Introduction

to

METHODS
ENGINEERING

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 History of Methods Engineering
§ TAYLOR'S USE OF TIME STUDY

§ Time study had its beginning in the machine

shop of Midvale Steel Company in 1881
by Frederick W. Taylor

§ He stated that "the greatest obstacle to harmonious

cooperation between the workman and the
management lay in the ignorance of management
as to what really constitutes a proper day's work for
the workman."

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 History of Methods Engineering
§ E.g. shoveling in Bethlehem Steel Works (1898)
§ Taylor found that shovelers were lifting loads of 3 1/2
lbs when handling rice coal and up to 38 lbs when
moving ore
§ Study showed that with a load of 21 1/2 lbs on the
shovel, a man could handle a maximum tonnage of a
material a day
§ Provided a small spade shovel for moving ore and
large shovel for handling rice coal

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Taylor’s Scientific Management
§ His objective is to find the proper method of doing a
given piece of work, teach the worker how to do it in
this way, maintain all conditions surrounding the
work so that the worker could do the task properly,
set a definite time standard for accomplishing the
work, and then pay the worker a premium in the form
of extra wages for doing the task as specified.
§ (1) The development of a science for each element of
a man's work, thereby replacing the old rule-of-thumb
methods.
§ (2) The selection of the best worker for each particular
task and then training, teaching, and developing the
workman; in place of the former practice of allowing
the worker to select his own task and train himself as
best he could.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Taylor’s Scientific Management
§ (3) The development of a spirit of hearty cooperation
between the management and the men in the carrying
on of the activities in accordance with the principles
of the developed science.
§ (4) The division of the work into almost equal shares
between the management and the workers, each
department taking over the work for which it is better
fitted; instead of the former condition, in which
almost all of the work and the greater part of the
responsibility were thrown on the men.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 History of Methods Engineering
§ MOTION STUDY OF THE GILBRETHS

§ Frank Gilbreth's engineering background

and Lillian's training as psychologist fitted
them with a unique way to undertake work
involving an understanding of the human factor as
well as knowledge of materials, tools, and equipment.

§ Their studies include inventions and improvements in

building and construction work, study of fatigue,
monotony, transfer of skill, and work for the
handicapped, and the development of such
techniques as the process chart, micromotion study,
and the chronocyclegraph.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 History of Methods Engineering
§ In 1885, he observed that the bricklayer did not
always use the same set of motions - the worker
used one set of motions when he worked rapidly,
another set when he worked slowly, and still a third
set when he taught someone else how to lay a brick.
§ These observations led Gilbreth to begin
investigations to find the "one best way" of
performing a given task

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 PROGRESS MADE IN CONNECTION WITH
METHOD, STANDARDS, AND WORK DESIGN
YEAR EVENT
1760 Perronet makes time studies on No. 6 common pins.
1820 Charles W. Babbage makes time studies on No. 11 common pins.

Babbage was born in Teignmouth, Devon, on December 26, 1791, and educated at the
University of Cambridge.

1832 Charles W. Babbage publishes On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers.

Babbage’s book, Economy of Machines and Manufactures (1832), initiated the field of
study known today as operational research.

1881 Frederick W. Taylor begins his time study work.

Taylor, Frederick Winslow (1856-1915), American industrial engineer, who originated
scientific management in business.

1901 Henry L. Gantt develops the tasks and bonus wage system.
1903 Taylor presents paper on shop Management to ASME.
1906 Taylor publishes paper On the Art Of Cutting Metals.
1910 Inner-sate Commerce Commission starts an investigation of time study.
Gilbreth publishes Motion Study.
Gantt publishes Work, Wages and Profits.
 PROGRESS MADE IN CONNECTION WITH
METHOD, STANDARDS, AND WORK DESIGN
1911 Taylor publishes text on The Principles of Scientific Management.
Taylor served as consulting engineer for several companies. His management method were
published in The Principles of Management (1911)
1912 Society to Promote the Science of Management is organized.
Emerson estimates $1 Million Dollars per day can be saved if Eastern railroads apply Scientific
Management.
1913 Emerson publishes The Twelve Principles of Efficiency.
Congress adds rider to the government appropriation bill stipulating that no part of this
appropriation should be made available for the pay of any person engages in time study.
Henry Ford unveils the first moving assembly line Detroit.
1915 Taylor Society formed to replace the Society to Promote the Science of Management.

1917 Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth publish Applied Motion Study.

1923 American Management Association was formed.
1927 Elton Mayo begins Hawthorne study at Western Electric Company’s plant in Hawthorne
Illinois.
Mayo, (George) Elton (1880 – 1949), Austrain- born American psychologist and sociologist.
Mayo was born in Adelaide, South Australia, on December 26, 1880.
1933 Ralph M. Barnes receives the first Ph.D granted in the United States in the field of Industrial
Engineering from Cornell University. His thesis leads to the publication of “Motion and
Time Study”.
1936 Society of Advancement of Management organized.
1945 Department of labor advocates establishing standards to improve productivity of supplies for
the war effort.
 PROGRESS MADE IN CONNECTION WITH
METHOD, STANDARDS, AND WORK DESIGN
1947 Bill passed allowing the War Department to use time study.
1948 The Institute of Industrial Engineers is founded in Columbus Ohio.
1949 Prohibition against using stopwatches dropped from appropriation language.
1957 Human Factors and Ergonomics Society founded in U.S.
EJ McCormick publishes human factor engineering

1959 International Ergonomics Association founded to coordinate ergonomics activities worldwide.

1970 Congress pushes the OSHAct, establishing the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
1972 Society of the Advancement of Management combines with the American Management
Association.

1975 MIL-STD 1567 USAF. Work Measurement released.

1981 NIOSH lifting guidelines first introduced.
1983 MIL-STD 1567A. Work Measurement released.
1986 MIL-STD 1567a. Work Measurement Guidance Appendix, finalized.
1988 ANSI/HFS Standard 100-1988 for Human Factors Engineering of Visual Display Terminal
Workstations released.

1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) passed by congress.

1993 NIOSH lifting guidelines revised.
1995 Draft ANSI –365 Standard for control of Work-Related Cumulative. Trauma Disorders released.
 IE Motto

§ THERE IS ALWAYS A BETTER

WAY!!!

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Definition & Scope of Methods Engineering

§ METHODS ENGINEERING
= WORK STUDY
= MOTION AND TIME STUDY
= WORK METHODS DESIGN AND WORK
MEASUREMENT

§ Motion study or work methods design - for finding the

preferred method of doing work
§ Time study or work measurement - for determining the
standard time to perform a specific task

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Methods Engineering
§ Methods Engineering is the systematic study of work
systems with the purposes of
(1) developing the preferred system and method - usually
the one with the lowest cost;
(2) standardizing this system and method;
(3) determining the time required by a qualified and
properly trained person working at a normal pace to do a
specific task or operation; and
(4) assisting in training the worker in the preferred
method.

§ Source: Motion and time study: design and measurement of work by Ralph M. Barnes
New York: Wiley, 1980.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Methods Engineering
§ Analysis and design of work methods and systems,
including the tooling, equipment, technologies, workplace
layout, plant layout, and work environment
§ Other names for methods engineering:
§ Work study
§ Work simplification
§ Methods study
§ Process re-engineering
§ Business process re-engineering

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Objectives in Methods Engineering
§ Increase productivity and efficiency
§ Reduce cycle time
§ Reduce product cost
§ Reduce labor content
§ Improve customer satisfaction
§ Improve product and/or service quality
§ Reduce lead times and improve work flow
§ Increase flexibility of work system
§ Improve worker safety
§ Apply more ergonomic work methods
§ Enhance the environment (both inside and outside the facility)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Methods Engineering

Can be divided into two areas:

1. Methods analysis & design

2. Work measurement

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Methods Analysis & Design
§ Methods Analysis - concerned with the study of an
existing method or process
§ Objectives:
§ Eliminate unnecessary and non-value-adding work
elements
§ Combine elements and operations
§ Rearrange elements into more logical sequence
§ Simplify remaining elements and operations

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Methods Analysis & Design
Methods Design - concerned with either of the following
situations:
1. Design of a new method or process
§ Required for new product or service and there is no
existing precedent
§ Method must be designed from scratch, using best
existing practice for similar operations
2. Redesign of an existing method or process based on a
preceding methods analysis

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Measurement
§ Used to determine the amount of standard time it should
take a machine or a qualified person to perform a
standardized work.
§ This standard time is used in the entire gamut of
production cycle of planning (such as line balancing),
scheduling (assignment method), implementation (such
as wage & incentive determination), and control (such as
cost control).

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Measurement Techniques
§ Four basic work measurement techniques:
1. Direct time study
2. Predetermined motion time systems (PMTS)
3. Standard data systems
4. Work sampling
§ PMTS and work sampling can be used in methods
engineering to make improvements in the work methods

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Techniques of Methods Engineering
§ Data gathering and statistical tools
§ Charting and diagramming techniques
§ Motion study and work design
§ Facility layout planning
§ Work measurement techniques
§ Other approaches

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Charting & Diagramming Techniques
§ Network diagrams
§ Traditional industrial engineering charting techniques
§ Operation charts
§ Process charts
§ Flow diagrams
§ Block diagrams
§ Process maps

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Motion Study and Work Design
§ Concerned with basic motions of a human worker while
performing a given task
§ Examples of basic motion elements:
§ Reach
§ Grasp
§ Move
§ Release
§ Guidelines for work design include “principles of motion
economy”

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Facility Layout Planning
§ Facility layout refers to:
§ Size and shape of a facility
§ Arrangement of the different departments and
equipment within the facility
§ Problem area includes:
§ Design of a new facility
§ Installing new equipment, retiring old equipment
§ Expanding (or contracting) an existing facility

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Design & Improvement
FIVE-STEP APPROACH TO METHODS IMPROVEMENT

1. Pick a worthwhile project.

§ Main aim – STOP WASTE!
§ Look for areas which indicate: Bottlenecks, High costs,
Too much time spent, Fatigue, Safety Hazards

2. Record all the details.

§ Do it on the job.
§ Use charting tools.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Design & Improvement
3. Question the facts.
§ What is being done? Why is it done? What else can be
done to achieve the same objective? What should be
done?
§ Where is it done? Why is it done there? Where else can it
be done? Where should it be done?
§ When is it done? Why is it done then? When else can it
be done? When should it be done?
§ Who is doing it? Why is s/he doing it? Who else can do it?
Who should do it?
§ How is it done? Why is it done that way? How else can it
be done? How should it be done?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Design & Improvement
4. Develop improvements.
§ Two basic approaches: Conservative – minor changes to
manpower, materials, machines; Radical – rethink entire
process, new materials and machines.
§ Consult others – don’t do it alone.
§ Standardize equipment, materials, procedures
§ Sell the new ideas – mockups, models
§ Remember: IT PAYS TO TAKE PAINS WITH PEOPLE.

§ 5. Install the new method.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Classes of Change
Change or improvements in time and motion study can be
categorized in four classes:

§ Equipment;
§ Process;
§ Product Design; and
§ Raw Materials

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Class 4: Raw Materials
§ Can a slightly different raw material be ordered or can the
same material be ordered in a form that would be more
advantageous? Can we change the shape, size,
packaging, quantity packed together, material, color,
finish, amount of processing done by the supplier, any
other specification, or the product so as to make any
material or auxiliary material unnecessary?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Class 3: Product Design
§ Can the product be made, sold, or sent out in a more
advantageous form? Can we modify the design, pack
differently, or change finish, weight, and tolerances?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Class 2: Process
§ Can the process be improved by eliminating or combining
activities, breaking activities apart, changing sequence,
place, operator, and manner?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Class 1: Equipment
§ Can any new tools, equipment, or change in the
workplace make the process easier?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work
§ Is our primary means of livelihood
§ Serves an important economic function in the global
world of commerce
§ Creates opportunities for social interactions and
friendships
§ Provides the products and services that sustain and
improve our standard of living

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 The Nature of Work
Work is an activity in which one exerts physical and
mental effort to accomplish a given task or perform a
duty
§ Task or duty has some useful objective
§ Worker applies skills and knowledge for successful
completion
§ The activity has commercial value
§ The worker is compensated

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 The Pyramidal Structure of Work
§ Work consists of tasks
§ Tasks consist of work elements
§ Work elements consist of basic motion elements

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Pyramidal Structure of Work
§ Extended to a worker’s career

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Task
An amount of work that is assigned to a worker or for
which a worker is responsible
§ Repetitive task – as in mass production
§ Time required = 30 seconds to several minutes
§ Non-repetitive task – performed periodically,
infrequently, or only once
§ Time required usually much longer than for
repetitive task

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Element
A series of work activities that are logically grouped together
because they have a unified function in the task
§ Example: assembling a component to a base part using
several nuts and bolts
§ Required time = six seconds or longer

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Basic Motion Elements
Actuations of the limbs and other body parts
§ Examples:
§ Reaching for an object
§ Grasping the object
§ Moving the object
§ Walking
§ Eye movement
§ A work element consists of multiple basic motion
elements

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Allocation of Total Task Time

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Productive Work Content
A given task performed by a worker can be considered to
consist of
§ Basic productive work content
§ Theoretical minimum amount of work required to
accomplish the task
§ Excess nonproductive activities
§ Extra physical and mental actions of worker
§ Do not add value to the task
§ Do not facilitate the productive work content
§ Take time

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Excess Nonproductive Activities
Can be classified into three categories:
§ Excess activities due to poor design of product or
service
§ Excess activities caused by inefficient methods, poor
workplace layout, and interruptions
§ Excessive activities cause by the human factor

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Poor Design of Product or Service
§ Products with more parts than necessary, causing excess
assembly time
§ Product proliferation
§ Frequent design changes
§ Waste of materials
§ Quality standards too stringent

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Inefficient Methods, Layout, Etc.
§ Inefficient layout that increases material handling activities
§ Inefficient workplace layout that increases hand, arm, and
body motions
§ Methods that include unnecessary work elements that
waste time
§ Long setup times in batch production
§ Frequent equipment breakdowns
§ Workers waiting for work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 The Human Factor
§ Absenteeism
§ Tardiness
§ Workers spending too much time socializing
§ Workers deliberately working slowly
§ Inadequate training of workers
§ Industrial accidents caused by human error
§ Hazardous materials that cause occupational illnesses

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 How Working Time is Made Up
Basic Work Content of Product/Activity

standards, and work design

Work Content Added by Defects in Lack of standardization

Goal of methods,
Product Design or Specifications Wrong quality standards
Bad design of product Total Work
Work Content Added by Inefficient Wrong machine used Content
Methods of Manufacture or Operation Process not operated correctly
Wrong tools
Bad layout
Bad working habits

methods engineering, standards, and work design

Excessive product variety
Ineffective Time Due to Management Lack of standardization
Shortcomings Design changes

Opportunities for savings thru

Bad planning
Lack of raw materials
Plant breakdowns
Plant in bad condition
Total Ineffective
Bad working conditions
Accidents
Time
Absences, lateness, idleness
Ineffective Time Within the Careless workmanship
Control of the Worker Accidents

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Importance of Time
§ In many human endeavors, “time is of the
essence”
§ In sports
§ In daily living
§ In business and industry
§ In work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Time in Business and Industry

§ New product
introduction
§ Product cost
§ Delivery time
§ Overnight delivery
§ Competitive bidding
§ Production scheduling

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Importance of Time in Work
§ Time is the most frequently used measure of work
§ How many minutes or hours are required to perform
a given task?
§ Most workers are paid by the time they work
§ Hourly wage rate
§ Salary
§ Workers must arrive at work on time
§ Labor and staffing requirements computed in units of time

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work System Defined
As a physical entity, a work system is a system consisting of
humans, information, and equipment designed to perform
useful work
§ Contributes to the production of a product or delivery of a
service
§ Examples:
§ Worker operating a machine tool in a factory
§ Robotic welding line in an automobile plant
§ Parcel service agent driving a delivery truck to make
customer deliveries
§ Designer working at a CAD workstation

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
A Work System as a Physical Entity

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work System Defined
As a field of professional practice, work systems include:
§ Work methods - analysis and design of tasks and jobs
involving human work activity
§ Work measurement – analysis of a task to determine the
time that should be allowed to perform the task
§ Work management – organizational and administrative
functions that must be accomplished to achieve high
productivity and effective supervision of workers

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Three Categories of Work Systems
1. Manual work system
§ Worker performing one or more tasks without the
aid of powered tools
2. Worker-machine system
§ Human worker operates powered equipment
3. Automated work system
§ Process performed without the direct participation
of a human worker

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work Systems
Human body accomplishing some physical task without an
external source of power
§ With or without hand tools
§ When hand tools are used, the power to operate them
is derived from the strength and stamina of a human
worker
§ Other human faculties are required, such as hand-eye
coordination and mental effort

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Pure Manual Work
§ Material handler moving cartons in a warehouse
§ Workers loading furniture into a moving van without the
use of dollies
§ Dealer at a casino table dealing cards
§ Office worker filing documents
§ Assembly worker snap-fitting two parts together

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work with Hand Tools
§ Machinist filing a part
§ Assembly worker using screwdriver
§ Painter using paintbrush to paint door trim
§ QC inspector using micrometer to measure a shaft
diameter
§ Material handling worker using a dolly to move furniture
§ Office worker writing with a pen

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Repetitive vs. Nonrepetitive Tasks
§ Repetitive Task
§ Relatively short duration (usually a few minutes or
less)
§ High degree of similarity from one cycle to the next
§ Nonrepetitive Task
§ Takes a long time
§ Work cycles are not similar

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 One Best Method Principle
Of all the possible methods that can be used to perform a
given task, there is one optimal method that minimizes the
time and effort required to accomplish it
§ Attributed to Frank Gilbreth
§ A primary objective in work design is to determine the one
best method for a task, and then to standardize its use

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Cycle Time Variations
§ Once the method has been standardized, the
actual time to perform the task is a variable
because of:
§ Differences in worker performance
§ Variations in hand and body motions
§ Blunders and bungles by worker
§ Variations in starting work units
§ Extra elements not performed every cycle
§ Differences among workers
§ The learning curve phenomenon

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Worker Performance
Defined as the pace or relative speed of working
§ As worker performance increases, cycle time decreases
§ From the employer’s viewpoint, it is desirable for worker
performance to be high
§ What is a reasonable pace to expect from a worker?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Normal Performance
A pace of working that can be maintained by a
properly trained average worker throughout an
entire work shift without deleterious short-term or
long-term effects on the worker’s health or
physical well-being
§ The work shift is usually 8 hours, during which
periodic rest breaks are allowed
§ Normal performance = 100% performance
§ Common benchmark of normal performance:
§ Walking at 3 mi/hr

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Standard Performance
Same as normal performance, but acknowledges that
periodic rest breaks must be taken by the worker
§ Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the work shift
§ Federal law requires employer to pay the worker
during these breaks
§ Other interruptions and delays also occur during the shift

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 PFD Allowance
To account for the delays due to:
§ Personal time (P)
§ Bathroom breaks, personal phone calls
§ Fatigue (F)
§ Rest breaks are intended to deal with fatigue
§ Delays (D)
§ Interruptions, equipment breakdowns

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Worker-Machine System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Worker-Machine Systems
§ Worker operating a piece of powered equipment
§ Examples:
§ Machinist operating a milling machine
§ Construction worker operating a backhoe
§ Truck driver driving an 18-wheeler
§ Worker crew operating a rolling mill
§ Clerical worker entering data into a PC

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Relative Strengths
Humans Machines
Sense unexpected stimuli Perform repetitive operations
Solve problems consistently
Cope with abstract problems Store large amounts of
Adapt to change information
Generalize from Retrieve data from memory
observations reliably
Make decisions on Apply high forces and power
incomplete data
Make routine decisions
quickly

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Types of Powered Equipment
1. Portable power tools
§ Portable power drills, chain saws, electric hedge
trimmers
2. Mobile powered equipment
§ Transportation equipment, back hoes, forklift
trucks, electric power generator at construction site
3. Stationary powered machines
§ Machine tools, office equipment, cash registers,
heat treatment furnaces

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Classification of Powered Machinery

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Numbers of Workers and Machines
One worker and One worker and
One machine Multiple machines
§ Taxicab driver and § Machine cluster
taxi

Multiple workers and Multiple workers and

One machine Multiple machines
§ Ship's crew § Emergency repair crew
responding to machine
breakdowns

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Level of Operator Attention
§ Full-time attention
§ Welders performing arc welding
§ Part-time attention during each work cycle
§ Worker loading and unloading a production machine
on semi-automatic cycle
§ Periodic attention with regular servicing
§ Crane operator in steel mill
§ Periodic attention with random servicing
§ Firefighters responding to alarms

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Two welders
performing arc
welding on
pipe - requires
full-time
attention of
workers (photo
courtesy of
Lincoln
Electric Co.)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Cycle Time Analysis
§ Two categories of worker-machine systems in
terms of cycle time analysis
§ Systems in which the machine time depends
on operator control
§ Carpenter using power saw to cut lumber
§ Cycle time analysis is same as for manual
work cycle
§ Systems in which machine time is constant
and independent of operator control
§ Operator loading semi-automatic
production machine

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 No Overlap: Worker and Machine
§ Worker elements and machine elements are sequential
§ While worker is busy, machine is idle
§ While machine is busy, worker is idle
§ Normal time for cycle
Tn = Tnw + Tm
§ Standard time for cycle
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Internal Work Elements
§ Some worker elements are performed while machine is
working
§ Internal work elements performed simultaneously
with machine cycle
§ External work elements performed sequentially with
machine cycle
§ Desirable to design the work cycle with internal rather
than external work elements

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Normal Time and Standard Time
§ Normal time
Tn = Tnw + Max{Tnwi , Tm}
§ Standard time
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) +
Max{Tnwi(1 + Apfd) , Tm(1 + Am)}
§ Actual cycle time
Tc = Tnw / Pw + Max{Tnwi/Pw , Tm}

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Automated System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Automated Work Systems
Automation is the technology by which a process or
procedure is accomplished without human assistance
§ Implemented using a program of instructions combined
with a control system that executes the instructions
§ Power is required to drive the process and operate the
control system

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Levels of Automated Systems
§ Semiautomated machine
§ Performs a portion of the work cycle under some
form of program control
§ Human worker tends the machine for the rest of the
cycle
§ Operator must be present every cycle
§ Fully automated machine
§ Operates for extended periods of time with no
human attention

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Automated
robotic spot
welding cell
(photo
courtesy of
Ford Motor
Company)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.