimate the sensitivity of
Fig. 7. However, after 300 generations, there is no progress on the the optimized systems to the prices.
Pareto front, i.e. the hypervolume remained almost constant after 300
generations. Therefore, for the given optimization problem, 300 gen- 4.5.2. Physical design variable sensitivity
erations are used in optimization. Physical design variable sensitivity is carried out to define how
various independent design variables can impact the performance
4.5. Sensitivity analysis under a given set of assumptions [75]. The results can be post processed
to identify the sensitivities of the decision variables. It is a useful tool
In additional to the optimization, two types of sensitivity analysis that can be used to decide which parameters need more in-depth ana-
are carried out to provide an in-depth analysis of the system behaviours lysis and has larger impact on the objectives. These significant para-
under key parameters. The two sensitivities carried out are (1) price meters, which are more influential, can be used for further studies,
sensitivity and (2) physical design variable sensitivity. while the standard values can be used for the least influential para-
meters. The two most important physical design variables in both the
4.5.1. Price sensitivity community district networks are collector and photovoltaic. These two
In the future it is assumed that electricity prices may increase due to variables are the main sources for generation and also expensive. In the
global trend [73]. While the prices of the PV and collector may reduce present study a single representative random case for each of the cen-
tralized and decentralized systems are simulated, where either the
collector or photovoltaic sizes are varied at a time, while all the other
design variables are kept constant. This analysis and comparison can
provide a deep understanding about the variable that has the highest
contribution in varying the LCC and the purchased electricity.
5. Results and discussions
5.1. Optimal solutions
Fig. 8 shows the relationship between LCC and the purchased

electricity of the non-dominated solutions of the two different systems
and reference building case. Red points are for the centralized system
and blue points are for the decentralized system. Moreover, green point
shows the reference building case.
The solutions on the Pareto fronts are called non-dominated solu-
Fig. 7. Hypervolume of the Pareto front of the decentralized system as a tions. Generally, the solutions on the right side of Fig. 8 are the least
function of generations. expensive optimal solutions with the worst optimal performance, while
1081
800 400
1 350 Solar collector cost
700
Cost breakdown (€/m2)

300
Photo voltaic panels cost
Life cycle cost (€/m2)
600 250
Borehole seasonal storage
1 200
500 cost
74&75 150 Warm tank cost
400
41&42 141 100 Hot water tank cost
300 50 Building cost
Centralized energy system (Pareto front)
112 Decentralized energy system (Pareto front) 0
200
Reference single building Case 41 Case 42
100 Decentralized system - Configurations
15 35 55 75 95 115
Fig. 10. Analysis on the irregularity in the decentralized system Pareto front,
Purchased energy (kWh/m2/yr) caused by the NSGA-II algorithm for multi-objective optimization.
Fig. 8. Comparison between the Pareto fronts of the centralized and decen-
tralized energy system along with the reference point. similar between Case 74 and Case 75 in Fig. 9, only PV price changed
drastically, caused by the random selections by the NSGA-II algorithm.
the solutions on the left side of Fig. 8 are most expensive solutions with Likewise, in Fig. 8, a small gap in Case 41 and Case 42 in the decen-
best optimal performance. By comparing the two fronts of the centralized energy system front (blue points). This is caused by decrease in
tralized and decentralized systems against the reference case, it is ob- the collector area from around 1000 m2 to 450 m2, and thereby a cost
served that both the community sized solar heating networks perform decrease caused by the change in the collector area. This sudden de-
better in both the objectives i.e. in the purchased electricity and in the crease in the collector area, corresponds to the price change of the
LCC. This shows that instead of investing and focusing on the single collector from 40 €/m2 to 16 €/m2 as shown in Fig. 10. All the other
building solutions the focus should be on the community sized heating prices are similar between Case 41 and Case 42 in Fig. 10, only collector
networks to have better LCC and lower purchased electricity. In re- price changed drastically. The irregularities in both the optimization
ference case (green point), no seasonal storage and renewable energy fronts (blue and red points) in Fig. 8 are explained in Fig. 9 and in
sources are considered, therefore the LCC and purchased electricity Fig. 10. These Figs. 9 and 10, shows the weakness of the NSGA-II al-
values are higher. gorithm, when continuous variables are used as a design variable. In an
In total, there are 141 and 112 non-dominated solutions for the ideal scenario, the front points should be continuous without any gaps
centralized (red points) and decentralized (blue points) energy systems, between them, with each design variable’s value changing in a con-
respectively, as shown in Fig. 8. For the centralized system (red points), tinuous manner in smaller steps.
the purchased energy varied from 46 kWh/m2/yr to 27 kWh/m2/yr, The resulting Pareto front in the decentralized system is better than
which corresponds to a LCC from 311 €/m2 to 694 €/m2, respectively, in the centralized system in Fig. 8. The decentralized Pareto front shows
as shown in Fig. 8. On the other hand, for the decentralized system that this type of system can be implemented at a lower cost. However,
(blue points), the purchased energy varied from 40 kWh/m2/yr to 25 the purchased electricity variations are more or less similar in both
kWh/m2/yr, which corresponds to a LCC from 270 €/m2 to 500 €/m2, energy systems, with the decentralized system performing slightly
respectively, as shown in Fig. 8. The solution shows a wide range of better in terms of purchased electricity. Fig. 8 shows that by having
optimal solutions that can be selected based on the needs of the cus- centralized low temperature space heating network and decentralized
tomers and investors. high temperature domestic hot water, the cost of the system can be
Certain irregularities are observed in both Pareto fronts in Fig. 8. In reduced, since the size of the expensive components (solar collector)
Fig. 8, there is a slight irregularity in Case 74 and Case 75 in the middle can be reduced. A representative case is selected from the Pareto fronts
of the centralized energy system front (red points). This is caused by the of both the energy systems to compare the district network tempera-
reduction in the PV area by 744 m2, i.e. from 5906 m2 to 5162 m2. This tures of both the systems. The purchased electricity are same in both the
sudden reduction in the PV area, corresponds to the price change of PV representative cases i.e. around 28 kWh/m2/yr, however the LCC are
from 121 €/m2 to 105 €/m2 as shown in Fig. 9. All the other prices are different. Fig. 11 shows the differences in the network temperatures and
the corresponding life cycle cost of both systems. Both the systems are
400
able to reach similar levels of performance i.e. purchased electricity,
while the cost function is different mainly due to the costs of the col-
350 Photo voltaic panels cost
lector and PV as shown in Fig. 11.
300 Solar collector cost
Cost breakdown (€/m2)
Borehole seasonal storage

250 cost
5.2. Sensitivity analysis of the Pareto front with respect to the prices
Warm tank cost
200 Hot water tank cost Sensitivity of both the optimized centralized and decentralized
systems as shown in Fig. 8 are carried out with respect to the key
Building cost
150 economical parameters, for instance electricity, PV and collector prices.
Figs. 12 and 13 shows the sensitivity of the optimized centralized
100 system with respect to electricity, PV and collector prices. Overall, in
both Fig. 12 and in Fig. 13 the increase in the electricity price increased
50 the LCC of the system, making the systems less economical. On the
other hand, reduction in the components prices reduced the LCC of the
0
system, making the systems more economical. The Pareto fronts are
Case 74 Case 75
more sensitive to the electricity price (brown line) in worst performance
Centralized system - Configurations
cases (Case 141 or Case 112 for centralized and decentralized systems
Fig. 9. Analysis on the irregularity in the centralized system Pareto front, respectively) where purchased electricity is large. While the Pareto
caused by the NSGA-II algorithm for multi-objective optimization. fronts are more sensitive to the component prices (purple and green
1082
70 700
Operating temperatures of the network (4000 m)
60 600
Life cycle cost of the system
District temperature (oC)
50 500

40 400
Purchased electricity = 28 kWh/m2/yr

Collector area= 3750 m2
30 Photovoltaic area= 5912 m2 300
Building demand = 50 kWh/m2/yr
BTES volume = 22000 m3
Hot tank volume = 151 m3 Purchased electricity = 28 kWh/m2/yr
Warm tank volume = 179 m3
20 Collector area= 462 m2
Photovoltaic area= 5854 m2
200
Building demand = 37 kWh/m2/yr
BTES volume = 10342 m3
Hot tank volume = 238 m3
10 Warm tank volume = 355 m3 100
0 0
Centralized district heating system Decentralized district heating network
Fig. 11. Average yearly operating temperature of the centralized and decentralized system central district heating network.
lines) in best performing cases (Case 1), where component sizes are the purchased electricity is less. Secondly in PV price (green line) and
relatively large compared to the worst performing cases. collector price (purple line), it is noted that the change in LCC is relative
Fig. 12 shows the sensitivity of the optimized centralized system to the sizes of the PV and collector in a particular solution. Solutions
with respect to electricity, PV and collector prices. It is observed that close to the least performing cases (Case 141) has less PV and less
with the increase in the electricity price by 25%, the reference Pareto collector, therefore purple and green lines are close to the reference red
front moves (red line) to form a new Pareto front (brown line). This line. This means that in these cases reduction in collector and PV prices
change causes 2∼8% (Case 1–141) and an average 4% increase in LCC has less impact on the LCC. On the other hand, solutions close to high
(brown line) with respect to reference LCC (red line). It is also observed performing cases (Case 1) has large amount of collector, therefore the
that with the increase in the PV price by 25%, the reference Pareto front purple line is farthest from the reference red line, compared to the
moves (red line) to form a new Pareto front (green line). This change green line. Hence in these cases reduction in collector price compared
causes 4–1% and an average 5% decrease in LCC (green line) with re- to PV price has slightly more impact on the LCC.
spect to reference LCC (red line). With the increase in the collector price Fig. 13 shows the sensitivity of the optimized decentralized system
by 25%, the reference Pareto front moves (red line) to form a new with respect to the electricity, PV and collector prices. It is observed
Pareto front (purple line). This change causes 11–2% and an average that with the increase in the electricity price by 25%, the reference
6% decrease in LCC (purple line) with respect to reference LCC (red Pareto front moves (blue line) to form a new Pareto front (brown line).
line). This change causes 2–8% (Case 1 to 112) and an average 5% increase in
Two phenomena can be observed in Fig. 12. First, when reference LCC (brown line) with respect to reference LCC (blue line). It is also
Pareto front (red line) is compared against the Pareto front where observed that with the increase in the PV price by 25%, the reference
electricity price is changed (brown line). It is found that in worst per- Pareto front moves (blue line) to form a new Pareto front (green line).
forming cases (Case 141) the increase in the electricity price cause This change causes 7–1% and an average 6% decrease in LCC (green
larger change in the front compared to the best performing cases (Case line) with respect to reference LCC (blue line). With the increase in the
1). This is because in the worst performing cases the purchased elec- collector price by 25%, the reference Pareto front moves (blue line) to
tricity is large, and any change in the electricity price will also have form a new Pareto front (purple line). This change causes 9–2% and an
large impact on the LCC, compared to the best performing cases where average 4% decrease in LCC (purple line) with respect to reference LCC
800
Reference (Pareto Front)-
700 1 Centralized system
25% increase in Electricity price

600 (Pareto front)
25 % decrease in PV price (Pareto

500 front)
25 % decrease in collector price

400 (Pareto front)
300
200 141
100
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Purchased electricity (kWh/m2/yr)

Fig. 12. Sensitivity of the multi-objective optimized solutions of the centralized system, with respect to electricity, PV and collector prices.
1083
550
500 Reference (Pareto Front)-Decentralized system
450
1 25% increase in electricity price (Pareto front)

25% decrease in PV price (Pareto front)
400
25% decrease in collector price (Pareto front)
350
300
250
112
200
150
100
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Purchased electricity (kWh/m2/yr)
Fig. 13. Sensitivity of the multi-objective optimized solutions of the decentralized system, with respect to electricity, PV and collector prices.
(blue line). Similar phenomena can be observed in Fig. 13 as explained the PV panels area and its benefits, the investments are then made in
above for the centralized system, regarding the sensitivity of the prices the buildings and solar thermal area, which further benefits the system
as solutions moves from (Case 1) to (Case 112). by reducing the purchased electricity demand of the system. It is also
The design variables of both the centralized and decentralized sys- important to note that parallel to the increase in the area of the col-
tems are compared in detail in the following sections. lector from (Case 141) to (Case 1) in Fig. 14, the volume of the borehole
storage also increases. It is evident that in order to improve the cen-
5.3. Analysis of the non-dominated solutions tralized system performance, the solar thermal collector played a sig-
nificant role as the photovoltaic panels get saturated. The overall solar
Both Figs. 14 and 15 show the cost breakdown of the non-domi- thermal collector area, the photovoltaic panels area, and the buildings’
nated optimized solutions in Fig. 8 for the centralized and decentralized heating demand played a significant role in the reduction of purchased
systems, respectively. Generally, the solutions on the left side near electricity.
(Case 1) are the most expensive solutions and are therefore high per- Generally the solutions near (Case 1) had a medium-large size solar
formance solutions in both Figs. 14 and 15. On the other side, the so- thermal collector and a large size photovoltaic panels area. This com-
lutions on the right side near (Case 141) and (Case 112), respectively, bination reduced the purchased electricity to around 27 kWh/m2/yr.
are the least expensive solutions and are therefore the lowest perfor- Buildings with a heating demand of 25 kWh/m2/yr are selected in the
mance solutions. For the optimal solutions, the initial investment cost is majority of the cases, especially in the cases where the purchased
around 65–90% of the total LCC, and the other is the operational cost as electricity is less. The life cycle cost is higher in the solutions close to
shown in Figs. 14 and 15. First, a centralized system (Fig. 14) is ex- (Case 1) of Fig. 14, with a large part going to the investment cost while
plained and later a decentralized system (Fig. 15) is explained. a small proportion going to the operational cost. The renewable energy
Fig. 14 shows that the solar thermal collector formed the biggest fraction for heating (REFheat) varied between 90% and 57%. The onsite
part of the investment, followed by buildings, and then PV for the energy fraction (OEFelec) for electricity varied between 36% and 11%.
centralized system in (Case 1). In Fig. 14, the buildings form the biggest Fig. 15 shows that the solar thermal collector and buildings formed
part of the investment, followed by the solar thermal collector in (Case the biggest part of the investment, followed by PV for the decentralized
141). The highest part of the investments goes to the buildings in the system in (Case 1). In Case 112 in Fig. 15, the building forms the largest
solutions in (Case 141). As the simulation progresses towards (Case 1) part of the investment, followed by the warm tank and photovoltaic
in Fig. 14, where the performance improves, the initial investments are panels. The largest part of the investments goes to the buildings in (Case
made in the photovoltaic panels due to lower cost. After saturation of 112). As the simulation progresses towards (Case 1) in Fig. 15, where
800 Purchased electricity cost Borehole seasonal storage cost

Renewable energy fractionheat = 90%
Onsite energy fractionelec = 36% Building cost Photo voltaic panels cost
700
Life cycle cost breakdown (€/m2)
Warm tank cost Hot water tank cost

Solar collector cost
600
500
Onsite energy fractionelec = 11%
400
300
200
100
0
37
13
17
21
25
29
33
41
45
49
53
57
61
65
69
73
77
81
85
89
93
97
1
5
9
101
105
109
113
117
121
125
129
133
137
141
Configurations
Fig. 14. Life cycle cost breakdown of the non-dominated optimal solutions of centralized system.
1084
600
Renewable energy fractionheat = 92% Purchased electricity cost Borehole seasonal storage cost
Onsite energy feactionelec = 41%
Building cost Photo voltaic panels cost
Life cycle cost breakdown (€/m2)

500
Warm tank cost Hot water tank cost
Solar collector cost
400
Onsite energy fractionelec = 12%
300
200
100
0
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
1
4
7
100
103
106
109
112
Configurations
Fig. 15. Life cycle cost breakdown of the non-dominated optimal solutions of decentralized system.
the performance improves, the initial investments are made in the small to medium comes earlier in the centralized system. It shows that
photovoltaic panels due to lower cost and more benefits. This phe- in the centralized system, the solar thermal area needs to be large to
nomenon occurs up till the middle of the optimization front (Case 46). benefit the system. Since the hot tank needs to be charged at a higher
After saturation of the PV panels area, investments are then made in the temperature by the collector to reduce the purchased electricity con-
solar thermal area and later in the buildings, and that further benefits sumption, the collector area is large in the best performing Case 1 in the
the system by reducing the purchased electricity demand of the system. centralized system. Higher temperatures cannot be reached in the hot
It is also important to note that in parallel to the increase in the area of tank without a medium or large collector area. Secondly, in the de-
the collector from (Case 112) to (Case 1) in Fig. 15, the volume of the centralized system, the PV panels cost increased to the saturation up till
borehole storage also increases marginally. Fig. 15 shows that, to im- Case 46, while the collector cost remained the same. This means that
prove the decentralized system performance, the photovoltaic panels the PV panels area increased to saturation until Case 46, while the
area played a significant role, followed by the solar thermal collector collector area remained less. This shows that in a decentralized system,
area, as investments are initially made on the PV panels and later on the the performance of the system can be improved by initially adding a
collector. Overall photovoltaic panels area, the buildings’ heating de- cheaper option, i.e. PV panels, compared to the collector. Lastly, the
mand and the solar thermal collector area played an important role in cost of the borehole in the best performing Case 1 of the centralized
the reduction of purchased electricity. system (Fig. 14) is higher compared to the decentralized system
Generally the solutions close to (Case 1) had a medium sized solar (Fig. 15) Case 1. It corresponds to the larger size of the borehole storage
thermal collector and a large photovoltaic panels area. This combination needed in the centralized case to achieve better performance.
reduced the amount of purchased electricity to around 25 kWh/m2/yr. It is also found that by having a decentralized high temperature
Buildings with a heating demand of 25 kWh/m2/yr are selected in fewer (domestic hot water) system and a hot tank inside the buildings, the
cases because of the higher cost compared to the PV. The cost of the losses through the piping are reduced, as the length of the high tem-
building is 156 €/m2 whereas the cost of the PV is 121 €/m2. Therefore, perature domestic hot water pipe is reduced from 4000 m (in the
the algorithm selected first the PV and then the building. In addition, since centralized system) to 400 m (in the decentralized system). The losses
the individual building heat pump electricity demand is higher in a de- through the pipes in the centralized system are 40% higher compared to
centralized system, PV is given priority, which significantly reduced the the decentralized system in the best performing optimized cases.
amount of purchased electricity. The life cycle cost is higher in the solu- Similarly, the losses through the pipes in the centralized system are
tions close to (Case 1) in Fig. 15, with a large part for the investment cost 12% higher compared to the decentralized system in the least per-
and a small part for the operational cost. The renewable energy fraction forming optimized cases.
for heating (REFheat) varied between 92% and 75%. The onsite energy
fraction (OEFelec) for electricity varied between 41% and 12%. 5.4. Influence of system design on various parameters of the non-dominated
The common features in both the centralized (Fig. 14) and decen- solutions
tralized (Fig. 15) systems are the trends. As the systems solutions pro-
gresses from (Case 141) or (Case 112) to (Case 1) in Figs. 14 and 15 5.4.1. Physical component design parameters
respectively, the cost of the system increases while the performance In total, there are 141 non-dominated optimal solutions for a cen-
improves. In both systems, the solar thermal collector, photovoltaic tralized system and 112 non-dominated optimal solutions for a decen-
panels and buildings make up the major part of the investment cost. tralized system that resulted from each optimization run. Figs. 16–25
Moreover, the purchased electricity and renewable energy fractions are shows various design variable values of the non-dominated solutions for
similar in the best performance cases for both systems. the energy systems. Each Fig. provides insight into each design variable.
However, when comparing the centralized system (Fig. 14) with the In the results analysis for each of the design variables, first the cen-
decentralized system (Fig. 15), three major differences can be observed. tralized system design variable is explained and secondly the decen-
Firstly, when comparing centralized system (Fig. 14) and decentralized tralized system design variable is explained.
system (Fig. 15), the solar collector cost is relatively large in the best Fig. 16 shows the solar thermal collector area design variable. Fig.
performing optimized cases (Case 1) in Fig. 14 compared to the (Case 1) 16a is for the centralized system and Fig. 16b is for the decentralized
in Fig. 15 respectively. This means that the collector area is relatively system. Both figures are explained in the same order.
smaller in the decentralized system than in the centralized system. The solar thermal collector area for the centralized system (Fig.
Moreover, the change in collector area done by the algorithm from 16a) shows that around 30% of the solar thermal area is 500 m2. The
1085
6000 6000
a b
Solar thermal collector area

Solar thermal collector area
5000 5000
(m2) - Decentralized
(m2) - Centralized
4000 4000
3000 3000
2000 2000
1000 1000
0 1 0
12
23
34
45
56
67
78
89
100
111
122
133
10
19
28
37
46
55
64
73
82
91
1
100
109
Configurations Configurations
Fig. 16. Solar thermal collector area (a) centralized and (b) decentralized in the non-dominated optimal solutions.
other 70% is in increasing order from a medium- to large-sized collector respectively. It clearly shows that in the centralized system, a larger
area. This indicated that a large solar thermal area is beneficial in a collector area is needed to reach similar performance levels i.e. pur-
centralized system. Among the design variables, the solar thermal area chased electricity as the decentralized system.
is the highest contributor to varying the life cycle cost and the pur- The change rate of the purchased electricity with respect to the
chased electricity. This is because the solar collector acts as the main change in the collector area is estimated in Fig. 17. Collector is the main
source for collecting energy from the sun and providing it to the system source of energy and most expensive component of the system, there-
to meet the demand. Since in the centralized system the collector is fore the impact on the change rate of the purchased electricity is esti-
used to charge the hot tank and warm tank to higher temperatures, the mated for both the centralized system and decentralized system. To
large collector is selected in the best performing cases. evaluate both the systems, only the collector area is changed in both the
The solar thermal collector area for the decentralized system (Fig. energy systems, while keeping other parameters similar. The change in
16b) shows that around 50% of the solar thermal area is 50 m2. The purchased energy due to an increase in collector area while keeping all
other 50% is in increasing order, from small to medium sized collector other parameters constant and the corresponding costs are shown in
area. This indicated that a large solar thermal area is not always ben- Fig. 17. It is found that by increasing the collector area from 500 m2 to
eficial in a decentralized system. 4000 m2, the reduction of purchased energy is around 17% in the
Both systems show that the collector area increased as the perfor- centralized system. On the other hand by increasing the collector area
mance improved and that the collector played an important role in from 500 m2 to 4000 m2, the reduction of purchased energy is around
system performance. However, for the centralized system, the increase 12% in the decentralized system. This shows that in centralized system
in the collector area started earlier compared to the decentralized large collector area has larger impact on the purchased electricity. The
system, as the optimization progressed from (Case 141) to (Case 1) in cost functions in both the systems varied by 34%, due to increase in the
Fig. 16a then from (Case 112) to (Case 1) in Fig. 16b. Moreover, the size and the corresponding cost of the collector.
largest collector area in the best performance Case 1 for both systems is Fig. 18 shows the photovoltaic (PV) panels area design variable.
5400 m2 and 3000 m2 for the centralized and decentralized systems, Fig. 18a is for the centralized system, and Fig. 18b is for the
70 600
Purchased electricity per building floor area Life cycle cost per building floor area PV panels area=500 m2
BTES volume=15000 m3
Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr
PV panels area=500 m2 Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3
60
BTES volume=15000 m3 500
Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr
Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3 PV panels area=500 m2
BTES volume=15000 m3
Purchased electricity (kWh/m2/ yr)
PV panels area=500 m2 Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr

50
BTES volume=15000 m3 Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3
Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr 400
Life cylce cost (€/m2)
Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3
40
300
30
200
20
100
10
0 0
Reference-500 m2 4000 m2 Reference-500 m2 4000 m2
Centralized system-Solar collector area (m2) Decentralized system-Solar collector area (m2)
Fig. 17. Purchased electricity and cost function comparisons between centralized and decentralized system as function of solar collector area.
1086
7000 7000
a b
Photovoltaic panels area (m2) -

Photovoltaic panels area (m2) -
6000 6000
5000 5000
Decentralized
Centralized
4000 4000
3000 3000
2000 2000
1000 1000
0 0
11
21
31
41
51
61
71
81
91
1
101
111
121
131
141
17
25
33
41
49
57
65
73
81
89
97
1
9
105
Fig. 18. Photovoltaic panels area (a) centralized and (b) decentralized in the non-dominated optimal solutions.
decentralized system. Both figures are explained in the same order. via the heat pumps. Therefore there is a large amount of electricity
The photovoltaic panels area for the centralized system (Fig. 18a) required compared to the amount of thermal energy required in the
shows that more than 70% of the solution shows a medium to large decentralized energy system. As a consequence, the large photovoltaic
panels area in this system. As the area of the panels increases, perfor- area played a significant role in reducing the purchased electricity
mance improves. The largest area proposed in the decentralized system compared to the solar thermal area, as shown in Fig. 18b.
is around 5800 m2. However, due to the non-availability of electricity The change rate of the purchased electricity with respect to the
storage in the designed system, most of the electricity would be ex- change in the photovoltaic area is estimated in Fig. 19. Photovoltaic is
ported to the grid due to a mismatch in the cases where the PV panels the main source of energy and an expensive component of the system,
are large. therefore the impact on the change rate of the purchased electricity are
The photovoltaic (PV) panels area for the decentralized system estimated for both the centralized system and decentralized system. To
(Fig. 18b) shows that more than 50–70% of the solution shows large evaluate both the systems, only the photovoltaic area is changed in both
panels area in this system. The other 20–30% of the solutions contains a the energy systems, while keeping the other parameters similar. The
medium to small panels area. Among the design variables, PV panels change in purchased energy due to an increase in photovoltaic area
contributed to the change in the purchased electricity. Large panels while keeping all other parameters constant and the corresponding
would aid in the reduction of purchased electricity. The largest area costs are shown in Fig. 19. It is found that by increasing the photo-
proposed in the decentralized system is around 6000 m2. Moreover, voltaic area from 500 m2 to 4000 m2, the reduction of purchased energy
compared to the collector area (Fig. 16b) in the decentralized system, a is around 15% in the centralized system. On the other hand by in-
larger PV panel area is selected in most of the optimized cases (Fig. 18b) creasing the photovoltaic area from 500 m2 to 4000 m2, the reduction
due to the lower cost of the PV panels compared to the collector. Hot of purchased energy is around 18% in the decentralized system. This
tanks are not charged by solar thermal energy, they are only charged shows that in decentralized system large photovoltaic area has larger
70 400
Collectors area=500 m2 Collector area=500m3
BTES volume=15000 m3 Purchased electricity per building floor area BTES volume=15000 m3
Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr Life cycle cost per building floor area Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr
Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3 Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3 350
60
Collectors area=500 m2 Collector area=500 m2

BTES volume=15000 m3 BTES volume=15000 m3 300
Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr
50
Purchased electricity (kWh/m2/ yr)
Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3 Warm and hot water tanks = 150 m3
250
40
200
30
150
20
100
10
50
0 0
Reference-500 m2 4000 m2 Reference-500 m2 4000 m2
Centralized system-Photovoltaic area (m2) Decentralized system-Photo voltaic area (m2)
Fig. 19. Purchased electricity and cost function comparisons between centralized and decentralized system as function of photovoltaic area.
1087
500 500
Hot tank volume (m3) - Centralized
Hot tank volume (m3) - Decentralized

450 450
400
a 400
b
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
10
19
28
37
46
55
64
73
82
91
1
118
100
109
127
136
15
22
29
36
43
50
57
64
71
78
85
92
99
1
8
106
Fig. 20. Hot tank volume (a) centralized and (b) decentralized in the non-dominated optimal solutions.
impact on the purchased electricity. The cost functions in both the the maximum hot tank volume proposed is less than 400 m3, as shown
systems varied by 4%, due to increase in the size and the corresponding in Fig. 20b. This occurs because in the centralized system, the size of the
cost of the photovoltaic panels. collector area is larger and the hot tank is charged by the collector.
Overall, by comparing Figs. 16–19, it can be observed that decen- Therefore, the larger hot tank benefits the system by reducing the
tralized system favours a PV-based district heating network, as the purchased electricity in such a system.
largest panels area proposed by the algorithm is slightly larger than in Fig. 21 shows the warm tank volume design variable. Fig. 21a is for
the centralized system. On the other hand, the centralized system fa- the centralized system, and Fig. 21b is for the decentralized system.
vours a solar thermal-collector-based district heating network. This Both figures are explained in the same order.
shows that by changing the energy system layout and control strategies, The warm tank volume for the centralized system (Fig. 21a) shows
the importance of any design variable can change, and as a result it can that a large tank volume of around 400 m3 or more is proposed in the
significantly affect the overall optimization of the system. cases with the least purchased electricity, where the large collector area
Fig. 20 shows the hot tank volume design variable, where Fig. 20a is is selected as shown in Fig. 16a in (Case 1). As the collector area in-
for the centralized system and Fig. 20b is for the decentralized system. creases from (Case 141) to (Case 1) in Fig. 16a, the warm tank volume
Both figures are explained in the same order. also increases from (Case 141) to (Case 1) in Fig. 21a. Compared to the
The hot tank volume for the centralized system (Fig. 20a) shows decentralized system, less volume of the warm tank is proposed because
that more than half of the solutions contained a hot tank size of more the energy from the collector area is divided into a hot and warm tank.
than 150 m3. The large hot tank is used to store large energy available Hence the size of the warm tank volume is less in most cases shown in
from the large collector area in the centralized system, as shown in Fig. 21a compared to the decentralized system shown in Fig. 21b.
Fig. 20a. The warm tank volume for the decentralized system (Fig. 21b)
The hot tank volume for the decentralized system (Fig. 20b) shows shows that a medium tank volume of around 300 m3 is proposed in
that around 50% of the solutions contain a small hot tank volume. The most of the cases. The best performing case (in Case 1 of the figure)
other 50% of the solutions contain a medium sized tank. Only a few of contain a tank size of around 300 m3. The results indicated that a
the solutions contained a tank larger than 2 m3 per house. The hot tank medium size for the centralized warm tank is beneficial in most of the
is used in the energy system to heat the DHW and SPH water up till the optimal cases. This is because in a decentralized system, high tem-
final supply temperature. The increase in volume of the hot tank as- peratures are not needed; and only in the first few cases where the solar
sisted in reducing the purchased electricity because it provided in- thermal collector area is relatively large, a higher tank volume is pro-
stantaneous energy to the building heating grid, thereby reducing the posed.
backup electricity heating, as shown in (Case 1) of Fig. 20a. Fig. 22 shows the borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) volume
Compared to the decentralized system (Fig. 20b), the maximum hot design variable. Fig. 22a is for the centralized system, and Fig. 22b is
tank volume proposed in the centralized system is 470 m3 in most cases, for the decentralized system. Both figures are explained in the same
as shown in (Case 1) of Fig. 20a. Whereas, in the decentralized system, order.
600 600
a b
500 500
Warm tank volume (m3) -
Warm tank volume (m3) -
400 400
Decentralized
Centralized
300 300
200 200
100 100
0
0
10
19
28
37
46
55
64
73
82
91
1
100
109
118
127
136
15
22
29
36
43
50
57
64
71
78
85
92
99
1
8
106
Fig. 21. Warm tank volume (a) centralized and (b) decentralized in the non-dominated optimal solutions.
1088
45000 6000
BTES volume (m3) 10800 3500
Solar thermal collector area (m2)

BTES volume (m3)
Borehole thermal energy storage

40000
Borehole thermal energy storage

Solar collector area (m2) 5000 Solar collector area (m2)
volume (m3) - Centralized
3000
volume (m3) - Decentralized

35000 10600
30000 a 4000 b 2500
10400
25000 2000
3000
20000 10200
1500
15000 2000
10000
10000 1000
1000
5000 9800 500
0 0
9600 0
100
109
118
127
136
1
10
19
28
37
46
55
64
73
82
91
1
8
106
71
15
22
29
36
43
50
57
64
78
85
92
99
Configurations
Configurations
Fig. 22. Seasonal storage volumes and collector areas (a) centralized and (b) decentralized in the non-dominated optimal solutions.
The borehole seasonal storage volume for the centralized system show the number of boreholes and the depth of the boreholes. Here is
(Fig. 22a) shows that the volume of the borehole thermal energy storage observed the opposite trend of the total borehole depth decreasing
(BTES) increased as the performance improves from (Case 141) to (Case 1). while performance improves. Clearly, BTES volume is not the only
It indicates that the performance of the energy system is linked to the size factor that determines total system efficiency.
of the BTES. Here there also exists a relation between the collector area and Fig. 23 shows the height or depth of the borehole, number of
the BTES volume, as shown in Fig. 22a. It is observed that as the collector boreholes and corresponding collector area. Fig. 23a is for the cen-
area increases, the volume of the BTES also increases, as shown in Fig. 22a. tralized system and Fig. 23b is for the decentralized system. Both fig-
The borehole seasonal storage volume for the decentralized system ures are explained in the same order.
(Fig. 22b) shows that the volume of the borehole thermal energy sto- The depth of the borehole, number of boreholes and corresponding
rage (BTES) increased slightly as the performance improves, as shown collector area in the centralized system (Fig. 23a) shows, that the
in (Case 1) Fig. 22b. In the solutions where the purchased electricity is seasonal storage is deeper than wide when the system performance is
less, the seasonal storage volume is high, and vice versa. Another im- poor in (Case 141). In the cases where the BTES volume is small
portant relation is between the collector area and the BTES volume, as (Fig. 22a, Case 141), the height of the BTES is more, as shown in
shown in Fig. 22b. It is again observed that as the collector area in- Fig. 23a. On the other hand, in the cases where the BTES volume is
creases, the volume of the BTES also increases. large (Fig. 22a, Case 1), the height of the BTES is less, as shown in
Both energy systems show a similar behaviour regarding the re- Fig. 23a. In the least performing cases, the depth of the borehole is more
lationship between system performance and BTES volume. However, because this increases the heat transfer through the sides of the storage.
compared to the centralized system, the maximum BTES volume The depth of the borehole is also relative to the area of the solar thermal
(Fig. 22b) is less than the maximum BTES volume (38,000 m3) of the collector. When the solar collector area is less, the depth of the borehole
centralized system, as shown in Fig. 22a. This is because in centralized is more. Performance improvement is related to the increase in the solar
system, the solar thermal collector area is larger than the collector area thermal collector area, the decrease in the height of the borehole, and
in the decentralized system. This causes higher temperatures in the the increase in the width of the BTES, as shown in (Case 1) of Fig. 23a.
seasonal storage as it is being charged by the hot tank compared to the The BTES is insulated from the top, hence wider storage is beneficial
decentralized system. Therefore, higher BTES volume is proposed by with lower depths. A wide shape also allows the BTES core to obtain
the algorithm in the case of the centralized system. higher temperatures and retain more energy in the centre.
In both of the cases for the centralized and decentralized energy The depth of the borehole, number of boreholes and corresponding
systems, the volume itself doesn’t give the whole truth. Fig. 23a and b collector area for the decentralized system (Fig. 23b) shows that the
350 6000 350 6000

Depth of borehole (m)
a b
Depth (m) & Number of boreholes
Number of boreholes 300

300 Depth of borehole (m) 5000

Depth (m) & Number of boreholes
5000
Solar collector area (m2)
Number of boreholes
250 250
Solar collector area (m2) 4000
4000
200 200
3000 3000
150 150
2000
2000 100
100
1000
1000 50
50
0 0
0 0
106
1
8
15
22
29
36
43
50
57
64
71
78
85
92
99
105
113
121
129
137
1
9
17
25
33
41
49
57
65
73
81
89
97
Configurations
Configurations
Fig. 23. Borehole length (single hole), number of boreholes and corresponding collector area (a) centralized and (b) decentralized in the non-dominated optimal
solutions.
1089
60
120
Amount of solutions - Centralized

a
Amount of solutions - Decentralized

50 b
100
40 80
30 60
20 40
10 20
0 0
Hot tank charging set point ( oC)

Hot tank charging set point ( oC)
Fig. 24. Hot tank charging set point frequency (a) centralized (charged via collector) and (b) decentralized (charged via heat pump) in the non-dominated optimal
solutions.
seasonal storage is deeper than wide when the system performance is When comparing the decentralized system (Fig. 23b) to the cen-
poor in Case 112. The behaviour and the relation between the borehole tralized system (Fig. 23a), the decrease in the height of the borehole is
depths, borehole storage volume and collector area is similar to that sooner when the solutions move from (Case 141) to (Case 1) in cen-
explained in the centralized system above. When the solar collector tralized system (Fig. 23a). In centralized system in Fig. 23a the depth
area is less, the depth of the borehole is more, as shown in Fig. 23b of the borehole changes from around 80 m to 30 m suddenly. While in
(Case 112). When the collector area is less, the injected energy is less, decentralized system in Fig. 23b, the depth of the borehole changes
and hence there is no need for a large seasonal storage. Moreover, with from about 68 m to 45 m and then to 20 m. This is because the size of
a larger depth, the BTES is charged naturally from the surroundings. the collector area increases quickly in centralized system in Fig. 23a
The performance of the system improves when the depth is reduced and from (Case 141 to (Case 1), compared to the decentralized system from
the collector area increases from (Case 112) side to (Case 1) in Fig. 23b, (Case 112) to (Case 1). It is also important to note that in the centralized
along with the borehole storage volume (Fig. 22b). system, the size of collector area is relatively large compared to the
In addition to the borehole depth and collector area in Fig. 23a and decentralized system (Fig. 23b) therefore the number of boreholes is
b, it is observed that with a wider shape, more boreholes can be added also large in the centralized system (Fig. 23a). This would allow re-
in the storage from (Case 141) and (Case 112) to (Case 1) in both taining higher temperatures in the large volume of the seasonal storage
Fig. 23a and b respectively. In both energy systems, the number of and keeping the core temperature high, avoiding losses to the sur-
boreholes increased with the increase in the performance from (Case roundings.
141) and (Case 112) to (Case 1) respectively. The increase in perfor-
mance is caused by the increase in the solar collector area and number
5.4.2. Control design parameters
of boreholes. However, the height decreases, as shown in (Case 1) in
From Figs. 24 to 25, the results show the behaviour of the control set
Fig. 23a and b. Therefore, it implies that higher performance is
points. Each figure provides insight into each control design variable. In
achieved by having many shallow boreholes on a wide area compared
the results analysis for each of the design variables, first the centralized
to having fewer deep boreholes over a narrow area. The temperature
system design variable is explained and lastly the decentralized system
gradient also improves by having many boreholes over a wide area.
design variable is explained.
140 70
Amount of solutions - Centralized
Amount of solutions - Decentralized
a b
120 60
100 50
80 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
Warm tank charging set point (oC) Warm tank charging set point (oC)
Fig. 25. Warm tank charging set point frequency (a) centralized and (b) decentralized in the non-dominated optimal solutions.
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Table 4
Comparison of other studies (real systems), Neckarsulm [52], Carilsheim [36], and Drake Landing Solar Community, Canada [42], with centralized system (simulated
system), Finland.
Centralized system, Finland Neckarsulm, Germany Carilsheim, Germany Drake Landing Solar Community, Canada
(simulated) (BTES+boiler) (BTES+HP) (BTES+boiler)
Heat demand (MWh/yr) 700 1891 4100 650

ST area (m2) 5400 5007 7300 2300
BTES volume (m3) 38,000 63,360 37,500 34,000
ST/Heat (m2/MWh) 7.7 2.65 1.78 3.5
BTES/Heat (m3/MWh) 54.2 33.5 9.1 52.5
REFheat 90 39 50 97
For the hot tank charging set point design variable, there is no clear It would help in charging the borehole at higher temperatures, thereby
trend in the set point design variable value, either in decreasing or reducing the electricity consumption of the heat pump and backup
increasing order, that corresponds to the change in the performance or heaters.
life cycle cost. The hot tank charging set point design variable is dis- For the decentralized system as shown in Figs. 24b and 25b, two
tributed randomly in the solutions for both the centralized (charged via main trends are observed. First, for the hot tank charging set point
solar thermal collector) and decentralized (charged via heat pump) (Fig. 24b), most of the solutions contained a lower value of the set
energy systems. point. It means that when the hot tank charging set point is reduced, the
However, in the centralized system, for the hot tank set point the overall energy consumption of the heat pump is reduced in order to
highest frequency occurs in the range of 71–74 °C, as shown in Fig. 24a. meet the lower set point target. This improved the system performance
It implies that set point for the tank charging through the solar thermal by reducing the purchased electricity. Secondly, for the warm tank
collector can be increased from 70 °C to 71–74 °C. This would assist in charging set point via the collector, most of the solutions contained a
increasing the borehole core temperature and reducing the electricity higher set point value, as shown in Fig. 25b. This means that to achieve
consumption of the backup heaters and the heat pump by providing better performance, it is recommended to charge the warm tank at a
higher temperatures in the system, especially in the warm tank during higher value so that space heating is provided at a higher temperature
winters via seasonal storage. to the houses, which corresponds to lower utilization of any backup
In the decentralized system, for the hot tank set point, the highest direct electric heater and less energy usage from the hot tank bottom
frequency occurs in the range of 60–63 °C, as shown in Fig. 24b. It node. Furthermore, the heat pump COP would improve in a decen-
implies that the set point for the tank charging through the heat pump tralized system, as heat pump takes energy from the space heating
can be reduced from 65 °C to 60–63 °C in the decentralized system network to charge the hot tank, and borehole can be charged at higher
shown in Fig. 24b. This would assist in reducing the losses through the temperatures.
tanks, and it would also reduce the electricity consumption of the heat Figs. 24 and 25 shows the importance of the set points as a design
pump by heating the hot tank at lower temperatures. It is also inter- variable in such systems. These design variables may not have a sig-
esting to note that since the hot tank is not being used to charge the nificant direct impact on the investments. However, they can have a
seasonal storage, it is enough to charge the tank up to 60–63 °C. This significant effect on system performance and operational costs.
temperature is reasonable for mainly providing the building with the
domestic hot water at around 58–60 °C. 5.5. Comparison and validation of the simulation model to other real plants
There is no clear trend in the increasing or decreasing order for the
warm tank charging set point design variable. The warm tank charging As no such solar community project exists in Finland at the moment,
set point design variable is distributed randomly in the solutions for therefore the presented simulation model is compared and verified
both the energy systems. against three different real projects from various regions. Two projects
In the centralized energy system, for the warm tank set point, the are situated in Germany and one project in Canada. As a reference case,
highest frequency occurs in the range of 47–50 °C, as shown in Fig. 25a. centralized system model (Case 1) is compared against the German
It implies that the set point for the tank charging through the collector projects in Neckarsulm [52], Carilsheim [36] and also against the Ca-
can be increased slightly from 45 °C to around 47 °C. This would assist nadian project in Drake Landing Solar Community (DLSC), Albert [42].
in increasing the performance of the system. The higher temperature It is compared because these projects are somehow close to the pre-
could also be used to charge the BTES with higher energy. sented models. The comparison of the simulated system against the
In the decentralized energy system, for the warm tank set point, the three real systems is shown in Table 4. The renewable energy fractions
highest frequency occurs in the range of 44–47 °C, as shown in Fig. 25b. are very favourable compared to some German solar communities as
It implies that the set point for the tank charging through the collector shown in Table 4. Even in the low performing cases the REFheat ex-
can be increased slightly from 45 °C to 44–47 °C. This would assist in ceeded both the Crailsheim and Neckarsulm communities. The main
increasing the performance of the system, since the warm tank is used difference in this study compared to Neckarsulm community is the heat
to mainly provide the space heating and heating for the heat pump pump and demand. With the heat pump and lower demand, higher
evaporator. Hence, the higher tank temperature would assist in redu- renewable energy fraction can be achieved. However, the Crailsheim
cing the backup electric heating in the space heating network and community also contained a heat pump. The difference between the
higher COP of the heat pump. In addition to that, the excess high Crailsheim and present study can partly be attributed to higher solar
temperature heat can be transferred to the seasonal storage in case thermal area compared to heat demand, but it may not be the sole
there is less need for the heat pump and space heating. reason. The BTES volume vs demand ratio is also large in the present
For the centralized system, as shown in Figs. 24a and 25a, it can be study compared to Crailsheim. Moreover, configurations in present si-
concluded that first the charging set point of the hot tank and then the mulated study are optimized, so the results can reasonably be expected
warm tanks can be increased from the previous default values. Since to be better than those from non-optimal real case studies. The Drake
both tanks are charged by the collector, the higher set point would be Landing Solar Community (DLSC) is also compared against the pre-
favourable in increasing the renewable energy fraction. This would also sented model. It is found that DLSC and the presented simulated studies
improve the system performance by reducing the purchased electricity. in Finnish conditions are reasonably comparable, with some
1091
differences. These differences occur broadly because of two main fac- • The purchase electricity in the centralized system is slightly more
tors. Firstly, the heating energy demand is higher in simulated Finnish sensitive to the collector size than the photovoltaic size. While, the
case, as it includes both space heating and domestic hot water demand, purchased electricity in the decentralized system is slightly more
while in DLSC case only space heating is included. Secondly, the ground sensitive to the photovoltaic size than the collector size.
thermal conductivity in DLSC is around 1.5–2 W/m K [76], where as in • In the centralized system, the collector area varied around
Finnish case it is 3.5 W/m K [22], this may reduce the performance of 500–5400 m2. In the decentralized system, the collector area varied
the overall system. This explains why the REFheat is better in DLSC around 50–3000 m2.
compared to the Finnish case. • As the performance of the systems improved from worst to best
The technical comparison of the simulated system against the real optimized cases, the borehole thermal energy storage tends to be
system shows (Table 4) that the simulated model is reasonably com- wider and shallow, the numbers of boreholes increased, and the
parable. In addition, simulated studies are always optimistic compared borehole thermal energy storage volume increased. The increase in
to real systems. A real system may suffer from many problems, for in- the volume also corresponds to the increase in the area of the col-
stance component failures, non-ideal efficiencies, unexpected ground lector and the number of boreholes over a wider area.
flows and uncertain environmental conditions. No cost comparison is • It is found that in the best performing optimized cases, the borehole
done against the real system as the ratios of the cost vs. performance of thermal energy storage volume is larger in the centralized system,
these studies are not known. i.e. around 38,000 m3, compared to the decentralized system,
around 10,700 m3.
6. Conclusions • The set point of the hot tank in the centralized system increased
from 70 °C to 71–74 °C because the collector is used to charge the
Two different types of solar district systems based on simulation centralized hot tank, and this improved the performance of the
models are developed and optimized for a solar community design system, while in the decentralized system it decreased from 65 °C to
problem. The two proposed systems are centralized and decentralized 60–63 °C because the heat pump is used to charge the individual hot
systems. In the centralized system, two centralized short-term tanks are tank in buildings instead of the collector.
charged by solar energy, the heat pump connected between two tanks, • The warm tank set point in the both systems increased from 45 °C to
using solar charged borehole storage. In the decentralized system, a around 47–50 °C, as it allowed more solar energy to be stored in the
warm tank is centralized and charged by solar energy, while the de- tanks from the collector.
centralized hot tank is charged by the heat pump; moreover, the • The losses from the distribution network in the centralized system
borehole is charged only by the warm tank. The study is performed are around 40–12% higher compared to the decentralized system
using dynamic simulation software (TRNSYS) where a model is pre- due to the high temperature distribution network.
pared. In addition, a multi-objective building optimizer is integrated
into the model to perform Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm The present study can be useful in the real applications of such
(NSGA-II). The objective functions are to minimize the purchased community sized district heating networks, especially in the cold cli-
electricity and life cycle cost. The design variables selected for the matic regions of the world, for instance in the Northern European
optimization are physical component size and control set points. A brief countries, and in North America. It is demonstrated that instead of fo-
summary of the key findings are the following: cusing on the single building energy system, the focus should be on the
community sized energy systems as it is less costly due to economies of
• Overall the community sized solar district heating systems per- scale and better in performance. Two different energy systems archi-
formed better in terms of the purchased electricity and the cost tectures for a 100 houses community located in Nordic conditions are
function, against the single reference building in Finnish conditions. designed and optimized. It is found that multi-objective optimization of
• In terms of life cycle cost and purchased energy, the decentralized the system is highly important in order to find right combinations of the
system clearly outperforms the centralized system. With a similar design variables sizes and values. Without this step the system can ei-
energy performance, the reduction in life cycle cost is up to 35% for ther be oversized or undersized. Multi-objective optimization provides
the decentralized system. best combinations of the design variables that are technically and
• For the centralized system, the purchased energy varied from 46 economically best, under the given problem.
kWh/m2/yr to 27 kWh/m2/yr against the life cycle cost from 311 In real applications, it is important to know that such solar based
€/m2 to 694 €/m2, which corresponds to a renewable fraction community energy systems are sensitive to the fluctuating market
(REFheat) from 57% to 90%. The onsite energy fraction (OEFelec) for prices of the electricity and components. Therefore some sort of in-
electricity varied from 11% to 36%. centives and governmental support is needed to make these community
• For the decentralized system, the purchased energy varied from 40 systems economically feasible. Due to high costs of the collector any
kWh/m2/yr to 25 kWh/m2/yr against the life cycle cost from 270 support to reduce the price of the collector can reduce the overall cost
€/m2 to 500 €/m2, which corresponds to the renewable fraction of the systems. However, the incentives in the future should be given
(REFheat) from 75% to 92%. The onsite energy fraction (OEFelec) for based on the self-consumption efficiency of the community rather than
electricity varied from 12% to 41%. on increasing only the renewable energy capacity. Storage in solar
• The study also showed the irregularities in the Non-dominated district networks plays a significant role in reducing the purchased
Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) algorithm caused by the electricity from the grid, in other terms it improves the self-consump-
random selection of the design variables by the algorithm. tion. Due to seasonal mismatch in cold regions, seasonal storage can
• Sensitivity analysis of the systems against the prices shows that both play an important role in increasing the renewable installed capacity
the systems are equally sensitive to the electricity price. While and its utilization.
centralized system is slightly more sensitive to the collector price Both the centralized and semi-decentralized systems are proposed in
than photovoltaic price. On the other hand, decentralized system is this study. Both the system can be built in Nordic conditions based on
slightly more sensitive to the photovoltaic price than collector price. the requirement. However, it is found that compared to complete
• The Pareto fronts are more sensitive to the electricity price in worst centralized system a semi-distributed system can be built at a lower
performance cases where purchased electricity is large. While the cost, where the central district network is operated at lower tempera-
Pareto fronts are more sensitive to the component prices in best ture, while the high temperature network is distributed within the
performing cases, where component sizes are relatively large com- building. It is demonstrated that the centralized system is more sensi-
pared to the worst performing cases. tive to the collector size whereas the decentralized system is less
1092
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Applied Energy 229 (2018) 1072–1094

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Performance comparison between optimized design of a centralized and T

• Centralized and semi-decentralized solar district heating systems are studied.

1. Introduction production has resulted in a huge environmental problems and

Nomenclature EEXP exported electricity to the grid (kWh/m2/yr)

Fig. 1. Simple schematic representation of the centralized energy system.

Domestic hot water

Ambient Temperature (oC)

Total radiation Ambient temperature 30

Table 1 electricity produced by PV is not considered in the calculation of the

1 50 0.17 0.17 0.09 1 60 12,655 €/building

ST area (m2) Continuous Decentralized 50–6000 1000–550 €/m2 [67]

Pre-simulated data of building

Objective functions Max Evaluate in the

Initial design variables (collector TRNSYS

5. Results and discussions

5.1. Optimal solutions

Fig. 8 shows the relationship between LCC and the purchased

Cost breakdown (€/m2)

Borehole seasonal storage

Life cycle cost (€/m2)

Purchased electricity = 28 kWh/m2/yr

25% increase in Electricity price

600 (Pareto front)

25 % decrease in PV price (Pareto

25 % decrease in collector price

Purchased electricity (kWh/m2/yr)

500 Reference (Pareto Front)-Decentralized system

Life cycle cost (€/m2)

800 Purchased electricity cost Borehole seasonal storage cost

Warm tank cost Hot water tank cost

Life cycle cost breakdown (€/m2)

Solar thermal collector area

PV panels area=500 m2 Building heating demand=37 kWh/m2.yr

Photovoltaic panels area (m2) -

Collectors area=500 m2 Collector area=500 m2

Hot tank volume (m3) - Centralized

Hot tank volume (m3) - Decentralized

Warm tank volume (m3) -

Solar thermal collector area (m2)

Solar thermal collector area (m2)

Borehole thermal energy storage

volume (m3) - Decentralized

350 6000 350 6000

Number of boreholes 300

300 Depth of borehole (m) 5000

Amount of solutions - Centralized

Amount of solutions - Decentralized

Hot tank charging set point ( oC)

Amount of solutions - Decentralized

Heat demand (MWh/yr) 700 1891 4100 650

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