Brakes

Brakes are one of the most important control components of vehicle.

Functions of Brakes
1. To decelerate(slow down) the vehicle (Service brakes)
2. To stop the vehicle within the shortest possible distance in an emergency(Service brakes)
3. To allow the vehicle to be parked on a slope(Parking brakes)
4. To control the vehicle motion while descending a hill(Retarders)

Principle
A moving vehicle cannot stop immediately due to inertia. This inertia must be reduced in order
to bring the vehicle to a halt.
The engine converts heat energy into kinetic energy to propel the vehicle. In contrast, brakes
change this kinetic energy back into heat energy to stop the vehicle.
Generally, brakes work by causing a fixed object to be pressed against a rotating object and the
braking effect is obtained from the friction that is generated between the two objects. The heat
generated is dissipated to the atmosphere.

Type of Brake Rotating Part Friction Part

Drum Brakes Brake Drum Brake Shoes
Disc Brakes Rotor or Disc Brake Pads

Braking requirements
1. The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle and should be consistent with safety
(the vehicle must not skid)
2. The brakes must have good antifade characteristics

Stopping distance
Kinetic energy is the energy of mass in motion. The greater the mass of an object and the faster it
moves, the more kinetic energy it possesses.
This is also the energy dissipated into heat to the atmosphere during braking.
If the weight of a moving object doubles, its kinetic energy also doubles. If the speed of a
moving object doubles, the K.E becomes four times as great.
If vehicle A weighs twice as much as vehicle B, it needs a brake system that is twice as
powerful.
If vehicle C has twice the speed potential of vehicle D, it needs brakes that are four times more
powerful.
Kinetic energy K.E = Retarding force x Stopping distance

Stopping distance is extremely important during emergency braking and is composed of 3 parts:
1. Distance travelled during the reaction time of the driver
2. Distance travelled during the time elapsed between the driver pressing the brake pedal
and the application of brakes on the wheels
3. Distance travelled during the deceleration of the vehicle(Actual stopping distance)

Actual stopping distance depends on deceleration rate and this depends upon
1. Vehicle speed
2. Condition of the road surface
3. Tire tread
4. Coefficient of friction between - tyre & road surface, brake lining & drum, friction pad &
disc
5. Braking force applied by the driver

Braking efficiency
The maximum retarding force applied by the brakes at the wheels, F = μW
μ – C.O.F between the tyre and the road surface
W – weight of the vehicle on the wheel
To produce an efficiency of 100%, the brakes must give at the road surface, a retarding force
equal to the weight of the vehicle when μ = 1.
Hence, gravitational acceleration ’g’ can be used as the standard for brake efficiency.
If the vehicle on a level road was decelerated by the brakes at the rate of 9.81 m/sec2, the braking
efficiency is said to be 100%.
In actual practice, efficiency of 100% is rarely used. Requirements like safety of passengers in
public vehicles and safety of the body in case of goods vehicles limit the braking efficiency. In
general, brake efficiencies vary from 50% to 80%.
Also, Statutory regulations specify a minimum efficiency of 50% for foot brakes and 30% for
hand brakes.

Fading of brakes
With prolonged application of brakes, their effectiveness decreases on account of reversible
changes in the frictional properties of the brake linings due to high temperatures reached.
Effectiveness of the brake is usually restored when they cool off.
Weight Transfer
When the brakes are applied, only the wheels and tires begin to slow immediately. The rest of
the vehicle, all of the weight carried by the suspension, attempts to remain in forward motion.
The result is that the front suspension compresses, the rear suspension extends and the weight is
transferred toward the front of the vehicle.

During the event of braking, inertia force acts at the C.G of the vehicle while the retarding force
due to the application of brakes acts at the road surface forming an overturning couple as shown
in Fig. This overturning couple increases the perpendicular force between the front wheels and
the ground by an amount R while the perpendicular force between the rear wheels and the
ground is decreased by an equal amount.
This requires the front brakes to provide 60 to 80 percent of the total braking force. To deal with
the extra load, the front brakes are much efficient than rear brakes.

Types of brakes
1. Purpose – Service/Primary brakes and Parking/Secondary brakes
2. Location – Transmission brakes or Wheel brakes
3. Construction – Drum brakes or Disc brakes
4. Method of actuation - Hydraulic brakes, Mechanical brakes, Electric brakes, Air brakes,
Vacuum brakes
5. Extra braking effort – Servo or Power-assisted brakes, Power-operated brakes

Drum brakes
A brake drum is attached concentric to the axle hub whereas on the axle casing is mounted a
back plate. In front axle, back plate is bolted to the steering knuckle.
The back plate is made up of pressed steel sheet and is ribbed to increase rigidity and to provide
support for the expander, anchor and brake shoes. It also protects the drum and shoe assembly
from mud and dust( Dust and Water shield). It absorbs the torque reaction of the shoes and called
‘Torque plate’.
Two brake shoes are anchored on the back plate as shown in fig. Friction linings are mounted on
the brake shoes. One or two retractor springs are used to keeps the brake shoes which serves to
keep the brake shoes away from the drum when brakes are not applied.
Brake shoes are anchored at one end whereas on the other end force F is applied by means of
some brake actuating mechanism, which forces the brake shoes against the revolving drum,
thereby applying the brakes.
An adjuster is also provided to compensate for wear of friction lining with use.
The relative braking torque obtained at the shoes for the same pedal force applies at the shoes
varies whether the
i. Expander – fixed to the back plate or it is floating
ii. Anchor – fixed or floating
iii. Shoes – leading or trailing

Fixed Expander type

 A leading shoe tip is dragged along the drum even when there is no braking force while the tip
of the trailing shoe tip is thrown off the drum.
Thus when the brakes are applied, the net force exerted on the leading shoe becomes more. As a
result of unequal braking effect at the two shoes and consequently higher temperatures, the
coefficient of friction gets reduced more with prolonged application, due to which leading shoes
fades quicker than the trailing shoe.

Floating Expander type

The expander is not fixed on the back plate but kept floating. The unequal braking effects at the
two shoes are automatically balanced and made equal.
Even if the lining on one shoe is worn more than the other, the floating expander will move to
one side so that the shoes still share equally the actuating force. However, the lining wear on two
shoes is still unequal.

Floating Anchor type

The two shoes are linked together at the floating anchor and have a common fixed anchor as
shown in Fig. For the direction of rotation shown in the figure, it is seen that both the shoes
become leading.
Two leading shoe type are self energised, increases the braking torque. The lining wear also
becomes uniform on both the shoes.
The disadvantage when the vehicle is reversed, both becomes trailing shoes and braking effect is
decreased. Secondly, it is sensitive to C.O.F changes an not suited for brakes meant for
prolonged application.
In the two trailing shoe type, the braking effort at the wheels is decreased for the same pedal
force applied. Generally, it is used with servo brakes or power brakes so that driver is not
fatigued. It has better antifade characteristics and thus provides consistent braking.

Disc Brakes
It consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary housing called caliper. The
caliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle, like the axle casing or the stub axle.
It consists of 2 parts, each part containing a piston. In between each piston and the disc, friction
pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc.
Passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave from the housing. Each cylinder
contains a rubber sealing ring between cylinder and piston.

When the brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into contact
with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later.
On releasing the brakes, the rubber sealing rings act as return springs and retract the piston and
friction pad away from the disc.

T = 2 μ paR
μ - Coefficient of friction
p - Fluid pressure
a – cross-sectional area of one piston
R – distance of the longitudinal axis of the piston from the wheel axis
Types of disc brakes
1. Swinging caliper type
2. Sliding caliper type
Swinging caliper type
The caliper is hinged about a fulcrum pin and one of the friction pads is fixed to the caliper. The
fluid under pressure presses the other pad against the disc to apply the brake. The reaction on the
caliper causes it to move inward slightly, applying equal pressure to the other side of the disc.
The caliper automatically adjusts its position by swinging about the pin.

Sliding caliper type

In the sliding caliper type, there are two pistons between which the fluid under pressure is sent
which presses one friction pad directly onto the disc and other pad is pressed indirectly via the
caliper.

Both the types are lighter and simpler in construction.

COMPARISON OF DISC AND DRUM TYPES OF BRAKES

1) In case of disc brakes friction surfaces are directly exposed to the cooling air, whereas in the
drum type, the friction occurs on the internal surfaces, from which heat can be dissipated
only after it has passed by conduction through the drum.
2) The friction pads in case of drum brakes are flat as compared to curved friction linings in
case of drum brakes. This means that in disc brakes, there is uniform wear of friction pads.
Moreover, the friction pad material is not subjected to any bending, thereby increasing the
range of materials from which to choose the suitable one. Generally we use asbestos fibre
with metal oxide fillers bonded with organic compounds as the material for friction pads.
3) Unlike the conventional drum brake, the design of disc brake is such that there is no loss
efficiency due to expansion. Referring to fig., as the system becomes hot, expansion of a
drum of internally-expanding shoe type of brake tends to move the friction surfaces apart,
causing loss of effective pedal travel. On the other hand, disc expansion merely changes the
relative positions on the friction surfaces slightly without tending to increase the clearance.
4) Disc brakes weigh less than their conventional drum type counterpart-a saving of
approximately 20 percent being possible.
5) Disc brakes have comparatively better anti-fade characteristics than drum brakes.
6) The changes in brake factor for unit change in friction coefficient is much less in the case of
disc brakes than it is for two-leading shoe or the simple, leading and trailing shoe brake.
This consistency of braking in disc brakes is due to absence of any self-servo action in these.
7) Compared to the drum type, the disc brakes are simple in design. There are very small
number of parts to wear or not function properly.
8) It is very easy to replace the friction pads when required, compared to the drum type where
the brake linings have to be either riveted or fixed with adhesives to the brake shoes.
9) Total frictional area of pads in spot brakes is very less as compared with the conventional
drum type brakes, the approximate ratio being 1:4. This means that in disc brakes, the
pressure intensity must be considerably greater than in the drum type. This implies that
frequent relining would be necessary, due to increased rate of wear.
10) The only factor limiting the more extensive use of disc brakes is their initial cost. However,
with further improvements in design and savings due to increased production, it is hoped that
ultimately this type may replace the drum type brakes altogether at least for medium and
heavy vehicles.
Hydraulic brakes

Most cars use hydraulically operated foot brakes on all the four wheels. An outline of the
hydraulic braking system is shown in fig. The main component in this is the master cylinder,
which contains reservoir for the brake fluid. Master cylinder is operated by the brake pedal and is
further connected to the wheel cylinder in each wheel through steel pipe lines.
A residual pressure of about 50 kPa is maintained in the pipe lines to ensure that the wheel
cylinder is kept expanded to prevent the air from entering the wheel cylinder when the brakes are
released.
Master cylinder

It is the heart of the hydraulic braking system.

There are two main chambers in the master cylinder viz. the fluid reservoir (compensates for any
change in the fluid volume due to temperature variation and leakage) and compression chamber
in which the piston operates.
To prevent leakage there are rubber seals on both ends of the piston in the compression chamber.
A rubber boot covers the push rod end of the master cylinder to prevent dirt from entering inside.
There is a fluid check valve with rubber cup inside the compression serves to retain the residual
pressure in the brake lines even when the brakes are released.
There are number of holes in the piston head. Two holes connect the fluid reservoir to the
compression chamber. The smaller one out of these is called the bypass or compensation port,
the second hole is called the intake or the recuperation port. There is a vent in the cap of the fluid
reservoir to keep the brake fluid always at atmospheric pressure.
The push rod is operated with the foot brake pedal through linkage. As the pedal is pressed, push
rod moves the piston to left against the force of the spring, till it covers the by-pass port. Further
movement of the push rod causes building up of pressure in the compression chamber, the inner
rubber cup of the fluid check valve is deflected, forcing the fluid under pressure in the lines,
enters the wheel cylinder or the caliper and moves the pistons thereby applying the brakes.

When the brake pedal is released, the spring pressure in the master cylinder moves the piston to
the right extreme position. This same force of the spring keeps the fluid check valve pressed on
its seat for sometime and thereby delays the return of fluid from the lines into the compression
chamber. Some delay is also caused by the inertia of the fluid in the lines. This produces a
vacuum in the compression chamber and unless this is destroyed immediately, there are all
chances of air leaking into the system. Even a very small amount of air will render the brakes
useless, the air being compressible. This problem is solved by having intake port.
As soon as some vacuum is formed, the atmospheric pressure in the fluid reservoir forces the
fluid through intake port and holes in the piston which deflects the rubber cup and enters the
compression chamber, destroying the vacuum.
But by the time this vacuum is destroyed, the fluid from the lines comes back into reservoir by
lifting the fluid check valve off its seat. This extra fluid now has to be accommodated somehow,
because compression chamber is already full. If this is not done, the pressure in the lines will not
be relieved fully and there are all chances of brake shoes rubbing with the drum.
Unlike drum brakes, disc brakes should not have any residual pressure in the pipeline, because in
that eventuality the pads are not completely separated from the disc when the brakes are released.

Wheel Cylinder
They are meant to force the brake shoes against the drum. It consists of pistons, rubber
seals(cups), seal spreaders, spring and dust cover. The brake line form the master cylinder is
attached to the inlet port and a bleeder screw with a cover is provided to bleed air from the
system whenever necessary.
When the brakes are applied the fluid under pressure from the master cylinder enters the inlet
port and forces the piston to move outward against the drum.
Similarly, when the brakes are released, the brake shoe retractor springs force the brake fluid out
of the wheel cylinder by pushing the pistons inward.
Air brakes
The operation of air brakes is similar to the hydraulic brakes except that compressed air is used
to apply brakes instead of hydraulic pressure. Air brakes are commonly used on heavy vehicles
like trucks, buses, etc.

The complete layout circuit is shown in Fig. The compressor takes air from the atmosphere
through the filter and the compressed air is sent to the reservoir through the unloader valve,
which gets lifted at a predetermined reservoir pressure (about 900kPa) and relieves the
compressor of load. From the reservoir the air goes to various accessories and also to the
brake chambers also called the diaphragm units at each wheel, through the brake valve. The
control of brake valve is with the driver who can control the intensity of breaking according
to the requirements. The main components have been discussed in the following paragraphs.
1) Unloader valve
The air pressure in the system must be maintained at the recommended value. An excessive
air pressure will result in fierce braking, while the lower air pressure would lead to
inadequate braking effect. The unloader valve in the air braking system serves to regulate the
line pressure. When the specified air pressure has been attained, the unloader valve relieves
the compressor. Similarly when the line pressure decreases below the required limit, it re-
establishes the compression. It consists mainly of a governor valve, an unloader plunger and
a non-return valve.
2) Reservoir
The reservoir or air tank stores compressed air at the specified pressure for brake application.
It is made of steel sheet. A safety valve is provided at the top of the reservoir to regulate the
air pressure. A drain plug is also provided at the bottom for periodic draining of the
reservoir, without which the lubricating oil from the compressor and moisture in the air
would form emulsion which would damage the other brake units such as the brake valve,
brake chambers, etc.
3) Brake valve
Brake valve or application valve is meant to control the intensity of braking in an air pressure
system. Fig. shows the simplified construction of such a valve. It consists of a spring-loaded
hollow piston, with inlet and exhaust valves, an air bleed hole and exhaust port.
The compressed air from the reservoir enters the brake valve through the inlet valve and goes
to the stop light switch on one side and to the brake chamber at each wheel on the other side
as shown.
Brake valve is operated either by a foot treadle or by push rod-operated linkage. When the
driver presses the brake pedal to apply brakes, the force is transmitted through the linkage to
the brake valve, so that the piston there is pushed down against the force of the graduating
spring which is compressed. It is this spring force which gives a feel of braking intensity to
the driver.
With this downward movement of the piston the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve opens
and the compressed air from the reservoir goes to brake chambers at the wheels to apply the
brakes at each wheel.
When the brakes are applied, the compressed air also enters the chamber under the piston,
through the bleeder hole. The air pressure thus acts on the bottom side of the piston and
balances the mechanical force applied on the piston by the driver. If the air pressure exceeds
the mechanical force, piston is lifted up, the exhaust valve opens and the air escapes through the
exhaust port till the pressure on the two sides of the piston is balanced. The exhaust valve is
closed in this position.
When the brake pedal is released, there is no more any mechanical force on the piston; the air
pressure from below lifts the piston up, thus opening the exhaust valve and shutting off the inlet
valve. Thus the entire pressure is released through the exhaust valve and the exhaust port.
Further, because the inlet valve is now completely shut, the air connection between the reservoir
and the brake chambers is no more there. As a result, the brakes at the wheels are released.

ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
Anti-lock systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking
and the tyres from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.
Preventing brake lockup is important because of the adverse effect a locked wheel has on tyre
traction.
Traction is defined in terms of tyre slip, which is the difference between the actual vehicle speed
and the rate at which the tyre tread moves across the road.
A free-rolling wheel has nearly zero tyre slip, while a locked wheel has 100 % tyre slip.
ANTI-LOCK SYSTEM OPERATION
Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tyres at
a controlled amount of slip. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signals
whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed.
An electronic control unit (ECU) continuously monitors these signals, and if the frequency of a
signal drops too rapidly, indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a
modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor

signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic
pressure to the brake. This release apply cycle occurs several times per second to “pump” the
brakes like a driver might, but at a much faster rate.
In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common.
First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock, or nearly lock, a
wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal
braking.
Second, if the anti-lock system fails in any way, the brakes continue to operate normally as in a
conventional brake system without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel
alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.

ANTI-LOCK OPERATION
ABS has three phases of operation:
 Pressure increase
 Pressure holding
 Pressure reduction
ABS controls three hydraulic circuits at the same time. However, to make the operation of the
system easier to understand, the descriptions below use a single front brake circuit.
PRESSURE INCREASE
The pressure increase phase can also be called the normal braking phase. As long as there is no
indication of impending lockup, the brakes operate as though the ABS system were not present.
During the pressure increase phase, the solenoid valve receives no signal from the control unit
and is fully open; hydraulic pressure passes straight through to the wheel brake.
The fluid return delivery pump is not running at this time, and the pump inlet and outlet check
valves are closed. This is the position the ABS system will assume if there is a failure or the
system is switched off.

PRESSURE HOLDING
When the control unit first senses impending brake lock-up, it begins the pressure holding phase
by sending a current of approximately two amperes to the electric solenoid valve. This current
moves the solenoid plunger to the position shown in Fig., which closes the fluid passage to the
brake, and prevents any further increase in hydraulic pressure.
The position of the plunger also prevents any fluid return from the brake, and therefore maintains
pressure at a constant level. The fluid return delivery pump starts to run at this time, but the
pump outlet check valve remains closed unless pump pressure exceeds line pressure from the
master cylinder.

PRESSURE REDUCTION
If the pressure holding phase is insufficient to prevent wheel lockup, the control unit initiates the
pressure reduction phase by increasing the solenoid valve current to approximately five amperes.
This moves the solenoid plunger to the position shown in Fig., which continues to block fluid
flow from the master cylinder to the brake, but in addition, opens a passage from the brake to the
fluid reservoir. This increases the volume of the hydraulic circuit, therefore reducing pressure to
the brake and allowing the wheel to rotate once again.
Once the increase in wheel rotational speed reaches a predetermined rate, the control unit returns
the system to the pressure increasing phase described above. If the wheel begins to lock again,
the holding-reduction-increasing cycle repeats.
This cycle will repeat from 4 to 10 times per second (depending on the condition of the road
surface) as long as there is a chance of brake lockup.

VACUUM SERVO BRAKES

In vacuum servo brakes the suction from the engine inlet manifold is utilized for brake
application. There are two types of vacuum servo brakes, both incorporating a piston or a
diaphragm operating in a cylinder and provided with suitable linkage for brake application. A
small vacuum reservoir is also there to provide enough vacuum for several brake applications
even after the engine has stopped.
In the first type, both sides of the piston are exposed to atmosphere when brakes are in the
released position. For applying brakes, engine vacuum is applied on one side of the piston,
subjecting the same to differential pressure and thus operating the linkage.
In the second type, however, both sides of the piston are subjected to engine vacuum in the
brakes released position. To apply brakes, one side is exposed to atmosphere which provides the
desired force on the piston. This second system is called “suspended vacuum” system and is
preferred over the first system, because this is comparatively more rapid in action.
A simplified diagram showing the suspended vacuum type of brake system is given in Fig.

Vacuum reservoir is connected through a non-return valve to the inlet manifold between the
carburettor and the engine. Vacuum reservoir is further connected to the servo cylinder on both
sides of the piston; on left side the connection is through the control unit, while on the right side
it is direct connection. Control unit also contains a piston to which two valves are attached. The
upper valve controls the connection between the atmosphere and left side of the piston in the
servo cylinder. The lower valve controls the connection between the vacuum reservoir and left
side of the servo cylinder piston. The piston in the control unit itself is actuated by the brake
pedal through the master cylinder as shown in the figure.

When the brake pedal is free, upper valve in the control unit is closed and the lower one is open.
Thus both sides of the piston in the servo cylinder are exposed to the engine vacuum. However,
when the brake pedal is pressed to apply the brakes, the pressure of the brake fluid pushes the
piston in the control unit up, thereby closing the lower valve there and opening the upper valve.
Thus left side of the servo piston is exposed to atmospheric pressure, whereas vacuum acts on
the right side. This causes the servo piston to move to the right. This movement is utilized to
apply the brakes in the wheels through some linkage which may be mechanical or hydraulic.
Thus the force to be exerted by the driver for applying the brakes is considerable reduced and
practically the whole of the braking effort is supplied by the engine vacuum.

A more commonly used sequence on modern automobiles is to have the servo cylinder, called
vacuum-operated booster operated directly by the brake pedal through leverage. The booster
unit actuates the push rod to operate the master cylinder which is placed in front of the booster
unit.

Retarders
Increases in operating weights and installed horsepower of both public service and commercial
vehicles have been continued progressively in the last four decades. Also, throughout the
mountainous areas of the world, drivers are increasingly demanding secondary vehicle
retardation systems. Many improvements have been achieved in vehicle braking be development
of new friction materials, allowing higher brake drum temperature without degradation of the
brake linings. Brake drum crazing, wheel hub oil seal failures and tyre bead blowouts were some
of the problems faced due to excessive temperatures experienced in the main brakes. Due to the
emphasis on economy, safety and increasing traffic density, the importance of Hydrodynamic
continuous braking systems for trucks and buses is of significance. It can be used to reduce
vehicle’s speed, they differ in their unsuitability for halting the vehicle.

HYDRAULIC RETARDER
The design of a hydraulic retarder is similar to that of a Fluid coupling. Basically, the retarder
consists of two saucer-shaped discs (Fig.), a revolving rotor (or impeller) and a stationary stator
(or reaction member) which are cast with number of flat radial vanes or blades for directing the
flow path of the fluid. The rotor is bolted to the flange of the internally splined drive shaft hub,
which is itself mounted over the external splines formed on both the gear box main shaft and the
flanged output shaft, thereby coupling the two drive members together. Support to the drive
shaft hub and rotor is given by a roller bearing recessed in the side of the stator, which in turn
housed firmly within the retarder casing.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
The two half-saucer members are placed face to face so that fluid can rotate as a vortex within
the cells created by the radial vanes.
When the transmission drives the rotor on overrun and fluid (oil) is introduced into the spaces
between the rotor and stator, the fluid is subjected to centrifugal force causing it to be accelerated
radially outwards. As the fluid reaches the outmost periphery of the rotor cells, it is flung across
the junction made between the rotor and stator faces. It then decelerates as it is guided towards
the inner periphery of the rotor cells to where the cycle of events once again commences. The
kinetic energy imparted to the fluid passing from the revolving rotor to the fixed stator produces
a counter reaction against the driven rotor. This counter reaction therefore opposes the
propelling energy at the road wheels developed by the momentum of the moving vehicle causing
the vehicle to reduce speed.
The kinetic energy produced by the rapidly moving fluid as it impinges onto the stator cells and
turbulence created by the movement of the fluid between the cells is all converted into heat,
which is absorbed by the fluid and then dissipated via., a heat exchanger to the cooling system of
the engine.
The power absorption capacity of the hydraulic retarder increases almost with the cube of
propeller shaft speed for a given rotor diameter.
RETARDER OPERATION
Control of the retarder can be achieved through use of a hand lever, throttle pedal or brake pedal.
The hand lever needs to have three positions to maximize use of the retarder – off, 50% apply,
and 100% apply. This allows easy variation of the capacity during operation to control the
downhill speeds to the driver’s choice.
A throttle lift applies for the retarder gives maximum benefit in that the retarder is activated once
the throttle is released.
Brake apply is used when it is desired to only activate the retarder when a driver would
ordinarily touch the brakes.
Both throttle lift and brake apply can be combined for use with the retarder. With simple wiring
changers, lower capacity level is achieved upon lifting of the throttle and full capacity is obtained
when the brake pedal is applied.
ADVANTAGES
i. Retarder prevents the development of excessive temperatures reached in the main brakes
and hence extends life of lining and drums which results in reduced maintenance and
increase the utilization of the vehicle because of higher average journey speeds.
ii. The heat transmitted to the tyre tread and rim is reduces, resulting in less deterioration of
the tyre and also a more uniform wear pattern round the tyre tread.
iii. The fewer number of gear shifting results in less fatigue to the driver and reduced wear of
the clutch and transmission system.
iv. Reduced braking noise in the main brakes.
v. Improved drive control, which results in safety of the passenger and bus.

Eddy current retarder

The electric retarder is attached to the transmission and makes use of eddy currents created by a
magnetic field. It consists of a stator of coils attached to the gearbox, rotating disc rotors attached
to the driveline and a rheostat (a form of variable resistor) to vary the effect.
In normal driving the metal rotors spin freely. When the stator coils are energized, a magnetic
field is produced. This creates eddy current, which try to prevent the rotation of the rotors. They
heat up from the conversion of energy but this is released to the surrounding air. The braking
effect depends on the current flow to the stator and this is varied by the rheostat control.