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    SQL

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    vickyactiva
    SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in databases. It can execute queries to select data from a database, as well as insert, update and delete records. SQL statements are used to define database schemas, including tables, fields and relationships between tables. Common SQL statements include SELECT to retrieve data, INSERT to add new data, UPDATE to modify existing data and DELETE to remove data.

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    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    SQL

    Uploaded by

    vickyactiva
    71 views11 pages
    SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in databases. It can execute queries to select data from a database, as well as insert, update and delete records. SQL statements are used to define database schemas, including tables, fields and relationships between tables. Common SQL statements include SELECT to retrieve data, INSERT to add new data, UPDATE to modify existing data and DELETE to remove data.

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    SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in databases. It can execute queries to select data from a database, as well as insert, update and delete records. SQL statements are used to define database schemas, including tables, fields and relationships between tables. Common SQL statements include SELECT to retrieve data, INSERT to add new data, UPDATE to modify existing data and DELETE to remove data.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    71 views11 pages

    SQL

    Uploaded by

    vickyactiva
    SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in databases. It can execute queries to select data from a database, as well as insert, update and delete records. SQL statements are used to define database schemas, including tables, fields and relationships between tables. Common SQL statements include SELECT to retrieve data, INSERT to add new data, UPDATE to modify existing data and DELETE to remove data.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 11

    SQL

    SQL stands for Structured Query Language


    SQL is a database language
    SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases
    SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
    SQL was initially called as SEQUEL (Structure English QUEry Language)
    SQL was first designed and implemeted at IBM as an interface for an experimental
    relational database system called SYSTEM R

    SQL can execute queries against a database


    SQL can retrieve data from a database
    SQL can insert records in a database
    SQL can update records in a database
    SQL can delete records from a database
    SQL can create new databases
    SQL can create new tables in a database
    SQL can create stored procedures in a database
    SQL can create views in a database
    SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

    SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data
    Definition Language (DDL).

    Using SQL in Your Web Site


    To build a web site that shows some data from a database, you will need the following:
    • An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
    • A server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
    • SQL
    • HTML / CSS

    RDBMS

    RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.


    RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM
    DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
    The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.
    An RDBMS is acessed using SQL
    A table is a collections of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
    SQL
    SQL uses the terms

    table - relation
    row - tuple
    column - attribute

    A table can have up to 254 columns

    • char(n) - Fixed-length character data (string), n characters long. The maximum size for
    n is 255 bytes (2000 in Oracle8). Note that a string of type char is always padded on
    right with blanks to full length of n.(☞ can be memory consuming).
    Example: char(40)

    • varchar2(n) - Variable-length character string. The maximum size for n is 2000. Only the bytes
    used for a string require storage. Example: varchar2(80)

    • number(o, d) - Numeric data type for integers and reals. o indicatesoverall number of digits, d
    indicates number of digits after the decimal point.
    Maximum values: o =38, d= −84 to +127. Examples: number(8), number(5,2)
    Note that, e.g., number(5,2) cannot contain anything larger than 999.99 without result-
    ing in an error. Data types derived from number are int[eger], dec[imal], smallint
    and real.

    • date - Date data type for storing date and time.


    The default format for a date is: DD-MMM-YY. Examples: ’13-OCT-94’, ’07-JAN-98’

    • long - Character data up to a length of 2GB. Only one long column is allowed per table.

    Note: In Oracle-SQL there is no datatype boolean. It can, however, be simulated by using


    either char(1) or number(1).
    SQL
    SELECT column_name(s)
    FROM table_name

    SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons

    The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns

    SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)


    FROM table_name

    SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons

    SELECT column_name(s)
    FROM table_name
    ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC

    SELECT * FROM Persons


    ORDER BY LastName

    SELECT * FROM Persons


    ORDER BY LastName DESC

    SELECT column_name(s)
    FROM table_name
    WHERE column_name operator value

    SELECT * FROM Persons


    WHERE City='Sandnes'

    SELECT * FROM Persons


    WHERE FirstName='Tove'
    AND LastName='Svendson'

    SELECT * FROM Persons


    WHERE FirstName='Tove'
    OR FirstName='Ola'
    (DOW)
    SQL
    UPDATE table_name
    SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
    WHERE some_column=some_value

    UPDATE Persons
    SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
    WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

    INSERT INTO table_name


    VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)

    INSERT INTO Persons


    VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')

    INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)


    VALUES (value1, value2, value3,... )

    INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)


    VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob'

    DELETE FROM table_name


    WHERE some_column=some_value

    DELETE FROM Persons


    WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

    DELETE FROM table_name


    or
    DELETE * FROM table_name (UID)

    NOTE-
    Both the statements below are same

    SELECT person.contact.lastname FROM person.contact


    SELECT lastname FROM person.contact
    SQL
    Operator

    > Greater than


    SELECT firstname FROM person.contact WHERE firstname > 'C'

    IN If you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the columns

    LIKE OPERATOR
    SELECT column_name
    FROM table_name
    WHERE column_name LIKE 's%'

    SELECT firstname
    FROM person.contact
    WHERE firstname LIKE 's%'
    (Here we select only firstname that starts with s)

    Substitues
    % A substitute for zero or more characters (wild card)
    _ A substitute for exactly one character(position marker)
    [charlist] Any single character in charlist
    [!charlist] Any single character in charlist here it doesn't start with

    Now we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "b" or "s" or "p" from the
    "Person.contact" table.
    SELECT * FROM Person.contact
    WHERE LastName LIKE '[bsp]%'
    Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from
    the "Person.contact" table.
    SELECT * FROM Person.contact
    WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'

    BETWEEN OPERATOR

    SELECT column_name(s)
    FROM table_name
    WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2

    SELECT *
    FROM person.contact
    WHERE contactid between 1 and 50

    To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:
    NOT BETWEEN '400' AND '800'
    SQL
    IS NULL OPERATOR AND IS NOT NULL

    It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
    We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.

    SELECT Address FROM Persons.Contact


    WHERE Address IS NUL
    The above displays the column Address which have null value.

    SELECT Address FROM Persons.Contact


    WHERE Address IS NOT NULL
    The above displays the column Address which doesn have null value.
    SQL
    SQL TOP

    SELECT TOP number *


    FROM table_name

    SELECT TOP 2 *
    FROM person.contact

    (Here it can be noted that only first 2 is selected)

    SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT *


    FROM person.contact

    (The above is to select 50 percent of the table)


    SQL
    SQL ALIAS
    We can give a table or a column another name by using an alias.

    Syntax for aliasing table


    SELECT column_name(s)
    FROM table_name AS alias_name

    Syntax for aliasing Column


    SELECT column_name AS alias_name
    FROM table_name
    SQL
    CREATING TABLES
    The SQL command for creating an empty table has the following form:

    CREATE TABLE database_name.schema_name. table_name


    (
    column_name1 data_type NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
    column_name2 data_type COLUMN CONSTAINT,
    column_name3 data_type,
    ....
    );

    ALTERING TABLES
    The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table

    ALTER TABLE database_name.schema_name. table_name


    ADD/DROP CONSTRAINT

    To add a column in a table,thesyntax is:


    ALTER TABLE table_name
    ADD column_name datatype

    To delete a column in a table,the syntax is:


    ALTER TABLE table_name
    DROP COLUMN column_name

    To change the data type of a column in a table,the syntax is:


    ALTER TABLE table_name
    ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype
    SQL
    Constraints
    Constraints are keywords that defines the rules for columns
    Constraints define rules regarding the values allowed in columns and are the standard mechanism
    for enforcing integrity.
    Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or
    after the table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
    Types of Constraints-
    • NOT NULL
    • UNIQUE
    • PRIMARY KEY
    • FOREIGN KEY
    • CHECK
    • DEFAULT
    •
    NOT NULL constraint specifies that no row of a column has NULL values
    The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you cannot
    insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.

    UNIQUE constraint specifies that no two rows of a column has same value.
    We can use UNIQUE constraints to make sure that no duplicate values are entered in specific
    columns.

    PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.


    Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values.
    A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
    Each table should have a PRIMARY KEY, and each table can have only one primary key.
    PRIMARY KEY constraints relate one table to another

    FOREIGN KEY

    CHECK constraint allows a condition to be checked for when data in that column is updated or
    inserted; for example, CHECK (PRICE > 0) causes the system to check that the Price column is
    greater than zero before accepting the value...sometimes implemented as the CONSTRAINT
    statement. CHECK(salary >= 15k AND salary <=19k)

    DEFAULT constraint inserts the default value into the database if a row is inserted without that
    column's data being inserted; for example, benefits integer DEFAULT = 10000

    FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Is a constraint that provides referential integrity for the data in
    the column or columns. FOREIGN KEY constraints require that each value in the column exists in
    the corresponding referenced column or columns in the referenced table. FOREIGN KEY
    constraints can reference only columns that are PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraints in the
    referenced table or columns referenced in a UNIQUE INDEX on the referenced table. Foreign
    keys on computed columns must also be marked PERS
    SQL
    Examples-

    CREATE TABLE Persons


    (
    P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
    LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL UNIQUE ,
    FirstName varchar(255),
    Address varchar(255),
    City varchar(255)
    );

    CREATE TABLE Persons


    (
    P_Id int NOT NULL,
    LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
    FirstName varchar(255),
    Address varchar(255),
    City varchar(255),
    CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
    );

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