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Energies: Study of Dielectric Breakdown Performance of Transformer Oil Based Magnetic Nanofluids
Energies: Study of Dielectric Breakdown Performance of Transformer Oil Based Magnetic Nanofluids
Article
Study of Dielectric Breakdown Performance of
Transformer Oil Based Magnetic Nanofluids
Yuzhen Lv ID
, Muhammad Rafiq *, Chengrong Li and Bingliang Shan
Beijing Key Laboratory of High Voltage & EMC, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China;
yuzhenlv@163.com (Y.L.); lcr@ncepu.edu.cn (C.L.); shanbingliang521@163.com (B.S.)
* Correspondence: Jutt96@gmail.com; Tel.: +86-10-61772352
Abstract: Research on the transformer oil-based nanofluids (NFs) has been raised expeditiously over
the past decade. Although, there is discrepancy in the stated results and inadequate understanding
of the mechanisms of improvement of dielectric nanofluids, these nanofluids have emerged as a
potential substitute of mineral oils as insulating and heat removal fluids for high voltage equipment.
The transformer oil (TO) based magnetic fluids (ferrofluids) may be regarded as the posterity
insulation fluids as they propose inspiring unique prospectus to improve dielectric breakdown
strength, as well as heat transfer efficiency, as compared to pure transformer oils. In this work,
transformer oil-based magnetic nanofluids (MNFs) are prepared by dispersal of Fe3 O4 nanoparticles
(MNPs) into mineral oil as base oil, with various NPs loading from 5 to 80% w/v. The lightning
impulse breakdown voltages (BDV) measurement was conducted in accordance with IEC 60897 by
using needle to sphere electrodes geometry. The test results showed that dispersion of magnetic NPs
may improve the insulation strength of MO. With the increment of NPs concentrations, the positive
lightning impulse (LI) breakdown strength of TO is first raised, up to the highest value at 40% loading,
and then tends to decrease at higher concentrations. The outcomes of negative LI breakdown showed
that BDV of MNFs, with numerous loadings, were inferior to the breakdown strength of pure MO.
The 40% concentration of nanoparticles (optimum concentration) was selected, and positive and
negative LI breakdown strength was also further studied at different sizes (10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm and
40 nm) of NPs and different electrode gap distances. Augmentation in the BDV of the ferrofluids
(FFs) is primarily because of dielectric and magnetic features of Fe3 O4 nanoaprticles, which act
as electron scavengers and decrease the rate of free electrons produced in the ionization process.
Research challenges and technical difficulties associated with ferrofluids for practical applications are
mentioned. The advantages and disadvantages linked with magnetic fluids are also presented.
1. Introduction
The evolution of prospective high voltage systems and smart grids has placed significant demands
on the reliability and conduct of insulating materials applied in electric power networks to cope with
vital and volatile operating conditions [1]. An essential component of electrical networks which alters
voltage levels and transforms energy is called a transformer [2]. The majority of transformer units
in operation across the world are near or beyond their design life; thus, it has been a major aim
to enhance the operational reliability of the existent entities [3]. The high voltage (HV) machinery
collapse statistics illustrated that usual service life of transformers, which collapse due to insulation
complications, is 17.8 years, which is half of their anticipated life of 35 to 40 years [4] and 75% of
transformer failures are mainly caused by insulation issues [5]. The status and properties of insulation
materials are very important for the functional reliability and lifetime of transformers [5–8].
Mineral oil and cellulose insulation systems have been successfully applied in the transformer
industry over the last century. The rise in system voltage levels with recent developments has put a
continuous pressure on these insulation systems to meet the demands of high reliability, high tolerance
to field strength and smaller size. Nevertheless, in oil/cellulose insulation, the disparity between
liquid permittivity (~2.2) and a solid one (ranging, 3.6~4.5) has been a serious concern that might
confine the compact design of high voltage machinery, since the liquid undergoes a higher stress than
the solid at alternating current (AC) and/or impulse voltages. Whereas, the BD strength of the liquid
is basically less than that of the solid.
The insulation liquid basically executes two primary actions in high voltage equipment: insulation
and cooling. Insulating and thermal features of mineral oil typically restrain the minimal size and
maximal transfer of power [9,10]. Nonetheless, the greatly refined mineral oils (MOs) commonly
employed as insulation liquids in high voltage apparatus, possess low thermal conductivity and thus,
achieve low cooling efficiency [11].
Transformer oil is one the most significant elements of the transformer, which executes the
aforementioned two major functions: as a cooling fluid, it is helpful in transferring the heat produced
in the active parts (windings and magnetic core) to the tank walls of the transformer, where it may be
exhausted; as an insulating material, the oil hinders the flow of electric current outside of the electric
elements [10]. The low thermal conductivity of transformer oil (TO) causes restraints in the conduct of
transformers, because of conditions such as over loading and extreme rise in temperatures causing
enormous local increase in temperature in the oil (hotspot), so that the efficiency of the TO is restricted.
Refining the inquiry of materials down to the nanometer scale frequently shows new
characteristics of matter that have no equivalent on a large scale. This phenomenon is encouraging in
many current investigations of nanomaterials, which can disclose some new interesting phenomena.
Fluids with suspended nanoparticles (NPs) (of a few tens of nanometers) well distributed in liquids are
noted as nanofluids (NFs), a word suggested by Choi et al. [12], denoting the suspension of fine particles
in a host liquid with no significant sedimentation of particles over time [13]. In addition to MOs,
other inorganic and organic liquids have been applied as the matrix for nanofluids development.
The nanoparticles with a larger surface area, as compared with ordinary particles, do not only
considerably enhance transfer capacity, but also boost the stability of the suspensions [14]. Liquid or
solid insulators, integrating within their volumes suspended NPs, manifest appealing permittivity
traits, with supplementary polarization mechanisms evolving across the interface of the matrix material
and distributed particles. Nanofluids can be considered as two-phase systems, the one phase being
the matrix and the other being the scattered NPs. Materials applied to nanofluids formation include
metals, metal oxides and nitrides. Accordingly, the resulting fluid may display different conductivities
and/or permittivities. NFs have been found to have upgraded thermo-physical features e.g., thermal
conductivity, viscosity, thermal diffusivity and convective heat transfer coefficients, as compared to
those of carrier liquids. It has displayed significant potential applications in various fields. The biggest
issues being faced by this two-phase system is the stability of NFs; there is as of yet, no clear way to
stabilize NFs to the required levels. Nanofluids are being discussed as the future-era heat transfer
liquids, because they show overwhelming potential to enhance heat transfer conduction, as compared
to base liquids [12].
Different nanoparticles Fe3 O4, TiO2 and Al2 O3 can upgrade the breakdown voltage (BDV) of
TO. Nevertheless, magnetic NPs (Fe3 O4 ), that is, a type of well-known nanoparticles in multiple
research areas such as chemistry, biology and applied physics [15–18]. They can also improve the heat
transfer by thermo-magnetic convection, due to magnetic characteristics of Fe3 O4 , which has significant
advantages for the cooling of the transformer [19]. They are ferromagnetic materials and have strongest
magnetism between iron oxides. Colloids consisting of magnetic nanoparticles (magnetite) coated
surfactants and suspended in liquid carrier are called ferrofluids or magnetic fluids [13]. A ferrofluid
typically has three primary components: ferromagnetic particulates, such as magnetite, and composite
ferrite; a surfactant, such as oleic acid or citric acid, and/or tetramethylammonium hydroxide, to
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 3 of 21
magnetite, and composite ferrite; a surfactant, such as oleic acid or citric acid, and/or
avoid the NPs from clustering,
tetramethylammonium and to
hydroxide, a host
avoidliquid, suchfrom
the NPs as mineral oil orand
clustering, vegetable
a hostoil (as shown
liquid, in
such as
Figure 1). The surfactant is used to coat the particles. This helps in impeding clotting
mineral oil or vegetable oil (as shown in Figure 1). The surfactant is used to coat the particles. This and maintains
the distribution
helps in impeding of particles uniformly
clotting and throughout
maintains the host fluid.
the distribution Its dispersibility
of particles uniformly remains
throughout additionally
the host
stable when the magnetic field is applied appropriately [12,20]. One of the elementary
fluid. Its dispersibility remains additionally stable when the magnetic field is applied appropriately necessities
for a ferrofluid
[12,20]. is the
One of the stability necessities
elementary of magnetic forparticles against
a ferrofluid aggregations.
is the For ferrofluids
stability of magnetic based
particles on
against
dielectric liquids,
aggregations. Forthe magneticbased
ferrofluids field includes particle
on dielectric cluster
liquids, theformation
magneticthat exerts
field significant
includes influence
particle cluster
on the permittivity of the ferrofluid. This phenomenon is called the magnetodielectric
formation that exerts significant influence on the permittivity of the ferrofluid. This phenomenon effect [9,21,22].
is
The first magnetic colloid with the aim of liquid insulation was produced to improve
called the magnetodielectric effect [9,21,22]. The first magnetic colloid with the aim of liquid the heat transfer
from the transformer
insulation was produced windings by imposing
to improve the heat thetransfer
magneticfrominterplay between the
the transformer field formed
windings by the
by imposing
windings and fluid [23].
the magnetic interplay between the field formed by the windings and fluid [23].
The extensive application of MOs for HV insulation and cooling of electrical appliances have
lead The extensive
significant application
research works ofto MOs
focus for
on HV insulationof
improvement andbothcooling of electrical
its thermal appliances
and dielectric have
features.
lead significant research works to focus on improvement of both its thermal
An appropriate creative instance of such a research task is the preparation of dielectric NFs. This and dielectric features.
An
mayappropriate
be achieved creative instance
by addition of of
thesuch a research
MNPs into TO task is the
with thepreparation
intention ofofimproving
dielectric NFs. This may
the insulating
be achieved
and thermal by addition
traits [24–26].ofMagnetic
the MNPs into TO with
nanofluids havethebeenintention
the subjectof improving
of significanttheresearch
insulating due and
to
thermal traits [24–26]. Magnetic nanofluids have been the subject of significant
their particular supermagnetic, tribological, mechanical and thermal features [27–29]. The results research due to their
particular
have showed supermagnetic,
that magnetic tribological,
nanofluids mechanical
may improve and thermal
the AC,features
DC and [27–29].
lightningThe impulse
results have
(LI)
showed that magnetic nanofluids may improve the AC, DC and lightning
breakdown strength of TO, with certain loadings of Fe3O4 nanoparticles [10,30]. Nevertheless, impulse (LI) breakdown
it was
strength
noted thatofmagnetic
TO, withnanoparticles
certain loadingshaveof Fe3 O4 nanoparticles
a tendency to agglomerate [10,30]. Nevertheless,
into larger particles,itparticularly
was noted
that
at magnetic
higher nanoparticles
concentrations, havetoaan
leading tendency to agglomerate
abrupt decease into larger
in the breakdown particles, particularly
performance of nanofluids at
higher concentrations, leading to an abrupt decease in the breakdown performance
[31]. Currently, many efforts have been made to raise the dispersion stability of NPs in the host of nanofluids [31].
Currently,
liquid, e.g.,many efforts have
by applying been
certain made to raise
dispersants the dispersion
or surfactants stability
[32–36]. It hasofbeen
NPsnoted
in the that
hostsurface
liquid,
e.g., by applying
modified iron oxidecertain
NPs dispersants
show better or surfactants
dispersion [32–36].
stabilityIt in
hasthebeen noted that
mineral oil bysurface
usingmodified
various
synthesizing and modifying procedures at room temperature [32]. The dispersion of other NPsand
iron oxide NPs show better dispersion stability in the mineral oil by using various synthesizing in
modifying procedures at room temperature [32]. The dispersion of other NPs
base oil may also be enhanced by tailoring the quantity of modifying agents for surface modification in base oil may also be
enhanced
of by tailoring
nanoparticles [33]. the quantity
To avail theseof inherent
modifying agents for associated
advantages surface modification of nanoparticles
with nanofluids, a number[33]. of
To avail these inherent advantages associated with nanofluids,
investigation studies have been conducted to formulate the nano-insulation oil. a number of investigation studies have
been conducted to formulate the nano-insulation oil.
1.1. Breakdown Phenomenon in Insulating Fluids
1.1. Breakdown Phenomenon in Insulating Fluids
One of the most significant parameters of liquid insulation is BDV. The BDV of oils is the value
One of the most significant parameters of liquid insulation is BDV. The BDV of oils is the value of
of voltage at which the oil is unable to oppose the flow of electricity and that the electricity will go
voltage at which the oil is unable to oppose the flow of electricity and that the electricity will go through
through it [37]. Molecular ionization of insulating channel, which is dependent on the electric field,
it [37]. Molecular ionization of insulating channel, which is dependent on the electric field, is the major
is the major phenomenon for electrical breakdown (BD) in TO [38]. After ionization, oil molecules
phenomenon for electrical breakdown (BD) in TO [38]. After ionization, oil molecules transform into
transform into high mobility electrons and low mobility positive ions, the high speed electrons are
high mobility electrons and low mobility positive ions, the high speed electrons are expelled away
expelled away to the positive electrode from the ionization channel, because an area of net positive
space charge instantly originates. The electric field distribution in the oils is altered during
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 4 of 21
to the positive electrode from the ionization channel, because an area of net positive space charge
instantly originates. The electric field distribution in the oils is altered during ionization, such that,
the electric field ahead of the positive charge in the oil rises, although when it reaches the positive
electrode, it tends to decline. The electrodynamics processes motivate an evolving ionizing electric
field wave that vaporizes the TO and initiates the gas phase due to the temperature rise. The outcome
of oil vaporization is the development of the low density streamer media in the oil [39]. Streamers
are edifices having little density that are originated in parts of the oil where the electric field gradient
is extreme.
Table 1. Results for positive and negative lightning impulse (LI) breakdown voltage (BDV) and
time-to-breakdown (BD) for mineral oil (MO) and developed nanofluids.
In this paper, we intended to enhance the scattering ability of magnetic NPS in the MO at different
concentrations. Monodisperse Fe3 O4 NPs modified by oleic acid were produced through solvothermal
method. The LI BD strength of the carrier MO and developed magnetic nanofluids with various
concentrations of nanoparticles, sizes of nanoparticles and with various electrode gap distance was
investigated. Moreover, the probable modification mechanisms of magnetic NPs on dielectric traits of
TOs were also reviewed.
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 5 of 21
(1) The prepared nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 ), after surface modification, are added into MO to the required
concentrations, and then ultrasonic processes were applied [55].
(2) The developed nanofluids are acquired and put into vacuum drying for approximately 48 h to
exclude the influence of gas bubbles and moisture generated while forming NFs.
(3) The moisture content of produced NFs is measured by Rishang coulmetric methods moisture
meter JF-5. The flowchart for preparation of nanofluids is shown in Figure 2.
(4) The morphology of the prepared NPs is given in Figure 3. The TEM image demonstrates
the nano-crystals are uniform and well-distributed without any significant agglomeration.
The prepared samples with multiple concentrations are shown in Figure 4.
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 6 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 6 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 6 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 6 of 21
Figure 4. Nanofluids with different nanoparticle concentrations (5% = 0.05 g/L, 10% = 0.1 g/L, 20% =
0.2 g/L, 4.
Figure 40% = 0.4 g/L, with
Nanofluids 60% different
= 0.6 g/L, nanoparticle
80% = 0.8 g/L).
concentrations (5% = 0.05 g/L, 10% = 0.1 g/L, 20% =
Figure
0.2 4. Nanofluids
g/L, 40% with=different
= 0.4 g/L, 60% nanoparticle
0.6 g/L, 80% = 0.8 g/L).concentrations (5% = 0.05 g/L, 10% = 0.1 g/L, 20% =
Figure 4. Nanofluids with different nanoparticle concentrations (5% = 0.05 g/L, 10% = 0.1 g/L,
2.2. Electrical Properties
0.2 g/L, 40% of Insulation
= 0.4 g/L, Fluids
60% = 0.6 g/L, 80% = 0.8 g/L).
20% = 0.2 g/L, 40% = 0.4 g/L, 60% = 0.6 g/L, 80% = 0.8 g/L).
2.2. Electrical
All the Properties of Insulation
transformer oils areFluids
necessary to fulfill the lightning impulse standards. Many
2.2. Electrical Properties of Insulation Fluids
investigations have been conducted
All the transformer oils are necessary by different
to investigators to measure
fulfill the lightning the breakdown
impulse standards.voltage
Many
and All the transformer
dielectric properties
investigations oils
have beenofconducted are necessary
various transformer
by differentto fulfill the
oilsinvestigators
from multiplelightning impulse
to suppliers standards.voltage
[56].breakdown
measure the Many
investigations
and dielectric have been
The LI breakdown
properties ofconducted
voltages
various by different
simulate oilsinvestigators
lightning
transformer strikes
from tosuppliers
measure
and normally
multiple the
1.2breakdown
use[56]. microsecondsvoltage
rise
andthe
for dielectric
wave properties
to reach a of various
magnitude transformer
of 90% and oils
then from multiple
after 50 s, suppliers
drops to [56].
50%
The LI breakdown voltages simulate lightning strikes and normally use 1.2 microseconds rise amplitude. The LI
for theThe LI breakdown
wave to reach a voltages
magnitude simulate
of 90%lightning
and then strikes
after and
50 s,normally
drops touse
50% 1.2amplitude.
microseconds
The rise
LI
for the wave to reach a magnitude of 90% and then after 50 s, drops to 50% amplitude. The LI
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 7 of 21
Table 3. In the MNPs loadings range between 0 and 40%, the BDV indicated an improvement. Beyond
the 40% concentration of the nanoparticles, the NPs may start to agglomerate and form chains in close
proximity of electrodes that give rise to the internal local electric field development and a breakdown
initiation at10,
Energies 2017, lower
1025 voltages [26]. 8 of 21
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 8 of 21
Figure 6.
6. Positive
Positive LI
LI BDV
BDV with
with multiple
multiple concentrations
concentrations (25 mm
mm gap distance).
distance).
Figure
Figure 6. Positive LI BDV with multiple concentrations (25
(25 mm gap
gap distance).
3.3.
3.3.Breakdown
3.3. BreakdownStrength
Breakdown Strengthwith
Strength withDifferent
with DifferentGap
Different GapDistance
Gap Distance
Distance
(a)
(a) Positive
(a) PositiveLI
Positive LIBDV
LI BDVStrength
BDV Strength
Strength
Positive
PositiveLI
Positive LIBDV
BDVtesttestwas
wasconducted
was conductedfor
conducted forboth
for both
bothMO
MO
MO and
and
anddeveloped
developed
developed NFs
NFs (with
NFs(with 40%
(with40% loadings
40%loadings and
loadingsand 20
20
and
nm
20 size)
nmnmsize) with
with
size) different
different
with differentgap
gap
gapdistances.
distances. The
distances. The
Theoutcomes
outcomes
outcomes are
aregiven
are givenin
given inFigure
in Figure10.
Figure 10.Nanofluids
Nanofluidspointed
pointedout
pointed out
out
an
anenhancement
an enhancementof
enhancement ofLI
of LIBDV
LI BDVthan
BDV thanMO
than MOfor
MO forall
for allgap
all gapdistances.
gap distances.The
distances. TheBDVs
The BDVsfor
BDVs forall
for allNFs
all NFssamples
NFs samplesimproves
samples improves
improves
with the
withthe
with increase
theincrease of
increaseof the
ofthe gap
thegap distance.
gapdistance. The
distance. The result
The result attained
result attained from
attained from this
from this study
this study is
study is agreeable
is agreeable with
agreeable with the
theresults
with the results
results
of
ofother
of otherresearchers
other researchers[58,59].
researchers [58,59].BDVs
[58,59]. BDVsof
BDVs ofNFs
of NFsare
NFs arealways
are alwayshigher
always higherthan
higher thanMO MOforforall
allgap
gapdistances.
distances.
Figure
Figure10.
Figure 10.Positive
10. Positiveimpulse
impulsebreakdown
breakdownstrength
breakdown strengthwith
strength withdifferent
with differentneedle
different needleto
needle tosphere
to spheregap
sphere gapdistances.
gap distances.
distances.
(b)
(b) Negative
(b) Negative LI
NegativeLI BDV
LIBDV Strength
BDVStrength
Strength
Negative
Negative
NegativeLI LI BDV
LIBDV measurement
BDVmeasurement
measurementwas was done
wasdone for
donefor both
forboth MO
bothMO
MOandand nanofluids
andnanofluids
nanofluidsat at different
atdifferent needle
differentneedle
needleto to
to
sphere
sphere gap
spheregap distances.
gapdistances. The
distances.The results
Theresults are
resultsare indicated
areindicated in
indicatedin Figure
inFigure 11.
Figure11. The
11.The results
Theresults are
resultsare inconsistent
areinconsistent with
inconsistentwith the
withthethe
conclusions
conclusions of
conclusionsof others
ofothers [26].
others[26]. The
[26].The negative
Thenegative
negativeLI LI BDVs
LIBDVs
BDVsforfor NFs
forNFs are
NFsare always
arealways lower
alwayslower than
lowerthan that
thanthat of
thatof MO
ofMO for
MOfor all
forall
all
investigated
investigated electrode
electrode gap
gap distances.
distances.
investigated electrode gap distances.
Figure
Figure11.
11.Negative
Negativeimpulse
impulsebreakdown
breakdownstrength
strengthwith
withdifferent
differentneedle
needletotosphere
spheregap
gapdistances.
distances.
Figure 11. Negative impulse breakdown strength with different needle to sphere gap distances.
3.4.
3.4.Breakdown
BreakdownMechanism
Mechanism
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 11 of 21
Figure 12. Space charge build-up under positive impulse voltage in transformer oil.
Figure 12. Space charge build-up under positive impulse voltage in transformer oil.
The corona discharge developed in nanofluids is harder to expand outwards than the corona
discharge in pure oil when the voltages are enhanced continuously. The positive charges move
toward sphere electrode and negatively charged nanoparticles moves towards the needle electrode.
In this way, the distortion effect of the space charge field on the prior field is less than in the pure oil.
Thus, the positive LI breakdown voltages are improved after the distribution of nanoparticles.
nanoparticles will capture the electrons generated after molecular ionization and transformed into
negatively charged particles. A large number of negatively charged NPs will remain close to the
needle electrode due to their low mobility. This phenomenon undermines the electric filed strength
near the needle and bolsters the electric field near the sphere electrode. Thus, the breakdown
happensEnergies 2017, 10, 1025
at lower 13 of 21
negative voltages for nanofluid as compared to the pure oil (Figure 14).
FigureFigure
13. Space charge
13. Space build-up
charge build-upunder positive
under positive impulse
impulse voltage
voltage in nanofluids.
in nanofluids.
The corona discharge developed in nanofluids is harder to expand outwards than the corona
discharge in pure oil when the voltages are enhanced continuously. The positive charges move toward
sphere electrode and negatively charged nanoparticles moves towards the needle electrode. In this
way, the distortion effect of the space charge field on the prior field is less than in the pure oil. Thus,
the positive LI breakdown voltages are improved after the distribution of nanoparticles.
On the contrary, the condition under negative LI voltage is quite contrasting. In pure oil, after the
application of negative impulse voltages to the needle electrode, the molecular ionization occurs close
to the needle electrode after corona generation and the space charges are developed. The ionization of
molecules will produce high mobility electrons, which will tend to move towards the sphere electrode
and leave behind the positive ions close to the needle electrode. A portion of these positive ions is
neutralized after approaching the needle electrode and the remaining part will retain near the needle
electrode due to the low mobility of the positive ions. In case of nanofluids, the nanoparticles will
capture the electrons generated after molecular ionization and transformed into negatively charged
particles. A large number of negatively charged NPs will remain close to the needle electrode due to
their low mobility. This phenomenon undermines the electric filed strength near the needle and
bolsters the electric field near the sphere electrode. Thus, the breakdown happens at lower negative
voltages for nanofluid as compared to the pure oil (Figure 14).
EnergiesFigure
2017, 10, 1025
13. Space charge build-up under positive impulse voltage in nanofluids. 14 of 21
FigureFigure
14. Space charge
14. Space build-up
charge build-upunder negative
under negative lightning
lightning impulse
impulse voltage.
voltage.
4. Research
4. Research Challenges,
Challenges, Technical
Technical Difficulties, and
Difficulties, andResearch
ResearchGaps
Gaps
Although the transformer oil-based ferrofluids have manifested excellent dielectric and thermal
Although the transformer oil-based ferrofluids have manifested excellent dielectric and thermal
properties and are considered as potential substitute of mineral oils to be applied in high voltage
properties and are
equipment in considered as potential
the years to come, substitute
but the challenges whichof mineral
restrain theiroils to be applied
applications in high
still persists. Also, voltage
equipment
thereinarethe years issues
numerous to come, but the
and other challenges
challenges which
that need restrain
to be further their applications
examined. still persists.
There are challenges
and problems associated with ferrofluids research that, we think, are closely linked
Also, there are numerous issues and other challenges that need to be further examined. There are to each other.
challenges
4.1. and problems
Research Challengesassociated with ferrofluids research that, we think, are closely linked to
each other.
The features of ferrofluids depend on the variety of factors including, method of preparation,
type of base oil, and combinational characteristics of nanoparticles and oil.
4.1. Research Challenges
(a) Synthesis of Ferrofluids
The features of ferrofluids depend on the variety of factors including, method of preparation,
type of base The
oil, successful use of nanoparticles mainly depends upon the synthesis method/process of NFs.
and combinational characteristics of nanoparticles and oil.
Particular requirements, such as stable suspension, controlled size and concentration of nanoparticles
are necessary. Normally, there are two methods of development of nanofuids: single-step and
(a) Synthesis of Ferrofluids
two-step method. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The one-step method is
Thefavorable
successfulfor developing nanofluids which
use of nanoparticles consists
mainly dependsof high conductive
upon metals tomethod/process
the synthesis hinder oxidation. of NFs.
The disadvantage of the single step technique is its limited control over significant factors such as size
Particular requirements, such as stable suspension, controlled size and concentration of
of nanoparticle. Preparing nanofluids by using two-step technique is also very challenging, because of
nanoparticles are necessary. Normally, there are two methods of development of nanofuids:
potential agglomeration of nanoparticles. The issue of agglomeration becomes very serious at higher
single-step andconcentrations.
volume two-step method. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The one-step
method is favorable for developing nanofluids which consists of high conductive metals to hinder
oxidation. The disadvantage of the single step technique is its limited control over significant factors
such as size of nanoparticle. Preparing nanofluids by using two-step technique is also very
challenging, because of potential agglomeration of nanoparticles. The issue of agglomeration
becomes very serious at higher volume concentrations.
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 15 of 21
magnetic fluids also needs to be improved, and other related issues also still need to be investigated,
such as sedimentation problems, oxidation stability, as well as moisture absorption.
(1) It is complicated to apply magnetic fluids in the existent transformers because of disparity of the
electrical specifications, so it is necessary to conduct more research work regarding the application
of magnetic fluids in these existing transformers.
(2) More investigative studies are needed to explore more efficient synthesis processes, to decrease
the production cost of FFs and to recognize the potential industrial applications of ferrofluids.
(3) A significant research is necessary to curtail the severe human body and environmental impacts
of transformer oil-based ferrofluids.
(4) The coating chemistry of nanoparticles have a significant influence on the dielectric features of a
ferrofluid, therefore more research work is required to discover a better coating chemistry for
magnetic nanoparticles.
(i) The transformer oil-based ferrofluids have better AC and impulse breakdown performance as
compared to mineral oils, so it is favorable to be used in high voltage alternating current (HVAC)
and high voltage direct current (HVDC) applications.
(ii) The AC BD strength of transformer oil-based ferrofluids is less influenced by moisture as
compared to mineral oils, so it is helpful in improving insulation life of transformers.
(iii) The transformer oil-based ferrofluids have better partial discharge characteristics, as compared to
mineral oil.
(iv) The transformer oil-based ferrofluids have a better anti-aging characteristic, as compared to MO,
so it can improve the operational reliability and lifetime of high voltage transformers.
(v) The transformer oil-based ferrofluids have a higher thermal conductivity than the transformer oil
and they are more helpful in cooling the transformers.
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 17 of 21
6. Conclusions
In this work, the dielectric strength of transformer oil with and without the suspension of MNPs
with different concentrations and sizes of nanoparticles was measured. Moreover, the positive LI
BD strength was also measured with different electrode gap distances of needle to sphere geometry.
The results manifested the improvement in the breakdown strength of transformer oil after the
addition of MNPs into it. Results of positive impulse BDV at various concentrations revealed that
at 40% concentration of NPs, the mean LI BDV was 1.36 times as compared to carrier oil and 40%
concentration was recognized as the optimum concentration. Volume concentration above this value
tends to reduce in positive LI BDV. Results of positive impulse breakdown voltages at different sizes
revealed that at 20 nm size of nanoparticles, the mean lighting impulse breakdown voltages were
maximum as compared to base oil and that 20 nm is the optimum size of nanoparticles in this study.
The results of negative LI BDV of magnetic fluids with various concentrations and sizes were lower
than that of the BD strength of host MO. The lightning impulse breakdown voltages at different
electrode distances were also measured. It is concluded that the transformer oil suspended with
magnetic nanoparticles has manifested good dielectric characteristics; therefore, it may be a good
substitute to mineral oil, with suitable volume concentration and size of nanoparticles, in the future.
Energies 2017, 10, 1025 18 of 21
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express gratitude to National Natural Science Foundation of China
for aiding this study under Contract Nos. 51337003, 51472084, and 51477052 and the Fundamental Research Funds
for the Central Universities (JB2015019).
Author Contributions: The experiments were guided by Yuzhen Lv. Muhammad Rafiq and Bingliang Shan
characterized the nanofluids. Chengrong Li and Yuzhen Lv participated in the discussion and gave valuable
suggestions. The manuscript was composed by Muhammad Rafiq. All authors approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors acknowledge that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of
this article.
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