BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR

STRUCTURES AND VOCABULARY

TECHNICAL ENGLISH COURSE

M.Sc. Rosa Elena Cabrera Toapanta

LATACUNGA - ECUADOR
 AERONAUTICAL CAREER

This content has been prepared as a teaching guide for students of the
aeronautical career, who need to master the English grammatical
structures to develop an understanding of the technical information
regarding various aircraft, all this through a collaborative and personal
work.

M.Sc. Rosa E. Cabrera T.

ENGLISH TEACHER AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATOR AT ECUADORIAN AIR

FORCE

Email: rosehelenct@gmail.com
 Methodological Suggestions

1. Read, study and comprehend the grammatical rules included in the

different units.
2. Solve the exercises.
3. Check, verify and correct the answers.
4. Study and comprehend the lists of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs,
prepositions, etc.), which appear at the end of each unit.
 UNI 1

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLES

A. A/AN have the same meaning, and are used before singular nouns.

A repair has the necessary structural strength.

An airplane is delivered for repair.

B. The indefinite articles a, an depends on the pronunciation of the

words that follow the articles, not their spelling.

“AN” is used before a consonant sound (a, e, I, o, u) and a before

consonants (all the other letters i.e., b, c, d, f, g).

C. When u is pronounce as /ju:/, use a.

a unit
Use an before h, when h is not pronounced.
an hour
an “HEPA” (High Efficiency Particle Arrestor)

D. Do not use a or an before plural nouns.

There could be some cracks.

Corrosion inhibitors are materials.

E. Weak forms of one are: a / an. We use the full form one when we
emphasize the number – one, not two, three, four, etc.

One plane arrived late, not two.

Apply one layer of paint not two.

PLURAL COUNT FORMS

-es to words -es changing -s to other Irregular Nouns ending in
ending in: ch; ; s y to i to words words plurals have –f or –fe, delete
; z ; sh ; x ending different the –f/fe and add
in a consonant + y forms: –ves

boxes capabilities drills children Shelf=shelves

switches responsibilities coils feet Life=lives
classes impurities tables men
 inches libraries tires
brushes discrepancies plugs

DEMONSTRATIVES

SPEAKER SINGULAR PLURAL

Close to This These
Farther from That Those

A. We can use this, that, these and those:

Before a noun Without a following noun

(Adjective) (Pronoun)

This report is for you. This is for you.

That connector is rated for the That is circular threaded.
specified operation. These are of a void less
These inserts shall be retained construction.
within the shell.
Those contacts eliminate These help to correct any
damage from abuse. misaligned pins during the
engagement.

SOME, ANY, NO

A. Some and any are used to talk about an indefinite quantity.

This section gives some data about the types of mechanical

fasteners.
Do not cut into any surrounding structures.

B. Some and any are used before uncountable nouns (oil, fuel,
grease) and plural nouns (clamps, blades, nuts).

C. Some is generally used in affirmative sentences and any in

negative sentences.

Q There are some blisters or evidence of scaling and flaking.

Q Cracks or holes are not allowed in any web of bulkhead
stations 294.50 and 1156.
D. Any is used in affirmative sentences that really have a negative
meaning; for instance, with words like never, without, hardly.

Q It never gives any good results.

Q The plane got there without any trouble.
Q There’s hardly any oil left.

E. Any can also mean “it doesn’t matter which”. (Affirmative

sentence)

Q Scratches may be oriented in any direction.

Q Damage is defined as any visible change to the surface of an
airplane part.

F. No is used before a noun while not is used after the auxiliary verb.
No means not a / not any.

Q There are no scratches or missing primer on the fuselage.

Q There are not any scratches or missing primer on the fuselage.

THE POSSESSIVE CASE (‘S AND –S’)

A. This possessive case is used to show ownership.

Q The pilot’s bag = the bag of the pilot (singular)

Q The passengers’ passports = the passports of the passengers
(plural)

B. Normally of is used for things.

Q Preparation for removal and installation of transformer-

rectifier
Q Apply a light coat of lubricant to both sides of gasket

ONE, ONES

A. Use one instead of repeating a singular noun.

A: The mechanic is removing the old fastener.

B: Did you order the new one? (= the new fastener)
B. Use ones instead of repeating a plural noun.
 A: Do you need large bolts or small ones. (= small bolts)
B: Large ones. (= large bolts)

C. Only use one and ones in place of countable nouns.

ANTICIPATORY IT

In some sentences the pronoun it comes before, or anticipates, the

subject of a sentence. It does not refer to a particular person or thing; it
only takes the position before the verb usually filled by the subject.

I
VERB (BE) ADJECTIVE THAT NOUN CLAUSE
T
I the circuit can be affected by
is anticipated (that)
T another circuit.
I all turnbuckle terminals be
was essential (that)
T screwed into the barrel.

CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS

A. Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions which connect two

equal parts of a sentence.
B. A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it
depends for its full meaning.
C. Correlative conjunctions appear in pairs.

Either...or Neither...nor both...and Not only...but also

And is used as a conjunction when the words or phrases are of equal

importance and both conditions exist. It shows addition,
complementary (+) and
furthermore
moreover
in addition
also
Each seat back is you can manually fold
as well as
hydraulically reclining, the back forward.
besides
in fact
similarly
likewise

The conjunction 'but' is used to show contrast, contradiction or

concession between two phrases. The first phrase leads you to expect a
 certain event and the second phrase tells you quite a contradictory
outcome.
Difference, comparison, incompatibility
(-) But

however,
whereas,
whilst,
although,
despite,
in spite of,
The system was
nevertheless
inoperative; the aircraft took off.
even though,
in contrast,
nonetheless,
on the contrary,
on the other
hand,
regardless of

Notice the punctuation. If the word(s) begin the sentence, a comma

follows the dependent clause.

However, if all AC generators are lost, the aircraft battery will continue
to supply DC electrical power to operate vital systems.

Condition ()
These terms are used to introduce a conditional clause of provisionality.
This clause states a requirement, a demand, or an essential condition.

if,
unless,
The back jaw can be used
provided (that), the work being done is
as an anvil
providing (that), light.
only if,
All dimensions are in
whether or not, otherwise specified.
inches,
should,
while

Time ()
until the test has been
DO not return the cylinder to after accomplished.
 before
since
when
service whenever
while
as soon
as
as long as

Used to introduce clauses that state the purpose for which something is
done.
Consequence, result: ()So

The flame should be kept so that, the metal does not

moving; therefore, overheat.
consequently,
Small openings are created at thus, air can escape.
the edges of the tape; as a result,
hence, they do not block the
The skins are so thin; accordingly, radar signals.

Reason, explanation
( ) As
since,
Blades that have been heated
because, only cold straightening
for any repair must be
because of is authorized.
rejected;
due to,

Objective ()

I'll use a digital clock not be confused the

so as to,
hours.
to,
Hydraulic pressure must be
in order to
regulated use it to perform the
desired tasks.

A summation is a brief summary of main points or a restatement of the

main idea. It can also be a statement which combines effect or results
with a summary. Most summations begin with an adverbial phrase.
Consequently, longeron repair is similar to stringer repair.
In brief,
All in all,
In all,
In conclusion,
To conclude,
To put it briefly, light can produce electricity using a solar cell.
In short,
To summarize,
In other words,
In summary,

RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES “THAT-WHICH”

Adjective clauses can be introduced by the relative pronouns.

That/which/who and relate to the subject of the clauses. In this type of

structure, the clauses are linked to part or all the main clauses.

WHICH/ THAT/

Adjective clauses may be introduce by the relative pronouns which/that

and relate to the object of the clause. The relative pronouns may be
omitted.

Q A paint booth may be a small room in which components of an

aircraft are painted.
Q The aircraft’s voltage depends on which battery is selected for that
aircraft.
Q These conditions can cause arcing, which may result in a fire or
system failures.
Q Terminal strips should be mounted in such a manner that loose
metallic objects cannot fall across the terminals or studs.
Q Some aircraft have nacelles that are designed to house the landing
gear when retracted.

WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.

Someone adjective clauses may be introduced by the relative adverbs.

Where/ when are relative to the place or time.

Q A specifically designed switch should be used in all circuits where a

switch malfunction would be hazardous.
Q Contact burning or welding may occur when the switch is closed.
Q The speed brake control in the cockpit can deploy all spoiler and
speed brake surfaces fully when operated.
Q Fixtures and/ or jigs should be used where possible.

EMPHATIC DO

When we want to stress or emphasize an action, we can use do, does, or

did before the verb.

Schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components.

The rib lacks a cap strip, but does have a flange around the entire piece.

The oxidizing flame does have some specific uses.

IMPERATIVE

A. Use the imperative form in:

Q Instructions Q Offers
Q Warnings Q Advice
Q Invitations Q Requests

Do not perform wire repair while using explosive solvent/paint

products on the aircraft.

Remove 12 mounting nuts (3) (and washers, if installed) and discard.

B. To make imperative more polite, we can use the word please.

Tighten the nut, please.

C. The imperative has exactly the same form as the infinitive without
TO: it is used for giving orders, making suggestions, and encouraging
people to do thing.

Sand off any excess and prepare the area for refinishing.

D. An imperative can be made more emphatic by putting do before it.

Do protect the interiors of structural steel and aluminum tubing

against corrosion.

E. Negative imperatives are constructed with do not (or don’t)

 Don’t worry.
Do not lean out of the window.

TENSES

Present Tense of the Verb Be

A. There are three basic completions for sentences that begin with a
subject + the verb be:

Q A noun, as in:

The manager is an Air Force officer. The technicians are airmen.

Q An adjective, as in:

The inspection of rib upper chord is applicable

Q An expression of place, as in:

The manager is in the hangar. The airmen are in the hangar too.

Present Simple

A. The present tense is the fundamental tense of technical English and

is the basic tense of all technical documentation. It is mostly used in
the 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they).

The fuselage acts as a pendulum suspended from the rotor.

Hand tools include rivet cutters, bucking bars, hand riveters,
countersinks, and dimpling tools.

B. The present simple is used to describe all generalities, systems,

processes, recurring phenomena, laws, etc.

A transformer changes electrical energy.

Connector backshells come in a wide variety of types depending on
the application.

C. The present simple is used to talk about things that happen

repeatedly – for example, every day, usually, often or
sometimes.
 The rivet head often breaks away and climbs the drill, which is a
signal to withdraw the drill.

D. The present simple is also used to talk about facts that are generally
true.

Atmospheric temperature changes cause the humidity in the air to

condense on the inside of aircraft surfaces and pool in all low areas.

E. After he/she/it, verbs end in –s or –es, e.g. he works; she goes.

-es after –s/- passpasses watch watches

ch/-sh: finishfinishes
do does go goes
study  studies carry  carries

A light illuminates inside the button to indicate that it is pressed.

F. Use do/does + not for negative sentences.

Aluminum alloys do not possess the corrosion resistance of pure

aluminum.
The neutral flame is used for most welding because it does not alter
the composition of the base metal.

Present Continuous

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The present continuous is used to talk about something that is

happening at the moment we speak.

Examples:

The use of structural adhesives is becoming widespread within the

aircraft field, both for repair and for initial fabrication.

C. Spelling:

work  working run  running lie lying

remove  removing be  being
 Past Tense of the Verb Be

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The past tense of the verb be (was/were) is used to talk about a

definite time in the past e.g., last week, yesterday, in 1980, two years
ago etc.

Examples:
The damage became readily apparent when the cable was removed
and bent.
When the spark plugs are removed from the engine, identify them to
coincide with the cylinder and location from which they were
removed.
Take care to ensure the electrolyte is returned to the cell from which
it was extracted.
Were any malfunctions reported in-flight involving true airspeed?

Past Simple

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The past simple is used to talk about a definite time in the past, e.g.,
last year, yesterday, in 1980, two years ago etc.

C. Many verbs are regular. The past simple of regular verbs ends in –
ed, e.g., work  worked.

Example:
The color code and contact size corresponded to the information
contained on the data plate.
GTC (Gas Turbine Compressor) did not sustain rotation when GTC
control switch was released to RUN.

D. Some verbs have irregular past simple forms e.g., go  went.  See
page 238.
 Past Continuous

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The past continuous is used for something that was in the middle of
happening at a past time or to indicate that a longer action in the past
was interrupted.

C. Spelling:

work  working run  running lie lying

remove  removing be  being

Present Perfect

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The present perfect is used to talk about something that started in the
past and continuous up to the present.

I have worked in CEMA for three years. (I work in CEMA now)

C. The past simple is used for something that started and finished in the
past.

I worked in CEMA for three years. (I do not work in CEMA now)

D. The present perfect is also used to talk about experiences in our lives,
up to now.

E. The present perfect is also used to talk about a past action, when we
can see the result of the action now.

The pilot has damaged the plane. (The plane is damaged now)

Q have/has + past participle.

Q The past participle of regular verbs ends in –ed e.g., work 

worked

Q Some verbs have irregular past participle forms, e.g., be (been)

 Going To

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.
B. We use going to talk about something that we have already decided
to do in the future.
C. We also use going to when we can see a future action coming
because of the present situation.

A thorough review of the aircraft manufacturer’s service instructions is

going to provide many helpful suggestions on
inspections.

Modals

WILL - SHALL

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The modal auxiliary verb “‘will” is used to express a mandatory

declaration of purpose or when it is necessary to express a future
event.

The modal auxiliary verb “‘shall’’ is used to express a provision that is

compulsory.

Maintenance personnel shall refer to specific aircraft maintenance

technical order for special instructions for use of these bolts.

Overheating will cancel the memory and melt the filaments.

Coatings other than dope will not increase fabric tension after aging.

CAN

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The modal auxiliary verb “Can” is used to express ability.

C. Can is also used to physical or technical capacity.

Examples:
 These dimensional changes can have detrimental effects upon a
wood structure, particularly when two parts are bonded together
with grains in different directions.
Over tightening of fittings can also cause crushing of the underlying
wood member and possible bending of the metal fitting.

COULD

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3 rd plural person (they) is mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

The modal auxiliary verb “Could” is used to express possibility.

Consult the local fire department for authority to use specific

equipment. Noncompliance could cause personnel injury.

If the water touches molten magnesium, a steam explosion could

occur.

B. Could is also used as the past form of can:

A man fell into the fuel tank yesterday. The

technicians couldn't save him.

MUST

A. The 3rd singular person (it) or 3rd plural person (they) are mostly used
as subject pronoun in technical documentation.

B. The modal auxiliary verb “Must” is used when we think that

something is necessary.

Shop procedures must follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.

C. Must is also used to talk about the present, e.g., I must change the
tire now, or the future e.g., I must change the tire tomorrow.

D. To talk about the past, we use had to : Example:

I had to change the tire yesterday.

E. Must not is used to tell someone not to do something.

F. In technical and legal English, shall does not indicate the future, but
an idea of necessity. Shall = must.

G. Must, shall and have to are commonly used to express necessity.

The repair parts must not cause a blockage of any floor beam holes.
Remove maximum depth of a scratch or gouge must not exceed that
given for pressurized fuselage skins.

MAY, MIGHT

A. The modal auxiliary verbs “May and Might” express probability

and are used to indicate that an action or event could happen.

B. In a technical context, these apply more to natural phenomena,

unplanned technical incident, malfunction, etc., and also indicate an
acceptable or suggested means of accomplishment.

Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons,

wing rib, and trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe
structure.
The surface might be difficult to wet due to the presence of wax.

SHOULD

A. The modal auxiliary verb “Should” is used to express a

recommendation or advice rather than a necessity, about the present
or the future. “Should” also indicates a non-mandatory but
preferred method of accomplishment.

Electrical junctions should be mechanically and electrically secure.

B. If "should" comes at the beginning of a sentence, and the sentence is

not a question, then it can be replaced with "if". There is no difference
at all.

Should freezing or seizing occur, a sharp twist of the operator’s wrist

usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal.

If freezing or seizing occurs, a sharp twist of the operator’s wrist

usually disengages the electrode from the parent metal.

VERB TENSES
We can find few tenses in technical documents, and the verb forms are
variants of the infinitive form.

Verbal Forms

Present
Past
Infinitive Present Past participle
participle
repair -
To repair repaired repaired repairing
repairs
To cut cut - cuts cut cut cutting
To write write - writes wrote written writing

A. The infinitive form in technical language is used to express an action

that is a purpose of something. Example:
The purpose is to prevent back-flow through the pressure relief
valves.

B. The present form in technical English is used in the present simple

tense with the 3rd person singular (it) or 3rd person plural (they). It
describes generalizations, systems, processes, etc. Example:
The performance of the system depends on the quality of the design.

C. The past form of technical information is used to express the idea that
an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Example:

The mechanic followed manufacturer’s instructions wherever

applicable to prevent injury
D. The past participle form is used in perfect tenses, in both present and
past tense, and they are also used for passive voice. Examples:

Tear is a discontinuity which has progressed through the full

thickness of the material.

In areas where minor amounts of oil or grease have penetrated the

wood surface, removal may be accomplished by use of an absorbent
type of cleaner

Many of the illustrations have been provided by the manufacturers.

E. The present participle form is used with the progressive tenses and
also as adjective or noun. Examples:
 This is essential in order to clearly see the parts you are
inspecting.

Burnishing is the polishing of a surface by sliding contact with

another smooth, harder metallic surface.

A cable cutting blade has no teeth.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

A. The passive voice is used in writing much more often than in speech.
It can be found in newspapers and magazine articles, and it is very
common in scientific and technical writing.
B. In the active voice the subject does the action.
C. In the passive voice the subject receives the action.

Passive Verb-Forms

A. Passive verb-forms are made with the different tenses of to be,

followed by a past participle.

TENSE PASSIVE VOICE

Present simple English is taught here.
Present progressive The aircraft is being painted.
Past simple I was not informed.
Past progressive I felt as if I was being watched.
Present perfect The rudder has been repaired.
Present perfect progressive The scan has been being started.
Past perfect I knew why I had been chosen.
Past perfect progressive I have known how long the aircraft had been
being inspected.
Future You’ll be told in advance.
Future progressive You’ll be being nominated in the near future.
Future perfect Everything will have been done by the 20th.
Future perfect progressive By next year, the new hangar will have been
being built.
Going to Who is going to be trained?
Modal structure He ought to be careful.
Modal structure He should be careful.
Passive voice:

Q Maximum paint thickness was determined by lightning testing.

Perfect tenses:
Q Wipe off MEK before it has evaporated with a clean cloth.

As an adjective form:

Q Today, scientists are also interested in how the atmosphere affects

the performance of the aircraft and its equipment.

PARTICIPLES

There are two kinds of participles in English: present participle and past
participle.

A. Present Participle:
Q The present participle is the ing-form.
Q Progressive / continuous tenses: I am speaking.
Q As an adjective form: The film is interesting.
Q As a gerund: He is afraid of flying.
Q As a noun: Improper functioning of brakes could cause serious
consequences.

B. Spelling rules for the formation of the Present Participle.

RULE EXAMPLE

working
Base form of the verb + '-ing ':
fixing
running
If a one or two syllable verb ends in consonant + vowel + stopping
consonant, double the final consonant and add '-ing ': occurring
beginning
When a verb ends in '-l ' the '-l' is doubled and '-ing' is travelling
added (in British English): cancelling
When a verb ends in silent '-e ', the silent '-e' is dropped closing
and '-ing' is added: moving
being
When a verb ends in an '-e ' which is not silent, the final '-
agreeing
e' is not dropped and the ending '-ing ' is added:
seeing

When a verb ends in '-ie ', the '-ie ' is changed to '-y' and tie – tying
the ending '-ing ' is added: lie - lying

Q I use a knife for cutting leather.

Q After completing a few inspections you will be surprised at how
familiar you will be with your aircraft.
Q Oxidation is called rusting when talking about ferrous materials.

Participles used as adjectives

A. Many adjectives can be identified by their endings. Another major

subclass of adjectives can also be formally distinguished by endings,
this time by -ed or -ing endings:

-ed form computerized, determined, placed, deleted, cracked,

misunderstood, unknown
-ing form annoying, exasperating, gratifying, misleading,
worrying

Q Remember that some -ed forms, such as misunderstood and

unknown, do not end in -ed at all.

B. We use the -ed participle as a subject adjective; it describes how the

subject of a sentence feels or how we feel about something:

Q He was interested in the program.

Q The technician is exhausted.

C. We use the -ing participle as an object adjective; it describes the

object of the sentence or talks about the person or thing that makes
us feel interested:

Q The program was interesting (for him).

Q If a story is exciting, you are excited when you read it.
Q After a tiring day, you feel tired.
Q You may be worried if you have a worrying problem.

D. When we put participles before a noun, it usually expresses some

more permanent characteristic: it is more like an adjective than
a verb: a broken window, an interesting handbook.

E. Finally, most participial adjectives can be used both attributively and

predicatively:

Attributive Predicative
 That's an irritating noise That noise is irritating
This is an exciting film This film is exciting

When participial adjectives are used predicatively, it may sometimes be

difficult to distinguish between the adjectival and verbal uses:

Consider the following pair:

[1] The noise is annoying
[2] The noise is annoying the employees
In [1], we can modify annoying using very:
[1a] the noise is (very) annoying
But we cannot modify it in the same way in [2]:
[2a] *the noise is (very) annoying the employees

Q We can also identify -ing forms as verbal if it is possible to change the

-ing form into a non-progressive verb:

Progressive Non-progressive

The inspectors are working The inspector work

The paint is drying The paint dries

Q The presence of a by-agent phrase (by the manufacturer’s manual,

by the schematic diagram) indicates that the -ed form is verbal.
Conversely, the presence of a complement, such as a that-clause,
indicates that it is adjectival.

-ing form

A. -ing form after verb.- The most common verbs usually

B. followed by the –ING form in technical contents are:

advise – allow – anticipate – appreciate – admit – attempt – avoid –

begin – carry on - complete - can’t help - can't stand - consider –
continue – defer - delay - deny – detest – dislike -discuss – endure -
enjoy – escape - excuse – face - feel like – finish – forbid – forget -
get through - give up - go on - have – help – imagine – intend –
involve - keep – like – leave off - mention - mind – miss – permit –
postpone – practice - prefer-propose - put off – quit – recall –
recommend – remember – regret – resent - remember – report –
 resist - resume - risk - see – spend (time) - start – stop – suggest –
tolerate – try – understand - waste (time) - watch

To lower potential fire hazards, avoid using electric sanders around

dope, paints, and adhesives.

C. -In form after a preposition. - The –ing form is used after all
prepositions.

You should check the oil before starting.

D. -ing form special cases.- Use the –ing form after: as, like, than,
any/some/no.

Q Any binding or malfunctioning of an engine control system

should be traced to its source and corrected.
Q Why don’t you do something useful, like cleaning the hangar?

E. -ing form or infinitive.- Some verbs can be followed by either an

–ing form or an infinitive. The most important are:

attempt- can afford – can’t bear – begin – cease – commence –

continue – dislike – dread – hate – intend – like – loathe – love –
neglect – prefer – propose – remember – (can’t) stand – start – try –
undertake

Some people hate working/to work in the early morning.

F. When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle.

It is important to understand that they are not the same.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a

gerund:

Q Gathering and distributing various air pressures for flight

instrumentation is the function of the pitot-static system.

Q Heating the probe must not affect the resistance of the sensor
element.
 ADJECTIVES

A. An adjective always has the same form to talk about singular, plural,
masculine, feminine.

B. Adjectives say what something is or seem like. They can be used in

two ways:

1. Before nouns. This is called “attributive position”

a typical repair

When we use more than one adjective in a phrase, this order is usually
followed:

Age Color Origin Material Purpose Noun

a new black Swiss plastic army knife

2. In the complement of a sentence –This is called “predicative

position”. This happens when we are really describing the subject
of the sentence, not the “action” of the verb.

the old unit the unit is old

the faulty panel the panel is faulty
the electrical wiring the wiring is electrical
C. Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun,
especially in certain institutionalized expressions:

The Director General

Times past

D. We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is

obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun:

something useful

everyone present
 those responsible

COMPARISONS

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs

A. The comparative form is used to compare two thing or people.

These fasteners have a shank diameter larger than hex-drive bolts.

B. The superlative is use to compare three or more things or people.

The depth of rework is the largest.

C. The word than is used after the comparative and the before the
superlative

larger than……… the largest

D. Form of comparative and superlative adjectives: Short adjectives

(adjectives of one syllable), add –er / -est

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
thick thicker thickest
loose looser loosest

E. Longer adjectives (adjectives of three or more syllables), need more /

most.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
important more important the most important
(im – por -
tant) more expensive the most expensive
expensive
(ex – pen –
 sive)

F. Adjectives of two syllables ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take out

the –y and add –ier / - iest.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

dirty
dirtier the dirtiest
(dir – ty)

G. Most other adjectives of two syllables use more / most.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

modern
more modern the most modern
(mo – dern)
careful
more careful the most careful
(care – ful)

H. Some words have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

good better the best

bad worse the worst
far further/farther the furthest/farthest

I. The correlative construction as ... as is an excellent method of

indicating similarity, or dissimilarity:

The ferritic steels are not as tough at cryogenic temperature as at

room temperature.

J. Double comparative

Q There is a method of comparison with the idiomatic construction

of: the …….., the:
 Q Two comparatives are used to express two parallel progressions,
states, etc.

The larger the contact, the larger the difference

The lower the temperature, the more brittle the steel becomes.
The socket inside diameter will be from 0.002 to 0.005 inch
larger than the pin outside diameter. The larger the contact,
the larger the difference

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

The mechanic is careful. All personnel must observe the danger

areas carefully.

It is a bad opinion. It functions badly.

A. Compare:

He is a very slow worker.

He is working very slowly.

B. An adjective (slow, clear, heavy etc.) describes the qualities of people

or things; used before nouns or after the verb be (is, are).

He is a very cautious technician.

The nozzle is very large.
It is very old.

C. Adjectives always have the same form for singular, plural, masculine
or feminine. Examples:

a new cylinder two new cylinders

a new valve two new valves

D. An adverb of manner (carefully, periodically, directly) describes how

something happens.

He submits information carefully.

They must be inspected periodically.
Place a short sleeve directly over the spray nozzle.

Formal Characteristics of Adverbs

E. Adjective slow quick soft sudden gradual M
slowl quickl o
Adverb softly suddenly gradually st
y y
adverbs of manner are formed by adding –ly to the adjective.

ADJECTIVE ADVERB
slow slowly
careful carefully

F. Words ending in a consonant + -y (-ty) take away y and add -ily.

ADJECTIVE ADVERB
greasy greasily
steady steadily

G. Words ending in –le, change the le to –ly.

ADJECTIVE ADVERB
adjustable adjustably
comfortable comfortably

H. Some words are also used as both adjectives and adverbs.

You are a fast worker. You work fast.

You are a hard worker. You work hard.

I. The following verbs can only be used with adjectives:

Q Be, become, get, grow, keep, remain, seem, sound, stay, turn.

ADVERBS

A. Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb:

[1] The pilot flies carefully

[2] The mechanics are extremely clever
[3] This plane goes incredibly fast

In [1], the adverb carefully tells us how the pilot flies. In [2],
extremely tells us the degree to which the mechanic is clever.
 Finally, in [3], the adverb incredibly tells us how fast the plane
goes.

B. With verbs, we use adverbs to give more information about the

action – to say how, where or when it is done:

Carefully inspect the entire air system periodically.

The engine is very quiet. It runs very quietly.

C. Other words that end in –ly can be both adjectives and adverbs
(daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early).

A daily report is published daily.

We get up early to catch an early plane.

D. But some words that end in –ly are adjectives, not adverbs. For
example: costly, timely, kindly, oily, orderly, quarterly. These words
cannot be used as adverbs.

He works in a very orderly way.

NOUN ADJUNCTS

Adjectives usually modify or describe

A loose bolt
A heavy aircraft

Nouns can also modify nouns. They are called noun adjuncts. They are
always singular.

A hangar that repairs aircraft is a repair station.

My brother drives trucks. He is a truck driver.
1. A tank for fuel.
A fuel tank
2. Maintenance for an aircraft.
Aircraft maintenance
3. A tank that has oil in it.
Oil tank

The Noun as “Adjective” Structure

A. The word order in technical English is very important. Aeronautical

technical terms use a lot compound words. They have a head word
 and the words before it are a qualifier that is a chain of words (they
function as adjectives).

NOUN AS HEAD
MEANING
ADJECTIVE WORD
Fuel control control of the fuel
Flight plan plan for flight

Empennage structure structure of the empennage

Aviation mechanic mechanic of aviation
Safety clips clips for safety

B. The exact relationship between the first word and the second depends
on the particular expression. For instance:

Q Place. - The first noun gives the place that the second comes
from, or is found in, or is used in, or happens in.

the office party

the skin crack
a traffic jam

Q Time. - The first gives the time when the second happens, or
the time when the second is meant to be used.

day vision
night glasses
night watch

Q Material. - The first noun says what the second consists of.

aluminum fuselage
magnesium surface
paint film

Q Functional relationship. - The first noun says something

about the function, job, or role of the second: what it is used for.

hinge support
control tower
maintenance technician
 Q Direct object. - The second refers to an activity. The first noun
is the direct object of the verb that describes that activity.

traffic control (somebody controls traffic)

damage repair ( somebody repairs damages)
hardness tester (somebody tests hardness)

Q Complement.- If the second noun was the subject of a clause,

the first noun would be the complement (after be)

a man driver ( the driver is a man)

Q Part.- The second noun refers to a part or section of the first.

a table leg
the plane door
a panel button

Q Measurement.- we usually use the “noun as adjective”

structure.

a ten-pound box
a five-liter can
two 20-liter tanks

C. The basic principle in a compound word is that one word is the key
word or the head word, the smallest item in the chain, and the other
words are the qualifiers (nouns or adjectives) used to identify it.

QUALIFIER QUALIFIER QUALIFIER QUALIFIER QUALIFIER QUALIFIER HEAD WORD

Aircraft Maintenance Manual

Forward Fuselage Windshield Sealing

Horizontal Stabilizer Training Edge Panels

Main Landing Gear Door Allowable Damage

Lower Aft Nacelle Access Door Latch Adjustment

D. The sense of compound words depends on the word order; the head
word is the last word. The interpretation must be logical, avoid
translating literally.
COMPOUND WORDS MEANING
Stall warning a device which produces a signal to warn
transmitter
Superchrgae control the system of controlling the supercharger
system
a ring-type gage used for checking external
Thread ring gage
threads
Carburetor air the temperature of the induction air before it
temperature enters the carburetor
a lubrication system wherein the oil cooler is
Cold tank system
located in the scavenge oil subsystem

PREPOSITIONS

A. They are used to show the relationship of a noun or the object of the
preposition to some other word in the sentence.

B. Prepositions typically come before a noun:

across hangar for lunch

after work in Latacunga
at home on fire
before Tuesday to school
by Shakespeare with pleasure

C. The prepositions which we have looked at so far have all consisted of

a single word, such as in, of, at, and to. We refer to these as SIMPLE
PREPOSITIONS.

D. COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word

combinations acting as a single unit. Here are some examples:

according to due to
along with except for
apart from instead of
because of prior to
contrary to regardless of

Like simple prepositions, these two-word combinations come before a

noun:
 according to the FAR
contrary to my advice
due to complaint

E. Three-word combinations often have the following pattern:

Simple Preposition Noun Simple Preposition

We can see this pattern in the following examples:

in aid of in line with

on behalf of in relation to
in front of with reference to
in accordance with with respect to
in line with by means of

Again, these combinations come before a noun:

in aid of contributions
in front of the window
in line with inflation
 PREPOSITIONS: WHERE?

Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

at in opposite

on under 1 above, 2 below

44

33
22
11

between beside, next to 1 by,

2 near
3 not far from
11 4 a long way
22 1 among, 2 in the middle of of

1 behind, 2 in front of
 PREPOSITIONS: WHERE TO?

Use prepositions to complete this page. The first or the last letter is given

past up down

11
22

round, around along 1 onto, 2 off

1 over, 2 under back to through

22 11
33

11
22

1 into, 2 out of 1 to, 2 towards, 3 from across

 SUFFIXES & PREFIXES

Many words in English are formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to base
forms. A base form, or stem, is the most basic form of a word. To this
base form, we may add a prefix at the beginning or a suffix at the end.

Base form: rely

Suffix -able: reliable

Prefix un-: unreliable

SUFFIXES –FUL AND –LESS

We can add the suffixes –ful and –less to some nouns to make adjectives.
The suffixes –ful and –less have opposite meanings:

Useful “full or having”; and

Useless “without” or “not having”

SUFFIX –LY

Adjectives are changed into adverbs adding –LY.

correct correctly slow slowly

careful Carefully immediate immediately
easy easily reasonable reasonably

SUFFIX-ER

The suffix-er and –or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to
express the meaning of “one who” or “that which”

He teaches students to read.

He´s a teacher

She operates radios.

She is a radio operator.

*Collector, visitor, educator, and instructor are spelled with –or.

SUFFIX -WARD
The suffix -ward (s) is used to form adjectives and adverbs which indicate
a direction in time or space.

EXAMPLES: northward, southward, eastward, westward, upward (s),

downward (s), backward (s).

SUFFIXES –ENT / - ANT

We can add the suffixes – ent / - ant to some verbs to make adjectives.
They express that has, shows or does

absorb absorbent differ different

insist insistent assist assistant

ADJECTIVES SUFFIXES

The following suffixes can be added to nouns to form adjectives:

-y silk/silky -ous danger/dangerous

-ly friend/friendly -ic hero/heroic
-ful use/useful -ical mechanic / mechanical
-less home/homeless -ish style/stylish
-ern north/northern -like child/childlike
-al monument/monumental -ar family/familiar
-ary station/stationary

NOUN SUFFIXES

The suffixes –ion, -ation, -tion, and –sion are added to verb to make noun
which name an action, condition, quality, or result

instruct + ion instruction

observe + ation observation
intend + tion intention
decide + sion decision

THE SUFFIX -ERN

The suffix -ern indicates that something occurs in or is situated in a
certain direction. It is added to nouns to form adjectives:

northern, southern, eastern, western.

-EN SUFFIX (ADJ---VERB)
 strength strengthen (to make stronger)
short shorten (to make shorter)
wide widen (to make wider)
deep deepen (to make deeper)
tight tighten (to make tighter)
sharp -en sharpen (to make sharper)
length lengthen (to make longer)
loose loosen (to make looser)
sad sadden (to make sadder)

SUFFIXES: -ABLE/-IBLE

The following suffixes may be added to nouns and / or verbs to form

adjectives:

-able accept acceptable -tive produce productive

-ible force forcible -ative talk talkative
-ive protect protective
SUFFIXES Y, TY, HY

The suffixes Y, TY, HY, form adjectives into abstract nouns.

ADJECTIVE NOUN

-Y honest honesty
-TY certain certainty
-ITY electric electricity
-ITY secure security
-ILITY responsible responsibility

SUFFIX – NESS

We can add the suffix – ness to some adjectives to make nouns.

dark darkness
great greatness
ready readiness
quick quickness
friendly friendliness
NOUN SUFFIXES
The suffixes “–AL; -ANCE; -ENCE; MENT and –Y” are added to verbs to
make nouns which name an act, condition, quality or result.

VERB SUFFIX NOUN

Approve + - al approval
Allow + - ance allowance
Refer + - ence reference
Employ + - ment employment
Recover +-y recovery

SUFFIX -FY / -IFY

The suffixes –fy and –ify can also be added to some adjectives and nouns
to make verbs. They have the meaning of “to make, become, or cause to
become”.

clear clarify
electric electrify
just justify
liquid liquefy
solid solidify

SUFFIX –IST

The noun suffix –ist can be added to some nouns to express the meaning
“one who” or “that which”.

Violin + -ist violinist

Type + - ist typist
Biology + - ist biologist

The PREFIX CO-

Co- is a prefix which has the meaning of “Joint” and “Together with”.

Cooperate, coordinate, coworker, coauthor, coexist.

SUFFIX -AL
We can form nouns by adding the suffix –al to certain verbs. When we
add this suffix, it has the meaning of “the act of or the process of “.

approve approval dismiss dismissal

arrive arrival refuse refusal
deny denial remove removal
disapprove disapproval withdraw withdrawal

SUFFIX –Y

The meaning of certain verbs may be changed to express “an act or action
of “by adding the suffix– y to the verb, changing the verb into a noun.

discover discovery deliver delivery

recover recovery inquire inquiry

SUFFIX - IZE

The suffix - ize can be added to various nouns and adjectives to make
verbs that mean “make or cause to be.”

equal equalize ( make equal)

familiar familiarize ( cause to be/ become familiar)
+ - ize
modern modernize = ( make modern)
item itemize (to make a list of items)

SUFFIX – LIKE

We can add the suffix –like to some nouns to make adjectives. The suffix
“like”, expresses the idea of resembling or having the characteristic of
something.

Cuplike (resembling a cup/ having the characteristics of a cup)

Fencelike
Fanlike

When-like is added to words ending in double “L” the words are

hyphenated.

Gel-like
SUFFIXES –AL AND -IAL
The suffixes –al and –ial can be added to some nouns to form adjectives.
They have the meaning “of, like, or suitable for”.

accident accidental addition additional

commerce commercial manager managerial

NEGATIVE PREFIXES

un- The opposite of Unable, unbelievable, undo, unfair, unreliable,

de The opposite of deactivate, decode, decompose, deconstruct, decontaminate, decrease, deflate, deform

non- Not Non-smoker, nonconformist, non-essential, non-fiction

in- The opposite of Inaccessible, incomplete, incorrect, inevitable, insane

The opposite of (before

il- Illegal, illegitimate, illicit, illiterate, illogical
l…)

im (before m or p) The opposite f Immature, impatient, imperfect, impolite, impossible

ir (before r) The opposite of Irrational, irregular, irrelevant, irresistible, irresponsible

in + other
The opposite of Incomplete, intolerable, incorrect, instability, inability, inaccessible, inadequate
consonants or vowel

dis The opposite of Disconnect, dishonest, dislike, disloyalty, disobedient, disobey, dissatisfied

mis- Wrong, bad Misbehave, misconception, misunderstand

anti- against Antibody, anticlimax, anti-nuclear, anti- racist, antisocial

a- The opposite of Atypical, atonal

PREFIXES OF POSITION

re- Again, back React. Re-apply, rebuild, recycle, re- use

inter- Between, among Interactive, intercontinental, international

super- More than, very special Superimpose, supermarket, supernatural, supersonic, superstar

over- Too much Overconfident, overeat, overestimate, overpopulated, overreact, overwork

under- Too little Undercharge, undercook,

pre- before Pre-Christmas, pre- Raphaelite, prewar

post- after Postgraduate, postmodern, post- war

extra- Exceptionally, outside Extracurricular, extraordinary, extraterrestrial

PREFIXES OF NUMBER

one mono-, uni-, monopropellant, unidirectional

two bi-, du- biaxial, duplex

ten deci- decimal

many poly-, multi- polyphase, multifunctional

CONTENTS

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLES--------------------------------------1

PLURAL COUNT FORMS-------------------------------------------1
DEMONSTRATIVES-------------------------------------------------2
SOME, ANY, NO------------------------------------------------------2
THE POSSESSIVE CASE (‘S AND –S’)----------------------------3
ONE, ONES------------------------------------------------------------3
ANTICIPATORY IT---------------------------------------------------4
CONJUNCTIONS and SENTENCE CONNECTORS------------4
RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES “THAT-WHICH”------7

WHICH/ THAT/............................................................7

WHERE/WHEN used as relative Adv.................................7

EMPHATIC DO-------------------------------------------------------8
IMPERATIVE---------------------------------------------------------8
TENSES----------------------------------------------------------------9

Present Tense of the Verb Be---------------------------------------9

Present Simple--------------------------------------------------------9

Present Continuous-------------------------------------------------10

Past Tense of the Verb Be------------------------------------------11

Past Simple----------------------------------------------------------11

Past Continuous-----------------------------------------------------12

Present Perfect------------------------------------------------------12

Going To--------------------------------------------------------------13

Modals----------------------------------------------------------------13

WILL - SHALL.............................................................13

CAN...........................................................................13

COULD.......................................................................14

MUST.........................................................................14

MAY, MIGHT...............................................................15

SHOULD.....................................................................15
VERB TENSES------------------------------------------------------16

Verbal Forms--------------------------------------------------------16

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE-----------------------------------17

Passive Verb-Forms------------------------------------------------17

PARTICIPLES-------------------------------------------------------18

Participles used as adjectives-------------------------------------19

-ing form-------------------------------------------------------------20

ADJECTIVES--------------------------------------------------------22
COMPARISONS-----------------------------------------------------23

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs-------------------------23

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS------------------------------------25

Formal Characteristics of Adverbs------------------------------26

ADVERBS------------------------------------------------------------26
NOUN ADJUNCTS-------------------------------------------------27
The Noun as “Adjective” Structure-------------------------------28
PREPOSITIONS-----------------------------------------------------30
SUFFIXES & PREFIXES-------------------------------------------34