UNIT-1

INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION:
Scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of instruments to perform their
measurements. These instruments may range from simple objects such as ruler scales and
stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators used by scientists and engineers.
An instrument is as a device or a system which is designed to maintain a functional
relationship between prescribed properties of physical variables being measured. It provides the
means of communication to a human observer or the operator of a machine or equipment.
Function of Instrumentals and Measurement Systems
The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based upon the functions they
perform. There are four main functions performed by them: indicating, signal processing,
recording and control.

a. Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information concerning the

variable quantity under measurement. Several types of methods could be employed in
the instruments and systems for this purpose. Most of the time, this information is
obtained as the deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
b. Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on
paper, of the value of the quantity under measurement against time or against some
other variable. This is a recording function performed by the instrument
c. Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and modify the measured
signal to facilitate recording / control.
d. Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions, especially in the
food processing industries where the processing operations are required to be precisely
controlled. In this case, the information is used by the instrument or the systems to
control the original measured variable or quantity.

Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument

The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement system / instrument:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response

ELEMENTS OF INSTRUMENT:
To understand a measuring instrument/system, it is important to have a systematic
organization and analysis of measurement systems. The operation of a measuring instrument or a
system could be described in a generalized manner in terms of functional elements. Each
functional element is made up of a component or groups of components which perform required
and definite steps in the measurement. The functional elements do not provide the intricate
details of the physical aspects of a specific instrument or a system. These may be taken as basic
elements, whose scope is determined by their functioning rather than their construction.
The main functional elements of an instrument are:

a. Primary sensing element

b. Secondary element(Variable conversion element)
c. Manipulation element(Variable manipulation element)
d. Functioning Element

 Signal conditioning element

 Data transmission element
 Data presentation element.

Primary sensing element:

The quantity or the variable which is being measured makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measurement system. The measurement is thus first detected by
primary sensor or detector. The measurement is then immediately converted into an analogous
electrical signal. This is done by a transducer. Though a transducer in general, is defined as a
device which converts energy from one form to another. But in measurement systems, this
definition is limited in scope. A transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical
quantity into an electrical quantity. The output of the sensor and detector element employed for
measuring a quantity could be in different analogous form. This output is then converted into an
electrical signal by a transducer. This is true of most of the cases but is not true for all. In many
cases, the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a detector
transducer. The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage.
Secondary Element:
The output signal of the variable sensing element may be any kind. It could be a
mechanical or electrical signal. Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to the
measurement system. For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to
convert this output signal from the sensor to some other suitable form while preserving the
information content of the original signal. In many instruments variable conversion element is
not required. Some instruments/measuring systems may require more than one element.
Manipulation element:
Variable manipulation means a change in numerical value of the signal. The function of
a variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to this element while
preserving the original nature of the signal.
Functioning Element:
It denotes the part of an instrument used for transmitting signaling registering indicating
or recording.
Signal conditioning element
 The operations performed on the signal, to remove the signal contamination or distortion,
is called Signal Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in
addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation.
The signal conditioning processes are performed on the signal to bring it to the desired
form for further transmission to next stage in the system. The element that performs this function
in any instrument or instrumentation system is known as Signal Conditioning Element.
Data transmission element
There are several situations where the elements of an instrument are actually physically
separated. In such situations it becomes necessary to transmit data from one element to another.
The element that performs this function is called a Data Transmission Element.
Data presentation element
The function of data presentation element is to convey the information about the quantity under
measurement to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, for
analysis purposes. The information conveyed must be in a convenient form. In case data is to be
monitored, visual display devices are needed.
Figure 1.1 below presents the block diagram of functional elements of a generalized measuring
system / instrument. One must understand the difference between functional elements and the
physical elements of measuring system. Functional element indicates only the function to be
performed. Physical elements are the actual components or parts of the system. One physical
element can perform more than one function. Similarly one function could be performed by more
than one physical element. This is more suitably illustrated in the example of a measuring
instrument described below.

Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of functional elements of a measurement system / instrument

1.3 Functional Elements of a Bourdon Pressure Gauge
As an example of a measurement system, consider the simple Bourdon tube pressure
gauge as shown in Fig. 1.2. This gauge offers a good example of a measurement system. In this
case, the Bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing element and a variable conversion element. It
senses the input quantity (pressure in this case). On account of the pressure the closed end of the
Bourdon tube is displaced. Thus, the pressure is converted into a small displacement. The closed
end of the Bourdon tube is connected through mechanical linkage to a sector-pinion gearing
arrangement. The gearing arrangement amplifies the small displacement and makes the pointer
to rotate through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus acts as a data transmission element
while the gearing arrangement acts as a data manipulation element. The dial scale on the gauge
body plays the function of data presentation element and conveys the information about the
quantity being measured. The information conveyed by this device is in analogue form.

Fig. 1.2 Bourdon Pressure gauge, the pressure measuring instrument

`1.4 Functional Elements of a Clinical Thermometer
As another example of a measurement system, let us consider the simple clinical thermometer
shown in Fig. 2.3. In this case, the thermometer bulb containing mercury acts as the primary
sensing element as well as a variable conversion element. It senses the input quantity, the
temperature. On account of the increase in temperature the mercury in bulb expands and its
volume is increased. The temperature signal is converted into volume displacement. As the
mercury expands it move through the capillary tube in the thermometer stem, integrated to the
bulb. The cross section area of the capillary being constant, the volume signal is thus converted
into linear distance signal. The capillary thus has the role of signal manipulation and data
transportation elements. The final data presentation stage consists of the scale on the
thermometer stem, which is calibrated to give the indication of the temperature signal applied to
the thermometer bulb. A restriction bend is provided in the clinical thermometers at the junction
of the bulb and the capillary, which does not allow the back flow of mercury to the bulb once it
has expanded to the capillary. Thus the restriction in the capillary acts as the data storage
function of the instrument.
Fig. 1.3 Clinical thermometer, the temperature measuring instrument
If the measurement is done to control a parameter / process then a control device is integrated at
the final measurement stage. In such cases, it is necessary to apply some feedback to the input
signal to accomplish the control objectives. The control stage compares the signal representing
the measured variable provided by the measurement system with a reference signal of the same
form. This reference signal has a value to which the measured signal should be controlled. If the
measured signal agrees with the reference value, the controller does nothing. However, if there is
a difference between the measured value and the reference value, an error signal is generated.
Thus, the controller sends a signal to a device which acts to alter the value of the measured
signal.
Suppose the measured variable is flow of a liquid, then the control device is a motorized valve
placed in the flow system. The measurement system measures the flow rate. In case the
measured flow rate is too low than the desired preset flow rate, then the controller would make
the valve to open more, thereby increasing the flow rate. If on the other hand, the flow rate is too
high, the valve is closed to the require position. The operation of closing or opening of valve will
cease when the output flow rate is equal to preset value of flow rate.

STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
i) Static characteristics ii) Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics: The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure
the quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time,
is called ‘static characteristics’. The various static characteristics are:
Accuracy…………………………. Drift
Reproducibility …………………...Static Error
Sensitivity ……………………….. Dead Zone

Range or span: The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is
designed to measure is called its range or span.
Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the
quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
a) Point accuracy: Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not
give any information about the accuracy at any other Point on the scale.
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy
may be expressed in terms of scale range.
c) Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to
specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured.
Static Error: It is the difference between the true value of a quantity not changing with time and
the value indicated by the instrument.
True value + Static error = instrument reading.

Static Correction:
True value =instrument reading + static correction.
Static correction= -static error.
Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.

Repeatability:
It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature Drift: Drift may be classified
into three categories: a) zero drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage,
permanent set, or due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.

b) span drift or sensitivity drift If there is proportional change in the indication all along the
upward scale, the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift. c) Zonal drift: In case the drift
occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a
change in the value of the quantity to be measured. Mathematically it is expressed as,
Dead Zone: It is the largest range of values of a measured variable to which the instrument does
not respond. This is called as dead sot & Hysteresis.
Hysteresis is a phenomenon under which the measuring instrument shows different output effects
during loading and unloading. Hysteresis results from the inelastic quality of an element or
device.

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
In several applications the measurement systems are subjected to inputs which are not static but
dynamic in nature, which means the inputs vary with time. Since the input varies from instant to
instant, so does the output. The behavior of the system under such conditions is described by the
dynamic response of the system and the characteristics of the measuring system under such
conditions are known as dynamic characteristics.
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called
‘dynamic characteristics’. The various dynamic characteristics are:
i) Speed of response ii) Measuring lag iii) Fidelity iv) Dynamic error

Out of the above four characteristics the Speed of Response and the Fidelity are desirable in a
dynamic system, while Lag and Dynamic error are undesirable.

Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.
Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes
in the measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
a) Retardation type: In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately
after the change in measured quantity has occurred.
b) Time delay lag: In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time
after the application of the input.
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time &
the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error.