02 Acquisition Processing Basics 02

Typical seismic events
Primary reflections
Primary reflections
Internal multiples
Surface multiples
Q: What is the “moveout” of primary reflections

from a) first interface? b) second interface
What is the moveout of multiples?
Normal moveout equation
Normal moveout equation*
t2 = C 0 + C 1 x 2 + C 2 x 4 + · · ·
* Yilmaz, Chapter 3, Appendix C

t2 = C 0 + C 1 x 2
1
C1 = 2
Vrms

P
N
4ti Vi2
2 i=1
Vrms =
P
N
4ti
i=1

CMP and CDP
Shot record: dipping
reflector
CMP record: dipping
reflector
NMO equation
for dipping reflector
Can you work out the NMO equation?

NMO equation
for dipping reflector
2 2
x cos
t2 = t20 +
v2
NMO for a stack of dipping
reflectors
2
x
t2 = t20 + 2 + · · ·
Vnmo
✓c
V1
V 1 ⌧ V2
V2
Critical reflection
Refracted wave
Phenomena usually observed on land.
1st layer: weathered, 2nd layer: sub-weathered
Q: Work out the critical angle
✓c ✓c
Critical reflection
Refracted wave
Head wave
✓c ✓c
hc
hc : critical half o↵set
Q: Work out the critical half offset.

What is the “moveout” of head waves?
Pre-critical reflection
Head wave (first break)
Post-critical reflection
✓c ✓c
hc
hc : critical half o↵set

2 V2 x 2d tan ✓c
t= d tan ✓c +
V1 V 1 V2
Common mid-point gather
A lot of data processing is done in the CMP “domain”

NMO correction
• Applied to CMP gathers
• bring all traces to zero offset time

NMO correction
Offset x!
t(0)
DT
t(x)
Time
(a) (b) (c)

NMO correction
Under and over correction
Too high a velocity will lead to under correction and

too low a velocity will lead to over correction
NMO correction
s
x2
4tNMO = t20 + 2 t0
VNMO
Velocity analysis
“Correct” velocity is that velocity which, when NMO is applied, best
aligns the event as in 2nd panel. Sum the traces in an NMO gather to get a
“zero-offset” stack trace at that CMP.
A stack section is a collection of contiguous stack traces.
NMO correction NMO correction

Using constant NMO correction
NMO correction Using constant
Velocity (1500m/s) Using constant
Input generated Using constant Velocity gradient
Over correction Velocity (2500m/s)
With v =2000m/s Velocity (2000m/s) (0-1500, 2000m/s)
Under correction
Velocity analysis: constant
velocity gathers
“Correct” velocity is that velocity which, when NMO is applied, best
aligns the event as in 2nd panel. Sum the traces in an NMO gather to get a
“zero-offset” stack trace at that CMP.
A stack section is a collection of contiguous stack traces.
NMO correction NMO correction

Using constant NMO correction
NMO correction Using constant
Velocity (1500m/s) Using constant
Input generated Using constant Velocity gradient
Over correction Velocity (2500m/s)
With v =2000m/s Velocity (2000m/s) (0-1500, 2000m/s)
Under correction
Velocity analysis: constant
velocity gathers
Which Velocity?
• Stacking velocity: correction applied using this
velocity gives the best “power of stack”* and
enhances signal to noise ratio (SNR)*
• For short spread, stacking velocity = Moveout

velocity
• Qualitatively, stacking velocity lines up all the

traces such that they stack the best
* to be defined later
Stacking v/s
Moveout
velocity
source: Yilmaz
2 2
t x
source: Yilmaz
Velocity spectrum
source: Yilmaz
Velocity spectrum
(semblance)
P P
N
| a(t, i)|
1 t0 i
S[t0 , v(t0 )] =
N PP N
|a(t, i)|
t0 i
s
x 2
t= t20 + 2i
Vstk
source: Yilmaz
Velocity spectrum
source: Yilmaz
Under correction
source: Yilmaz
Over correction
source: Yilmaz
Remember that velocity analysis is always carried out
in CMP domain. Moveout is hyperbolic and
symmetric ….
NMO stretch
NMO stretch
s
x2
4tNMO = t20 + 2 t0
VNMO (t)
NMO stretch
0 Offset -->
T0
T + δt
Dt nmo
T
TX
Frequency distortion due to NMO stretch
4f 1/(T + t) 1/T
=
F 1/T
0 Offset -->
T0
T + δt
Dt nmo
T
TX
Before NMO
After NMO
NMO stretch leads to lower frequencies at larger offsets

NMO stretch
(a) CMP gather (b) after NMO correction (notice NMO stretch)
(c) Offsets with greater NMO stretch have been muted out
after moveout correction of CMP gathers, the traces are summed and the output (stacked
trace) is mapped to the CMP coordinates. Collection of all such traces is the stacked section.
Example of a stacked section: after moveout correction of
CMP gathers, the traces are summed and the output
(stacked trace) is mapped to the CMP coordinates.
Collection of all such traces is the stacked section.
source: Yilmaz
Stacking works* for dipping and non-planar layers
too.
*but the dips on stacked section are not true dips ….
source: Yilmaz
Velocity function v/s stack. Which is the panel stacked with the
correct velocity function?
source: Yilmaz
Velocity function v/s stack. Which is the panel stacked with the
correct velocity function?
• Interactive velocity analysis
Exercise
• What are the factors affecting velocity analysis?

signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
• Stacking velocity: correction applied using this

velocity gives the best “power of stack” and
enhances signal to noise ratio (SNR)
• For short spread, stacking velocity = Moveout

velocity
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
Gather
1 6 11
0
Psignal
SNR =
Pnoise
0.5
A2signal
= 2
Anoise
Time
1.0
Psignal
SNRdB = 10 log10
Pnoise
Asignal
1.5 = 20 log10
Anoise
2.0
Every 5th Shot Record (display gained)
Synthetic shot gather with different signal to noise ratios.
The left most panel is pure signal and successive panels
are corrupted by noise with SNR as indicated on top
Exercise
• Write a matlab code to determine SNR for a given

time series. Hint: Use Fourier transform.
Effect of stacking on SNR
• For a signal with meanµ and std. deviation
µ
SNR =
• Stacking N such signals leads to std. deviation: p

N
p µ
SNR = N
• How? Hint: work it out from the definition of variance
and assume that the signals are independent
Dynamic range of a
geophone
• SNR is closely linked to dynamic range dB
Amin
dB = 20 log10
Amax
• More on this later when we discuss seismic

amplitudes….

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Typical seismic events

Q: What is the “moveout” of primary reflections

* Yilmaz, Chapter 3, Appendix C

* Yilmaz, Chapter 3, Appendix C

* Yilmaz, Chapter 3, Appendix C

Can you work out the NMO equation?

* Yilmaz, Chapter 3, Appendix C

hc : critical half o↵set

Q: Work out the critical half offset.

hc : critical half o↵set

A lot of data processing is done in the CMP “domain”

• Applied to CMP gathers

• bring all traces to zero offset time

(a) (b) (c)

Too high a velocity will lead to under correction and

NMO correction NMO correction

NMO correction NMO correction

• For short spread, stacking velocity = Moveout

• Qualitatively, stacking velocity lines up all the

NMO stretch leads to lower frequencies at larger offsets

• What are the factors affecting velocity analysis?

• Stacking velocity: correction applied using this

• For short spread, stacking velocity = Moveout

• Write a matlab code to determine SNR for a given

• For a signal with meanµ and std. deviation

• Stacking N such signals leads to std. deviation: p

• More on this later when we discuss seismic

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