Analog to Digital Conversion Circuits

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic integrated circuit used to convert the analog
signals such as voltages to digital or binary form consisting of 1s and 0s.Most of the ADCs take
a voltage input as 0 to 10V, -5V to +5V, etc. and correspondingly produces digital output as
some sort of a binary number.

Fig

Analog to Digital Conversion Process

Analog to Digital Converter samples the analog signal on each falling or rising edge of sample
clock. In each cycle, the ADC gets of the analog signal, measures and converts it into a digital
value. The ADC converts the output data into a series of digital values by approximates the
signal with fixed precision.In ADCs, two factors determine the accuracy of the digital value that
captures the original analog signal. These are quantization level or bit rate and sampling
rate.Below figure depicts how analog to digital conversion takes place. Bit rate decides the
resolution of digitized output and you can observe in below figure where 3-bit ADC is used for
converting analog signal.

Fig (Analog to Digital Conversion Process)

Assume that one volt signal has to be converted from digital by using 3-bit ADC as shown
below. Therefore, a total of 2^3=8 divisions are available for producing 1V output. This results
1/8=0.125V is called as minimum change or quantization level represented for each division as
000 for 0V, 001 for 0.125, and likewise upto 111 for 1V. If we increase the bit rates like 6, 8, 12,
14, 16, etc. we will get a better precision of the signal. Thus, bit rate or quantization gives the
smallest output change in the analog signal value that results from a change in the digital
representation.Suppose if the signal is about 0-5V and we have used 8-bit ADC then binary
output of 5V is 256. And for 3V it is 133 as shown below.

There is an absolute chance of misrepresenting the input signal at output side if it is sampled at
different frequency than desired one. Therefore, another important consideration of the ADC is
the sampling rate. Niquest theorem states that the acquired signal reconstruction introduces
distortion unless it is sampled at (minimum) twice the rate of the largest frequency content of the
signal as you can observe in the diagram. But this rate is 5-10 times the maximum frequency of
the signal in practical.
Types of Analog to Digital Converters

Some of the types of analog to digital converters include:

 Dual Slope A/D Converter

 Flash A/D Converter
 Successive Approximation A/D Converter
Dual Slope A/D Converter

In this type of ADC converter comparison voltage is generated by using an integrator circuit
which is formed by a resistor, capacitor and operational amplifier combination. By the set value
of Vref, this integrator generates a sawtooth waveform on its output from zero to the value Vref.
When the integrator waveform is started correspondingly counter starts counting from 0 to 2^n-1
where n is the number of bits of ADC. When the input voltage Vin equal to the voltage of the
waveform, then control circuit captures the counter value which is the digital value of
corresponding analog input value. This Dual slope ADC is relatively medium cost and slow
speed device.
 Fig

Flash A/D Converter

This ADC converter IC is also called as parallel ADC, which is a most widely used efficient
ADC in terms of its speed. This flash analog to digital converter circuit consists of a series of
comparators where each one compares the input signal with a unique reference voltage.At each
comparator, the output will be high state when the analog input voltage exceeds the reference
voltage. This output is further given to priority encoder for generating binary code based on
higher order input activity by ignoring other active inputs. This flash type is a high-cost and
high-speed device.

Fig

Successive Approximation A/D Converter

The SAR ADC a most modern ADC IC and much faster than dual slope and flash ADCs since it
uses a digital logic that converges the analog input voltage to the closest value. This circuit
consists of a comparator, output latches, successive approximation register (SAR) and D/A
converter.
Fig

At the start, SAR is reset and as the LOW to HIGH transition is introduced, the MSB of the
SAR is set. Then this output is given to the D/A converter that produces an analog equivalent of
the MSB, further it is compared with the analog input Vin.If comparator output is LOW, then
MSB will be cleared by the SAR, otherwise the MSB will be set to the next position.This process
continues till all the bits are tried and after Q0, the SAR makes the parallel output lines to
contain valid data.

Digital To Analog Conversion Circuits

A D/A Converter is used when the binary output from a digital system is to be converted into its
equivalent analog voltage or current.

Fig
 Digital to Analog Converter using Binary-Weighted Resistors
A D/A converter using binary-weighted resistors is shown in the figure below. In the circuit, the
op-amp is connected in the inverting mode. The op-amp can also be connected in the non-
inverting mode. The circuit diagram represents a 4-digit converter. Thus, the number of binary
inputs is four.

Digital-to-Analog Converter Circuit – Binary-Weighted Resistors Method

We know that, a 4-bit converter will have 24 = 16 combinations of output. Thus, a corresponding
16 outputs of analog will also be present for the binary inputs.Four switches from b0 to b3 are
available to simulate the binary inputs: in practice, a 4-bit binary counter such as a 7493 can also
be used.

Working

The circuit is basically working as a current to voltage converter.

 b0 is closed

It will be connected directly to the +5V.

Thus, voltage across R = 5V

 Current through R = 5V/10kohm = 0.5mA

Current through feedback resistor, Rf = 0.5mA (Since, Input bias current, IB is negligible)

Thus, output voltage = -(1kohm)*(0.5mA) = -0.5V

 b1 is closed, b0 is open

R/2 will be connected to the positive supply of the +5V.

Current through R will become twice the value of current (1mA) to flow through Rf.

Thus, output voltage also doubles.

 b0 and b1 are closed

Current through Rf = 1.5mA

Output voltage = -(1kohm)*(1.5mA) = -1.5V

Thus, according to the position (ON/OFF) of the switches (bo-b3), the corresponding “binary-
weighted” currents will be obtained in the input resistor. The current through Rf will be the sum
of these currents. This overall current is then converted to its proportional output voltage.
Naturally, the output will be maximum if the switches (b0-b3) are closed

V0 = -Rf *([b0/R][b1/(R/2)][b2/(R/4)][b3/(R/8)]) – where each of the inputs b3, b2, b1, and b0
may either be HIGH (+5V) or LOW (0V).

The graph with the analog outputs versus possible combinations of inputs is shown below.
 Digital-to-Analog Converter Circuit – Binary-Weighted Resistors Method Graph

The output is a negative going staircase waveform with 15 steps of -).5V each. In practice, due to
the variations in the logic HIGH voltage levels, all the steps will not have the same size. The
value of the feedback resistor Rf changes the size of the steps. Thus, a desired size for a step can
be obtained by connecting the appropriate feedback resistor. The only condition to look out for is
that the maximum output voltage should not exceed the saturation levels of the op-amp. Metal-
film resistors are more preferred for obtaining accurate outputs.

Disadvantages

If the number of inputs (>4) or combinations (>16) is more, the binary-weighted resistors may
not be readily available. This is why; R and 2R method is more preferred as it requires only two
sets of precision resistance values.

Digital to Analog Converter with R and 2R Resistors

A D/A converter with R and 2R resistors is shown in the figure below. As in the binary-weighted
resistors method, the binary inputs are simulated by the switches (b0-b3), and the output is
proportional to the binary inputs. Binary inputs can be either in the HIGH (+5V) or LOW (0V)
state. Let b3 be the most significant bit and thus is connected to the +5V and all the other switchs
are connected to the ground.

Digital to Analog Converter with R and 2R Resistors

Thus, according to Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, RTH,

RTH = [{[(2RII2R + R)} II2R] + R}II2R] + R = 2R = 20kOhms.

The resultant circuit is shown below.

Digital to Analog Converter with R and 2R Resistors – Resultant Circuit

Graph is given below.

Digital to Analog Converter with R and 2R Resistors – Graph

In the figure shown above, the negative input is at virtual ground, therefore the current through
RTH=0.

Current through 2R connected to +5V = 5V/20kohm = 0.25 mA

The current will be the same as that in Rf.

Vo = -(20kohm)*(0.25mA) = -5V

Output voltage equation is given below.

V0 = -Rf (b3/2R+b2/4R+b1/8R+b0/16R)