Work Systems and How They Work

Chapters:
2. Manual Work and Worker-Machine
Part I Systems
3. Work Flow and Batch Processing
4. Manual Assembly Lines
5. Logistics Operations
6. Service Operations and Office Work
7. Projects and Project Management

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work & Worker-Machine
Systems
Sections:
1. Manual Work Systems
Chapter 2 2. Worker-Machine Systems
3. Automated Work Systems
4. Determining Worker and Machine
Requirements
5. Machine Clusters

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Three Categories of Work Systems
1. Manual work system
ƒ Worker performs one or more tasks without the aid
of powered tools (e.g. hammers, screwdrivers,
shovels)

2. Worker-machine system
ƒ Human worker operates powered equipment (e.g.
a machine tool)
ƒ Physical effort (less)
ƒ Machine power(more)

3. Automated work system

ƒ Process performed without the direct participation
of a human worker

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
A Work System as a Physical Entity

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Worker-Machine System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Automated System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work Systems
ƒ Most basic form of work in which human body
is used to accomplish some physical task
without an external source of power

ƒ With or without hand tools

ƒ Even if hand tools are used, the power to operate
them is derived from the strength and stamina of a
human worker
ƒ Hairbrush vs hair dryer

ƒ Of course other human faculties are also

required, such as hand-eye coordination and
mental effort
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Pure Manual Work
ƒ Involves only the physical and mental
capabilities of the human worker without
machines or tools.
ƒ Material handler moving cartons in a warehouse
ƒ Workers loading furniture into a moving van without
the use of dollies
ƒ Dealer at a casino table dealing cards
ƒ Office worker filing documents
ƒ Assembly worker snap-fitting two parts together

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work with Hand Tools
ƒ Manual tasks are commonly augmented by use
of hand tools.

ƒ Tool is a device for making changes to objects

(formally work units) such as cutting,
grinding,striking, sequeezing
ƒ Scissor, screwdriver, shovel

ƒ Tools can also be used for measurement

and/or analysis purposes

ƒ Workholder to grasp or poisiton work units

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Work with Hand Tools
ƒ Machinist filing a part
ƒ Assembly worker using screwdriver
ƒ Painter using paintbrush to paint door trim
ƒ QC inspector using micrometer to measure the
diameter of a shaft
ƒ Material handling worker using a dolly to move
furniture
ƒ Office worker writing with a pen

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Repetitive vs. Nonrepetitive Tasks
ƒ Repetitive Task
ƒ Work cycle is relatively short (usually a few minutes
or less)
ƒ High degree of similarity from one cycle to the next

ƒ Nonrepetitive Task
ƒ Work cycle takes a long time
ƒ Work cycles are not similar

ƒ In either case, the task can be divided into

work elements that consist of logical groupings
of motions

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Element Example:

Grommet : sealant like ring

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
REMINDER: The Pyramidal Structure of Work

ƒ Tasks consist of work elements

ƒ Work elements consist of basic motion elements

Required
time

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Cycle Time Analysis
ƒ Cycle time Tc
ne
Tc = ∑ Tek
k =1

where
Tek= time of work element k, where k is used to
identify the work elements (min)
ne = number of work elements into which a
cycle is divided.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.1: A repetitive Manual Task

ƒ Current method: An assembly worker performs a

repetitive task consisting of inserting 8 pegs into 8 holes
in a board. A sightly interference fit is involved in each
insertion. The worker holds the board in one hand and
picks up the pegs from a tray with other hand and
inserts them into the holes, one peg at a time.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.1: A repetitive Manual Task

ƒ Current method and current layout:

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.1: A repetitive Manual Task

ƒ Improved method and improved layout:

ƒ Use a work-holding device to hold and position the
board while the worker uses both hands
simultaneously to insert pegs.
ƒ Instead of picking one peg at a time, each hand will
grab four pegs to minimize the number of times the
worker’s hands must reach the trays.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.1: A repetitive Manual Task

ƒ Improved method

ƒ The cycle time is reduced from 0.62 min to 0.37 min.

ƒ % cycle time reduction=(CTcurrent-CTimproved)/CTcurrent

=(0.62-0.37)/0.62=%40

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.1: A repetitive Manual Task

ƒ Production ratecurrent=1/0.62 min=1.61 units per min

(throughput)
ƒ Production rateimproved=1/0.37 min=2.70 units per min

ƒ % increase in R=(Rimproved-Rcurrent)/Rcurrent

=(1.61-2.70)/1.61=%68

ƒ It is important to design the work cycle so as to minimize

the time required to perform it.

ƒ Of course there are many alterantive ways to perform a

given task. Our focus is on the best one.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 One Best Method Principle
ƒ Of all the possible methods that can be used to perform a
given task, there is one optimal method that minimizes the
time and effort required to accomplish it

ƒ Attributed to Frank Gilbreth

ƒ A primary objective in work design is to determine the one

best method for a task, and then to standardize

it!

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 One Best Method Principle

ƒ This ‘One Best’ refers to:

1. an average worker with a moderate level
of skill,
2. operating under normal working conditions
3. with nominal material quality and
4. tool/equipment availability

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Cycle Time Variations
ƒ Once the method has been standardized, the
actual time to perform the task is a variable
because of:
ƒ Differences in worker performance
ƒ Mistakes, failures and errors
ƒ Variations in starting work units
ƒ Variations in hand and body motions
ƒ Extra elements not performed every cycle
ƒ Differences among workers
ƒ The learning curve phenomenon
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Worker Performance
ƒ Defined as the pace (tempo) or relative speed
with which the worker does the task.

ƒ As worker performance increases, cycle time

decreases

ƒ From the employer’s viewpoint, it is desirable

for worker performance to be high

ƒ What is a reasonable performance/pace to

expect from a worker in accomplishing a given
task?
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
What is a reasonable performance
for a worker?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Normal Performance (normal pace)
ƒ A pace of working that can be MAINTAINED by a properly
trained average worker throughout an entire work shift
without harmful short-term or long-term effects on the
worker’s health or physical well-being

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Normal Performance (normal pace)

ƒ The work shift is usually 8 hours, during

which periodic rest breaks are allowed

ƒ Normal performance = 100%

performance
ƒ Faster pace > 100%, slower pace < 100%

ƒ Common benchmark of normal

performance:
ƒ Walking at 3 mi/hr (~4.83 km/hr)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Normal Performance (normal pace)
ƒ The normal pace refers to the pace
of worker while actually working
(does not include or relate to rest
periods)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Normal Time
ƒ The time to complete a task when working at
normal performance

ƒ Actual time to perform the cycle depends on

worker performance
Tc = Tn / Pw
where
Tc = cycle time,
Tn = normal time,
Pw = worker performance (or pace)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Example 2.2: Normal Performance

ƒ Given: A man walks in the early morning for

health and fitness. His usual route is 1.85 miles.
The benchmark of normal performance = 3
mi/hr.

ƒ Determine:
(a) how long the route would take at normal
performance
(b) the man’s performance when he completes
the route in 30 min.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Example 2.2: Solution
(a) At 3 mi/hr, time = 1.85 mi / 3 mi/hr
= 0.6167 hr = 37 min

(b) Rearranging equation, Pw = Tn / Tc

Tc 37 min Pw = 37 min / 30 min = 1.233 = 123.3 %
Pw = = = 1.233
Tn 30 min
or an alternative approach in (b):
Using v = 1.85 mi / 0.5 hr = 3.7 mi/hr
Vc 3.7
Pw = = = 1.233 Pw = 3.7 mi/hr / 3.0 mi/hr = 1.233
Vn 3.0

ƒ If worker performance > 100%, then the time required to

complete the cycle will be less than normal time.

ƒ If worker performance < 100%, then the time required to

complete the cycle will be greater than normal time.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Standard Performance
ƒ Same as normal performance, but
acknowledges that periodic rest breaks must
be taken by the worker

ƒ Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the

work shift
ƒ Lunch breaks (1/2 or 1 hour)
ƒ usually not counted as part of work shifts
ƒ Shorter rest beraks (15 mins)
ƒ usually counted as part of work shifts

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Rest Breaks in a Work Shift
ƒ A typical work shift is 8 hours (8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.
with one hour lunch break)
ƒ E.g. In one country work time is defined as 45 hours
a week
(so 8:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M. with one hour lunch break,
provided that workers work for 5 days)

ƒ The shift usually includes one rest break in the morning

and another in the afternoon.

ƒ The employers allows these breaks, because they know

that the overall productivity of a worker is higher if rest
breaks are allowed.
ƒ The rest periods are not included in daily work hours in
which employers are paid for.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Standard Performance
ƒ Of course other interruptions and delays also
occur during the shift

ƒ Machine breakdowns

ƒ Receiving instructions from the foreman

ƒ Telephone calls

ƒ Bathroom/toilette breaks etc.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Personal time, Fatigue, Delay (PFD)
Allowance
ƒ To account for the delays and rest breaks, an
allowance is added to the normal time in order
to determine allowed time for the worker to
perform the task throughout a shift

ƒ Personal time (P)

ƒ Bathroom breaks, personal phone calls

ƒ Fatigue (F)
ƒ Rest breaks are intended to deal with fatigue

ƒ Delays (D)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
ƒ Interruptions, equipment breakdowns
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Standard Time
ƒ Defined as the normal time but with an allowance added
into account for losses due to personal time, fatigue, and
delays
Tstd = Tn (1 + Apfd)
where
Tstd = standard time,
Tn = normal time,
Apfd = PFD allowance factor

ƒ Also called the allowed time

ƒ Now we are confident to say that a worker working at

100% performance during 8 hours CAN ACCOMPLİSH
a task of 8 hour standard time.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Irregular Work Elements
ƒ Elements that are performed with a frequency
of less than once per cycle

ƒ Examples:
ƒ Changing a tool
ƒ Exchanging parts when containers become full

ƒ Irregular elements are prorated into the regular

cycle according to their frequency

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.3: Determining Standard Time
and Standard Output

ƒ Given: The normal time to perform the regular

work cycle is 3.23 min. In addition, an irregular
work element with a normal time = 1.25 min is
performed every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance
factor is 15%.

ƒ Determine
(a) the standard time
(b) the number of work units produced during
an 8-hr shift if the worker's pace is consistent
with standard performance.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Example 2.3: Solution

(a) Normal time Tn = 3.23 + 1.25/5

= 3.48 min
Standard time Tstd = 3.48 (1 + 0.15)
= 4.00 min
(b) Number of work units produced during an 8-hr
shift
Qstd = 8.0(60)/4.00 = 120 work units

ƒ Normal time of a task involves normal times

for regular and irregular work elements
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.4: Determining Lost Time due
to the Allowance Factor

ƒ Given: An allowance factor of 15% is used.

ƒ Determine the anticipated amount of time lost

per 8-hour shift.

ƒ Solution:
8.0 hour =(actual time worked) (1+0.15)

Actual time worked = 8/ 1.15 = 6.956 hr

Time lost = 8.0 – 6.956 = 1.044 hr

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Example 2.5: Production rate when
worker performance exceeds 100%

ƒ Given: Tsd=4.00 min. The worker’s average

performance during an 8-hour shift is 125%
and the hours actually worked is 6.956 hr
(which corresponds to the 15% allowance
factor).

ƒ Determine daily production rate.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Example 2.5: Solution

ƒ Based on normal time Tn=3.48 min, the actual

cycle time with a worker performance of 125%,
Tc=3.48 / 1.25 = 2.78 min.

ƒ Assuming one work unit is produced each

cycle, the corresponding daily production rate,
Rp=6.956(60)/2.78=150 work units
OR
ƒ 125% of 120 units (we know that from Exercise
2.3.b) at 100% performance = 150 units

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Standard Hours and Worker
Efficiency
ƒ Two (three) common measures of worker
productivity used in industry
ƒ Standard hours – represents the amount of work
actually accomplished during a given period (shift,
week)

ƒ Quantity of work units (in terms of time) produced

Hstd = Q Tstd
where
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Q = quantity of work units completed during the
period, pc
Tstd =standard time per work unit, hr/pc

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Standard Hours and Worker
Efficiency
ƒ Two (three) common measures of worker
productivity used in industry

ƒ Worker efficiency – work accomplished during the

shift expressed as a proportion of shift hours
Ew = Hstd / Hsh
where
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Ew =worker efficiency, normally expressed as a
percentage, hr
Hsh =number of shift hours, hr

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.6: Standard hours and worker
efficiency

ƒ Given: The worker performance of 125% in the previous

example.

ƒ Determine:
(a) number of standard hours produced
(b) worker efficiency

ƒ Solution:
(a) Hstd=150(4 min)=600 min= 10.0 hr
(Hstd = Q Tstd)
(b) Ew = 10hr / 8 hr =125 %
(Ew = Hstd / Hsh)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Example 2.6: Standard hours and worker
efficiency

ƒ Note that worker efficiency is found to be

equal to the worker performance (rate).

ƒ What are the reasons for that?

ƒ The number of hours actually worked is consistent

with 15% allowance factor.

ƒ The entire work cycle consists of manual labor.

ƒ So, worker efficiency=worker performance (rate)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Example 2.7: Standard hours and worker
efficiency as affected by hours actually worked

ƒ Given: The worker performance of 125%, actual hours

worked is 7.42 hr.

ƒ Determine:
(a) number of pieces produced,
(b) number of standard hours accomplished,
(c) the worker’s efficiency

ƒ Solution:
(a) Tc= 2.78 (prev. example), Q=7.42(60)/2.78=160
units
(b) Hstd=160(4 min)=640 min= 10.67 hr
(c) Ew = 10.67hr / 8 hr =133.3 %

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Example 2.7: Standard hours and worker
efficiency as affected by hours actually worked

ƒ Note that in this example worker efficiency, Ew, and

worker pace, Pw, are not equivalent.

ƒ The reason for that

ƒ Actual work hours of that labor (7.42–given in the
example) is greater than the allowed time (or anticipated
work time, which is found to be 6.956 hr in Example 2.4)

ƒ That is, on that specific day, the worker delays (8-

7.42=0.58hr) and the rest breaks are less than the
anticipated time loss due to PDF allowances (1.044hr).

ƒ It is better to calculate worker efficiency by using actual

outputs (in terms of hour).
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 More on Worker Efficiency
ƒ Worker efficiency is commonly used to evaluate
workers in industry.

ƒ In many incentive wage payment plans, the worker’s

earnings are based on
ƒ worker’s efficiency, Ew,
or
ƒ the number of standard hours accomplished, Hstd.

ƒ Either one of these two measures can be derived from

the other one. Thus, they are equivalent.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.