Equilibrium Elevation.

In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force Fc the outside rail of the curve may be
elevated above the inside rail effectively moving the center of gravity of the rolling stock
laterally toward the inside rail. This procedure is generally referred to as superelevation or
simply elevation when referring to a railway curve. If the combination of lateral displacement
of the center of gravity provided by the superelevation, velocity of the rolling stock and
radius of curve is such that resulting force Fr becomes centered between and perpendicular to
a line across the running rails the downward pressure on the outside and inside rails of the
curve will be the same. The superelevation that produces this condition for a given velocity
and radius of curve is know as the balanced or equilibrium elevation Ee. Drawing DRTRK13,
Figure B, illustrates the previously described.

The following formula may be used to determine the centrifugal force developed when
rolling stock rounds a curve:

Fc = ( W v 2 ) / ( g R ) (Formula 1)
where:

Fc = Centrifugal force in pounds.

W = Weight of rolling stock in pounds.
v = Velocity in feet per second.
g = Acceleration due to gravity taken as 32.2 feet per second per second.
R = Radius of curve in feet.

Equilibrium Elevation, One-Eighth Scale Model Practice.

Using Deerfield & Roundabout Railway Engine No. 284 as an example with the following:

W = 1682 pounds.
v = 4.4 feet per second (3.0 miles per hour).
R = 60 foot radius curve.

results in:

Fc = 16.85 pounds = ( 1682 * 4.4 2 ) / ( 32.2 * 60 )

Knowing Fc the following formula may be used to determine the equilibrium elevation:

Ee = B / W Fc (Formula 2)

where:

Ee = Equilibrium elevation in inches.

B = Distance between bearing points of wheels on track taken as 8 inches.

Using the previously determined Fc for DRRY Engine No. 284 results in:

Ee = 0.08 inches = 8 / 1682 * 16.85

Formulas 1 and 2 may be combined and simplified to produce the following:

Ee = 0.5344 V 2 / R (Formula 3)

where:

Ee = Equilibrium elevation in inches for a railway having nominal 7.5 inch gage track.
V = Velocity in miles per hour.
R = Radius of curve in feet.

A velocity of 3.0 mph on a 60 foot radius curve results in the following:

Ee = 0.08 inches = 0.5344 * 3.0 2 / 60

Equilibrium Elevation, Full Scale Practice.

For a railway using 56.5 inch gage track (4 feet 8.5 inches) Formula 1 can be used without
modification and Formula 2 can be used if the distance between bearing points of wheels on
track is taken to be 58.8 inches.

Using a New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad, Class S1, 2-8-4 type locomotive with the
following:

W = 416,000 pounds.
v = 35.2 feet per second (24.0 miles per hour).
R = 480 foot radius curve.

results in:

Fc = 33349 pounds = ( 416000 * 35.2 2 ) / ( 32.2 * 480 )

Formula 2 may then be used to determine the equilibrium elevation with the following:

B = Distance between bearing points of wheels on track taken as 58.8 inches.

W = 416000 pounds.
Fc = 33349 pounds.

results in:

Ee = 4.7 inches = 58.8 / 416000 * 33349

In full scale railway practice in the United States curves are generally designated by degree of
curvature (100 foot chord basis) instead of by radius. The following formula, circa 1980, is
generally accepted for use on 56.5 inch gage track to determine equilibrium elevation based
on degree of curvature.

Ee = 0.0007 D V 2 (Formula 4)

where:

Ee = Equilibrium elevation in inches.

D = Degree of curvature (Decimal degrees 100 foot chord basis).
V = Velocity in miles per hour.

Using the following:

D = 11.94 degrees (480 foot radius).

V = 24.0 miles per hour.

results in:

Ee = 4.8 inches = 0.0007 * 11.94 * 24.0 2

Limitation of Superelevation, Full Scale Practice.

Typical railway operation results in rolling stock being operated at less than equilibrium
velocity or coming to a complete stop on curves. Under such circumstances excess
superelevation may lead to a downward force sufficient to damage the inside rail of the curve
or cause derailment of rolling stock toward the center of the curve when draft force is applied
to a train. Routine operation of loaded freight trains at low velocity on a curve superelevated
to permit operation of higher velocity passenger trains will result in excess wear of the inside
rail of the curve by the freight trains. For these reasons full scale practice superelevation is
generally limited to not more than 6 inches.

Limitation of Curve Velocity, Full Scale Practice.

Maximum velocity on a curve may exceed equilibrium velocity, but must be limited to
provide a margin of safety before overturning velocity is reached or a downward force
sufficient to damage the outside rail of the curve is developed. This velocity is generally
referred to as maximum safe velocity or safe speed. Although operation at maximum safe
velocity will avoid overturning of rolling stock or rail damage, a passenger riding in a
conventional passenger car will experience centrifugal force that tends to cause them to slide
laterally on their seat creating an uncomfortable sensation of instability. To avoid passenger
discomfort maximum velocity on a curve is therefore limited to what is generally referred to
as maximum comfortable velocity or comfortable speed. Operating experience with
conventional passenger cars has lead to the generally excepted full scale practice, circa 1980,
of designating the maximum velocity for a given curve to be equal to the result for the
calculation of equilibrium velocity with three inches added to the actual superelevation that
will be applied to the curve. Rephrasing, the actual superelevation applied to a curve is
therefore three inches less than what would provide equilibrium elevation for the curve based
on the radius and maximum velocity permitted. In the foregoing the difference between the
actual superelevation and the equilibrium elevation is referred to as the unbalanced or cant
deficiency.

The following formula, circa 1980, is generally used in full scale 56.5 inch gage practice to
determine the maximum velocity permitted on curved track:

Vmax = Sqrt. of ( ( Ea + Cd ) / ( 0.0007 D ) ) (Formula 5)

where:

Vmax = Maximum comfortable velocity in miles per hour.

Ea = Actual superelevation in inches.
Cd = Cant deficiency taken as 3 inches.
D = Degree of curvature (Decimal degrees 100 foot chord basis).

When the maximum velocity permitted for a given curve is greater than equilibrium velocity,
but limited to maximum comfortable velocity the actual superelevation applied to the curve is
referred to as comfortable elevation Ec or unbalanced elevation Eu.

From Formula 5 therefore:

Ec = 0.0007 D Vmax 2 - Cd (Formula 6)

where:

Ec = Comfortable elevation in inches.

D = Degree of curvature (Decimal degrees 100 foot chord basis).
Vmax = Maximum comfortable velocity in miles per hour.
Cd = Cant deficiency taken as 3 inches.

Using the following:

D = 11.94 degrees (480 foot radius).

Vmax = 24 miles per hour.

results in:

Ec = 1.81 inches = 0.0007 * 11.94 * 24 2 - 3

If resulting comfortable elevation Ec from Formula 6 is less than zero the curve is maintained
at zero cross level.

Limitation of Velocity on Curved Track at Zero Cross Level.

The concept of maximum comfortable velocity may also be used to determine the maximum
velocity at which rolling stock is permitted to round curved track without superelevation and
maintained at zero cross level. The lead curve of a turnout located between the heel of the
switch and the toe of the frog is an example of curved track that is generally not
superelevated. Other similar locations would included yard tracks and industrial tracks where
increased velocity made possible by superelevation is not required. In such circumstances the
maximum comfortable velocity for a given curve may also be the maximum velocity
permitted on tangent track adjoining the curve.

In full scale practice an American Railway Engineering Association No. 8 lateral turnout
using a 16 foot 6 inch straight split switch has a lead curve radius of 487.3 feet or degree of
curvature of 11 degrees 46 minutes 44 seconds. The straight split switch having an angle of 1
degree 46 minutes 22 seconds is calculated as having an effective curve radius of 533.3 feet
using an excepted A.R.E.A. formula.

Using Formula 5 and an A.R.E.A. No. 8 lateral turnout maintained at zero cross level with
the following:

Ea = 0 inches.
Cd = Cant deficiency taken as 3 inches.
D = 11.76 degrees (487.3 foot radius).

results in:

Vmax = 19.1 mph = Sqrt. of ( ( 0 + 3 ) / ( 0.0007 * 11.76 ) )

In the previous example the No. 8 lateral turnout lead curve radius governs the maximum
velocity permitted because the lead curve radius is less than the effective curve radius of the
straight split switch.

Height of Center of Gravity.

Operation on a curve at equilibrium velocity results in the center of gravity of the rolling
stock coinciding with a point on a line that is perpendicular to a line across the running rails
and the origin of which is midway between the rails. Under such condition the height of
center of gravity is of no consequence as resulting force Fr coincides with the perpendicular
line described. When rolling stock stops on a superelevated curve or rounds a curve under
any condition of non equilibrium resulting force Fr will not coincide with the perpendicular
line previously described and the height of the center of gravity then becomes consequential
in determining the location of resulting force Fr relative to the center line of the track. The
elasticity of the suspension system of rolling stock under conditions of non equilibrium will
introduce a roll element that effects the horizontal displacement of the center of gravity that
must also be considered when determining the location of resulting force Fr. Formulas 5 and
6 used in full scale practice, circa 1980, were developed by assuming 84 inches as the height
of center of gravity and consideration given to the effects of suspension system displacement
of conventional rolling stock when rounding a curve.

Detailed studies of the behavior of suspension systems of one-eighth scale model practice
rolling stock is limited at this time. Although many years of construction and operating
experience have proven that currently accepted design practice provides sufficient rolling
stock stability at typical operating velocities. Unless the suspension system is unusually soft
or an unusually high or laterally offset center of gravity exists, the location of the center of
gravity of one-eighth scale model practice rolling stock is generally not considered.

Previous Page | Next Page

Fundamentals of Railway Curve Superelevation
By Jeffrey G. Hook
Web Site Page 3 of 3 4-20-2010
(Scroll down for all text and illustrations.)
Table No. 1
Comparison of Curve Equilibrium Elevations Between One-Eighth
Scale Model Practice and Full Scale Practice.
From Formulas 3 and 4.
7.5 Inch Gage Track Dimensional 56.5 Inch Gage Track
Curve Radius 60 Feet Ratio 1:8* Curve Radius 480 Feet
Equilibrium Curve Super Equilibrium
Actual MPH Elevation Inches Elevation Ratio Elevation Inches Actual MPH
1 0.009 1:59 0.535 8
2 0.036 1:59 2.139 16
2.37 0.050 1:60 3.000 18.95
3 0.080 1:60 4.813 24
4 0.143 1:60 8.557 32
5.17 0.238 1:60 14.288** 41.35
* Dimensional ratio of 1:8 applies exactly to curve radius and nominally to gage of track.

** For comparison purposes only. Comfortable elevation greater than 6 inches generally not
permitted in full scale practice.

Results from Table No. 1 reveal the relationship between equilibrium elevation for one-
eighth scale model practice and full scale practice varies approximately by the ratio of 1:60.
Taking full scale practice superelevation data and dividing by eight will result in excess
superelevation being applied in one-eighth scale model practice.

Maximum Comfortable Curve Velocity, One-Eighth Scale Model Practice.

Experience in one-eighth scale model practice has proven that when rolling stock is operated
at a velocity of 2.37 miles per hour on a 60 foot radius curve maintained at zero cross level,
operating personnel or passengers seated on the rolling stock at typical heights above top of
rail will generally not experience a sensation of discomfort resulting from the effects of
centrifugal force. Given the previous, a maximum comfortable velocity formula based on a
cant deficiency of 0.05 inches may be developed for one-eighth scale model practice.

Vmax = Sqrt. of ( ( Ea + Cd ) R / 0.5344 ) (Formula 7)

where:

Vmax = Maximum comfortable velocity in miles per hour.

Ea. = Actual superelevation in inches.
Cd = Cant deficiency taken as 0.05 inches.
R = Radius of curve in feet.
Using the following:

Ea. = 0 inches.
R = 60 foot radius.

results in:

Vmax = 2.37 mph = Sqrt. of ( ( 0 + 0.05 ) * 60 / 0.5344 )

Practical Application of Superelevation, One-Eighth Scale Model Practice.

In full scale practice superelevation may be practically applied and maintained in increments
of one quarter inch or less up to a typical maximum of 6 inches. In one-eighth scale model
practice a similar multitude of increments of superelevation is generally not practical. The
Deerfield and Roundabout Railway has adopted the practice of maintaining tangent track,
turnouts and crossings at zero cross level and curves at a superelevation of 0.188 inches.

Table No. 2
Deerfield and Roundabout Railway
One-Eighth Scale Model Practice Maximum Curve Velocity.
0.05 Inch Cant Deficiency Basis.
From Formula 7.
Zero Cross Level 0.188 Inch Super Elevation
Curve Radius in Feet Maximum Curve Maximum Curve
Velocity in Actual MPH Velocity in Actual MPH
40 to less than 50 1.9 4.2
50 to less than 60 2.2 4.7
60 to less than 70 2.4 5.2
70 to less than 80 2.6 5.6
80 to less than 90 2.7 6.0
90 to less than 100 2.9 6.3
100 and greater than 100 3.1 6.7
Note: Provisions of other Deerfield and Roundabout Railway documents shall supersede
Fundamentals of Railway Curve Superelevation Table No. 2 maximum velocities
inconsistent therewith.

Transition Between Zero Cross Level and Superelevation.

When superelevation is applied to a curve consideration must be given to the procedure that
will be used to introduce the change from zero cross level condition of the tangent track
preceding the curve to the full superelevation of the curve and then back to zero cross level
condition of the tangent track following the curve. The previously described is referred to as
run off, run out or run in, regardless of whether the change in rail elevation is considered to
be increasing or decreasing. In current full scale practice superelevation run off is preferably
accomplished in conjunction with the use of easement curves, also known as transition curves
or spirals, that are located before and after a circular curve. The fundamental element of an
easement curve is its varying radius that gradually introduces a change in alignment from
tangent to circular curve or vice versa. This is taken advantage of by applying superelevation
to an easement curve at a rate that corresponds to the rate of change of curvature of the
easement curve. Rolling stock traversing at constant velocity an easement curve with run off
applied will experience a change in the centrifugal force developed as the radius changes and
a generally simultaneous counteracting effect produced by the corresponding change in
superelevation. It should be noted that when the word curve is used individually it is
generally understood to mean a circular curve or simple curve, that being a curve of constant
radius.

In the early days of railway construction and operation in the United States, circa 1900,
easement curves before and after a circular curve may not necessarily have been used.
Superelevation run off would instead be applied to a given length of tangent track before and
after a circular curve. The foregoing is not as satisfactory a method of accomplishing run off
as compared to the use of an easement curve due to the fact that the maximum acceptable
deviation from zero cross level condition on a tangent track run off may limit the
superelevation on the circular curve and thus the velocity on the circular curve. In some cases
the run off would be divided with a portion of the run off on the tangent and the remaining
run off on the circular curve in an effort to increase the superelevation on the circular curve
and thus the velocity. W. M. Camp addresses this issue in his book "Notes on Track," the first
edition published by the author in 1903, which includes the following: "The value of
easement or transition curves is greatest where sustained high speed is practicable. Elevation
for simple circular curves can be run in quite satisfactorily for good speed, [The foregoing
refers to run in applied to tangents before and after a circular curve] and it is only where
extraordinary results are desired that the greater expense and care necessary to maintain the
easement curve can be justified. The most practical or satisfactory application of the
easement curve is then not so much to curves so sharp that in any event speed must be
reduced in running around them, but to those curves of comparatively smaller degree where,
with the aid of the transition curve, the slackening of speed may be avoided; and while by
using the transition curve a slightly higher speed on curves of, say, about 6 or 8 deg., might
be had with a feeling of greater comfort or security, perhaps, still its use on curves less than 6
or 8 deg. must no doubt be the more justifiable practice. Not necessarily, then, are transition
curves best suited to roads of heaviest curvature. Furthermore, it will usually be found that
the surroundings which determine the location of a sharp curve will allow of but little room
for easements. In any case the easement should be no longer than to give sufficient distance
in which to run out the elevation. Any available room beyond this had better be used in
reducing the curvature of the central or circular portion of the curve."

The Deerfield and Roundabout Railway from 1977 to 2007 in an effort to simplify aspects of
track design and construction did not generally install easement curves. This scheme might
be thought of as following the 1903 "Camp philosophy" described for "roads of heaviest
curvature." A typical main line curve on the Deerfield and Roundabout Railway has a radius
of 75 feet and is equivalent to a 600 foot radius curve in full scale practice having a degree of
curvature of 9.6 degrees. In early 2008 the engineering department of the Deerfield and
Roundabout Railway concluded that in order to better demonstrate full scale railway
engineering practices typically used after the early decades of the Twentieth Century, new
main line curve construction on the Deerfield and Roundabout Railway will include easement
curves and, where practical and when time permits, existing curves without easements will be
realigned and provided with easement curves.

Supplemental Benefit of Superelevation, One-Eighth Scale Model Practice.

Typical ballasted railway track that has been surfaced to zero cross level or to an established
superelevation may after it has been placed in service deviate from the original surfaced
condition due to disturbing forces that act upon the track structure. The direction, magnitude
and rate of deviation from the original surfaced condition depends on the stability of the
track, ballast and roadbed to resist the disturbing forces.

In one-eighth scale model practice passengers may experience an uncomfortable sensation

when rounding a curve when the elevation of the outside rail of the curve is lower than the
elevation of the inside rail. This might be attributable to a passengers expectation of leaning
toward the center of the curve and instead the passenger car tilts toward the outside of the
curve. In a case where the outside rail of a curve is gradually lowering in elevation relative to
the inside rail, the initial application of superelevation provides a period of time before the
elevation of the outside rail falls below the elevation of the inside rail.

Additional Considerations When Applying Superelevation.

For design and survey purposes the reference for the horizontal alignment of railway track as
it relates to tangents, horizontal curves, easement curves, turnouts, crossings, etc., is
generally taken to be the center line of track. The reference for the vertical surface of railway
track as it relates to longitudinal level condition, gradients or vertical curves is generally
taken to be the top of the running rails assuming the rails to be at zero cross level. The
application of superelevation by its nature disturbs the zero cross level condition of the track,
therefore a scheme must be used that provides continuity of reference for the vertical surface
of the track. This is generally accomplished by maintaining the inside rail of a curve at the
established reference for vertical surface and elevating the outside rail the required
superelevation relative to the inside rail. In the foregoing the inside rail of the curve is
referred to as the reference rail.

In typical one-eighth scale model practice track construction the track will be brought to
proper horizontal alignment, vertical surface and to a zero cross level condition relative to
offset grade stakes that are set at a known distance from the center line of track and marked
to indicate the elevation of top of rail without consideration for superelevation.
Superelevation, if used, is then applied as a second step by raising the outside rail of the
curve relative to the inside rail by the use of a spirit level to determine when then desired
superelevation is achieved. Run off applied to an easement curve or tangent track before and
after a circular curve is accomplished in a similar manner using the spirit level.
Installation of turnouts and crossings on curved track requires that special attention be given
to the effect that superelevation of one track may have on another. In these circumstances
potential superelevation of a given track, and thus maximum velocity, might be limited by the
constraints imposed by a turnout or crossing track. Motor vehicle roadway crossings of
superelevated railway track or tracks may cause similar disturbances to aspects of the vertical
surface of the roadway.

Of consideration more in full scale practice than in one-eighth scale model practice is the
effect that superelevation may have on the tilting of rolling stock with resulting effect on the
clearance between rolling stock on adjacent tracks or between track side structures, including
tunnel walls, overhead bridge supports, etc.

Definitions.

CIRCULAR CURVE - A curve having a radius of constant dimension. Also known as a

simple curve. When the word curve is used alone it is generally understood to mean a circular
curve.

EASEMENT CURVE - A curve having a radius of changing dimension. The rate of change
of radius being in one direction and may be determined by a number of accepted formulas.
Also known as a transition curve, spiral curve or spiral.

SUPERELEVATION - The banking of track by raising or superimposing the outside rail

above the inside rail at a curve. The desired speed and curve degree or curve radius determine
the amount of superelevation. Also known as elevation or raise when referring to railway
track. More recently may also be known as cant. Should not be confused with canted rail.

BALANCED SUPERELEVATION - The superelevation applied to a curve of given radius

on which rolling stock when operated at a given velocity results in an equal downward force
on both rails. Also known as balanced elevation or equilibrium elevation. More recently may
also be known as balanced cant.

EQUILIBRIUM VELOCITY - The velocity of rolling stock when operated on a curve of

given radius and superelevation that results in an equal downward force on both rails. Also
known as balanced velocity.

UNDER BALANCED SUPERELEVATION - The superelevation applied to a curve on

which rolling stock is permitted to operate at greater than equilibrium velocity. Also known
as unbalanced superelevation or unbalanced elevation. More recently may also be known as
unbalanced cant.

CANT DEFICIENCY - The amount that the under balanced superelevation of a curve is less
than what would be the balanced superelevation of the curve.

RUN OFF, SUPERELEVATION - The gradual and uniform transition from zero cross level
track to superelevation or visa versa. Also known as run in or run out. The use of the terms
run off, run in or run out may be used interchangeably regardless of whether the direction of
movement is considered to be toward or away from a curve.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE - 1. The apparent force that is felt by an object moving in a curved
path that acts outwardly away from the center of rotation. 2. An outward force on a body
rotating about an axis, assumed equal and opposite to the Centripetal Force and postulated to
account for the phenomena seen by an observer in the rotating body. See other reference
sources for detailed explanations of Centrifugal Force and Centripetal Force.

Note: Current Deerfield and Roundabout Railway Definitions of Terms Relating to Track
Work, Document DRTRK1, shall supersede Fundamentals of Railway Curve Superelevation
definitions inconsistent therewith.

References.

1. William W. Hay, Mgt. E., MS, Ph.D., "Railroad Engineering," Second Edition, 1982.
2. Ralph P. Johnson, ME, "The Steam Locomotive," 1942.
3. W. M. Camp, "Notes on Track, Construction and Maintenance," 1903.
4. Federal Railroad Administration, Track Safety Standards Compliance Manual, Chapter 5,
Track Safety Standards Classes 1 through 5, July 27, 2006.
5. J. G. Hook, "One-Eighth Scale Model Railway Circular Curve and Spiral Calculator
Excel Workbook," 2009.
6. Deerfield and Roundabout Railway, Standards for Level Condition of Tangent and
Other Track and Elevation of Curved Track, Document DRTRK33, 2009
7. Dictionary of Railway Track Terms, 2003;
8. Dictionary . com;
9. Merriam-Webster online dictionary.

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