NATIONAL OFFIC ER’S AC ADEMY (NOA)

SOC IOLOGY
Lecture No. 2
Sequence of lecture
1. C ulture
Meaning and characteristics
Types
Function of culture
Elements of culture
o Norms
Folkways
Mores
Taboos
Laws
o Values
o Symbols
o Language
o Rituals
o Work ethics
o Artifacts
2. Socialization
o Types of socialization
o Source or agencies of socialization
o Function of socialization
o Formal and non-formal socialization
o theories of socialization
o C H C ooly's Theory of Looking -Glass Self
o George Herber Mead theory of Self
o Frued and his concept of Mind
o WI Thomas theory of Definition of the situation
3. Sub culture
4. C ounter culture
5. C ultural relativism
6. Ethnocentrism
a. Positive effect of ethnocentrism
b. Negative effect of ethnocentrism
7. Xenocentrism
a. Causes of xenocentrism in Pakistan
b. Effect of xenocentrism in Pakistan
c. How to reduce xenocentrism in Pakistan
8. C ultural lag
9. High culture
10. Popular culture
11. Multi-culturism
12. Assimilation
 13. Acculturation

1. C ulture:

Technically, culture is always "in the news," and not just in the arts and
entertainment section of our newspapers. It is like unacknowledged water to a
fish, or the oxygen we breathe.

Using culture as the lens to explain success and failure also obscures more
widespread (and harder to control) socioeconomic and biological factors.

To truly understand culture's role in shaping us, we must understand that

culture is not just the inert repository of ideas and customs we all live with,
but that it too is shaped by various factors.

Culture shapes us, but many events mold culture and we shape these just as
much.

According to Taylor, culture is “that complex whole which includes

knowledge , beliefs, art, moral, law, customs and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society.

According to Allama Iqbal “Culture encompasses all the mental, spiritual

and physical activities of a nation. It includes the basic beliefs and faith,
values and literature, art and architecture, music and mode of dress, manners
and customs prevalent in a given society.

(Peoples and Bailey [21, p. 23] cited in [12]) Culture is the socially
transmitted knowledge and behavior shared by some group of people

(C ooley, Argell and C ar) “The entire accumulation of artificial objects,

conditions, tools, techniques, ideas, symbols and behaviour patterns peculiar to
a group of people, possessing a certain consistency of its own, and capable of
transmission from one generation to another.”

(Giddens, 2005) It includes how they dress, their marriage customs, language
and family life, their patterns of work, religious ceremonies and leisure
pursuits
 ’ (Spencer-Oatey 2008: 3) ‘Culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and
values, orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioural
conventions that are shared by a group of people, and that influence (but do not
determine) each member’s behaviour and his/her interpretations of the
‘meaning’ of other people’s behaviour.

(Geertz 1957American Anthropologist 59:32-54). “Culture is the framework

of beliefs, expressive symbols, and values in terms of which individuals define
their feelings and make their judgements”

(K eesing [22, p. 68]) C ulture ... refers ... to learned, accumulated experience.
A culture ... refers to those socially transmitted patterns for behavior
characteristic of a particular ( social group)

(Linton [24]) The culture of any society consists of the sum total of ideas,
conditioned emotional responses, and patterns of habitual behavior which the
members of that society have acquired through instruction or imitation and
which they share to a greater or less degree

(Harris [25]) A culture is the total socially acquired life-way or life-style of a

group of people. It consists of the patterned, repetitive ways of thinking,
feeling, and acting that are characteristic of the members of a particular
society or segment of a society

(Hofstede 1994: 5) Culture is the collective programming of the mind which

distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.’

(Matsumoto 1996: 16 ) ‘... the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors
shared by a group of people, but different for each individual, communicated
from one generation to the next.’

A C ulture consists of numeral components such as:

Religion Language Architecture
Cuisine Technology Music
Dance Sports Medicine
Dress Gender roles Law
Government Agriculture Sport
Education Economy Grooming
Values Work ethic Etiquette
Recreation Gestures

Meaning and C haracteristics:

Culture is learnt
Culture is social
Culture is shared
Culture is trans missive
Culture is continuous and cumulative
 Culture is consistent and integrated
Culture is dynamic and adaptive
Culture is gratifying
Culture varies from society to society
Culture is Super organic and ideational
Types:

Real culture
Ideal culture
Material culture
Non-material culture

Functions of culture:

1. C ulture moulds personality: (Annaand Isabelle)

Environment
C ultural norms dictate
Early childhood experiences
A competitive culture
A creative culture
Hardworking culture
Religious culture
Music culture

(C hild is father of man)

2. C ulture Defines Situations:

Each culture has many subtle cues which define each situation. It reveals
whether one should prepare to fight, run, laugh or make love. For example,
suppose someone approaches you with right hand outstretched at waist level.
What does this mean? That he wishes to shake hands in friendly greeting is
perfectly obvious – obvious, that is to anyone familiar with our culture.

But in another place or time the outstretched hand might mean hostility or
warning. One does not know what to do in a situation until he has defined the
situation. Each society has its insults and fighting words. The cues (hints)
which define situations appear in infinite variety. A person who moves from
one society into another will spend many years misreading the cues. For
example, laughing at the wrong places.

3. C ulture defines Attitudes, Values and Goals:

 Each person learns in his culture what is good, true, and beautiful. Attitudes,
values and goals are defined by the culture. While the individual normally
learns them as unconsciously as he learns the language. Attitude are
tendencies to feel and act in certain ways. Values are measures of goodness or
desirability, for example, we value private property, (representative)
Government and many other things and experience.

Goals are those attainments which our values define as worthy, (e.g.) winning
the race, gaining the affections of a particular person, or becoming president
of the firm. By approving certain goals and ridiculing others, the culture
channels individual ambitions. In these ways culture determines the goals of
life.

4. C ulture defines Myths, Legends, and the Supernatural:

Myths and legends are important part of every culture. They may inspire,
reinforce effort and sacrifice and bring comfort in bereavement. Whether they
are true is sociologically unimportant. Ghosts are real to people who believe
in them and who act upon this belief. We cannot understand the behaviour
of any group without knowing something of the myths, legends, and
supernatural beliefs they hold. Myths and legends are powerful forces in a
group’s behaviour.

C ulture also provides the individual with a ready-made view of the

universe. The nature of divine power and the important moral issues are
defined by the culture.

5. C ulture provides Behaviour Patterns:

The individual need not go through painful trial and error learning to know
what foods can be eaten (without poisoning himself), or how to live among
people without fear. He finds a ready-made set of patterns awaiting him which
he needs only to learn and follow. The culture maps out the path to
matrimony. The individual does not have to wonder how one secures a mate;
he knows the procedure defined by his culture.

If men use culture to advance their purposes, it seems clear also that a culture
imposes limits on human and activities. The need for order calls forth another
function of culture that of so directing behaviour that disorderly behaviour is
restricted and orderly behaviour is promoted. A society without rules or norms
to define right and wrong behaviour would be very much like a heavily
travelled street without traffic signs or any understood rules for meeting and
passing vehicles. Chaos would be the result in either case.
 Social order cannot rest on the assumption that men will spontaneously
behave in ways conducive to social harmony.

Pakistani C ulture is an Islamic C ulture

Pakistan is an ideological Islamic State. Its very existence is due to Islam, so the
Pakistani culture is primarily based on the Islamic way of life. All other ingredients
of culture areinspired by Islam. Pakistani culture is highlighted by its grandeur,
simplicity, firm convictions and noble deeds and ideas.

Salient Features of Pakistani C ulture

The main characteristics of Pakistani culture are as follows:

1. Religious Uniformity: Pakistan came into existence to provide its people a

system of life based on Islam. The people, in spite of some differences of
languages, customs and traditions commonly follow one religion of Islam. This is
the religion, which is practiced by all people of Pakistan.

2. Language: A number of languages are spoken in Pakistan. Some of them are

Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushto and Balochi. But Urdu is spoken and understand in all
parts of Pakistan. Being the official language, it is the media of communication
between all regions of Pakistan.

3. Literature and Poetry: Literature is an important aspect of our cultural life.

Most of our poets reflect Islamic code and trend in their poetry. They gave the
message of love and brotherhood. Similarity of thought amongst poets and writers
of all regions is an important factor of our cultural life.

4. Dress and Diet: Dress is an important menifestation of culture. The regional

dresses of Pakistan under go changes in the light of local traditions, economic
condition, way of living and wealth in the region. But in all Provinces people
generally wear ShalwarKameez.

5. Mixed C ulture: Pakistani culture is mixed culture although majority of people

are Muslims by birth and faith. But there is great influence of Hindus and British
culture on the present Pakistani society.

6. Male Dominated Society: In Pakistani culture, the male member of the family
enjoys the key position. Family is headed by a male member and in most cases, he
is the sole source of income for other members of the family.

7. Arts and Architecture: The iconoclasm of Islam has given a characteristic

form and pattern in the use of elegant designs, based on geometric figures and
floral forms borrowed from nature. The Shah Jahan Masjid, Shalimar Garden,
Badshahi Masjid, ShahiQila and many such graceful buildings are a living proof of
the excellent Mughal architecture.
8. Handicrafts: Embroidery, leather works, glazed pottery, wood work, carpet
making, metal crafts and ivory are the essential parts of our culture. Pakistani
craftsmen are considered as the best in their craftsmenship. They are known for the
high quality works which is very popular in foreign countries.

9. Recreational Activities – Sports: The recreational activities all over the

Pakistan are common. The games like Cricket, Hockey, Football, Kabaddi etc are
popular in every part of our country. These games reflect our cultural identity.

10. Education: Education contributes a great deal in developing national

character. Educational system plays a vital role in the formation of Culture, Unity
and Solidarity of a nation. It is therefore, important that the entire syllabus right
from the lower to higher level should be placed in accordance with the ideology of
Pakistan.

11. Religious Festivals: Festivals play an important part of our culture. Eid-ul-Fitr
and Eid-ul-Azha are our two main religious festivals. They are celebrated with
great happiness throughout the country.

12. Islamic Rituals and Religious Festivals: Islamic rituals and festivals play an
important part of our culture. The rituals and festivals are observed with unusual
enthusiasm. Obligatory prayers, fasts during the month of Ramadan and the
payment of Zakat prescribed by Islam are being observed almost everywhere.
Statistics reveal that Paksitanis attendance at Hajj is usually very high. The
enthusiasm with which Pakistani families celebrate religious festivals is a
inspirational spectacle. Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Azha are our two main religious
festivals. They are celebrated with great happiness throughout the country.

13. Ulema, Mushaikh and Sufi Poets: Ulema, Mushaikh and Sufi Poets occupy
an honoured place in our cultural aspect of life. Sufis like Lal Shahbaz, Data
GanjBaksh, Shah Abdul latif, SachalSarmast, Hazrat Sultan Bahu and Waris Shah
rendered meritorious services for the spread of Islam in the Sub Continent.
ELEMENTS of C ULTURE:
INTRODUC TION:

Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and
artifacts that are part of any society.

As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas
and symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other.

The first type, called nonmaterial culture, includes the values, beliefs,
symbols, and language that define a society.

The second type, called material culture, includes all the society’s physical
objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means
of transportation. These elements of culture are discussed next.

2. Norms

Simply put, a norm is a rule that guides behavior among members of a

society or group.

Definition: Norms refer to conditions for social relations between groups

and individuals, for the structure of society and the difference between
societies, and for human behavior in general.

Norms are shared rules, customs, and guidelines that govern society and
define how people should behave in the company of others. A customary way
is called Norm.

Founding sociologist Émile Durkheim considered norms to be social facts:

things which exist in society independent of individuals, and that shape our
thoughts and behavior.

Norms may be applicable to all members of society or only to certain

subsets of the population, such as students, teachers, clergy, police officers,
or soldiers in warfare.
 Norms guide smooth and peaceful interactions by prescribing predictable
behavior in different situations. For instance, in the Pakistan and other
societies of the world, handshaking is a traditional greeting;saying salm
while entering in the house, waring dress during the rituals, wearing
various kinds of clothes occasionally etc.

Norms are generally accepted prescriptions for or prohibitions against

behavior, belief, or feeling.

Norms cannot and must be upheld by a group. Norms always include

sanctions but values never do.

We learn norms in a variety of settings and from various actors, including

our families, from teachers and peers in school, through the media, and
simply by interacting with others as we go about our daily business.

Types of Norms

Sociologists divide norms into four types: Folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.

i) Folkways refer to norms that protect common conventions.

In sociology, folkways are generally discussed in contrast
to mores because they are both types of social norms, though they vary in
the degree to which they are enforced.
Folkways are the customs or conventions of daily life. They are a type of
social norm -- expectations for how we act.
Folkways are mildly enforced social expectations, while mores are strictly
held beliefs about behaviors. Mores dictate right and wrong, while
folkways distinguish between proper and rude behavior.
Most people in a society follow traditional folkways but failure to
conform to them is considered neither illegal nor immoral.
How do you greet someone when you first meet him? Often, greetings
include some form of 'Hello' and 'How are you?'. Perhaps you shake the
person's hand and smile when you introduce yourself.
Y ou probably expect similar behaviors from the other person. Y ou can be
confident that the person you're meeting will reciprocate in a similar
manner because these behaviors are folkways.
ii. Mores refer to stronger norms with associated moral values.

Mores are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior. Mores are
norms based on definitions of right and wrong. Unlike folkways, mores
are morally significant.
People feel strongly about them and violating them typically results in
disapproval.
 Religious doctrines are an example of mores. For instance, if someone
were to attend church in the nude, he or she would offend most people of
that culture and would be morally shunned. Also, parents who believe in
the more that only married people should live together will disapprove of
their daughter living with her boyfriend. They may consider the
daughter’s actions a violation of their moral guidelines.
Examples of common mores found in almost all societies are prohibitions
robbery, abusing, snatching, abusing, murder and ill speaking against
religions doctrines.

iii) Taboos:

Rituals and customs accepted in one culture may be thought of as

downright bizarre in another. "Taboo" delves into that dichotomy, taking
viewers across cultural borders to explore traditional beliefs and deliberate
lifestyle choices, ranging from body modification and gender decisions to
nudity and spiritual quests that test the limits of the human body.

Taboos refer to the strongest types of mores. Taboos include the belief
that certain activities, such cannibalism (flesh eating) , are outside the
bounds of cultural acceptance. Violations of mores and taboos tend to be
treated with strong social disapproval or criminal consequences.

Often times the violator of the taboo is considered unfit to live in that
society.For instance, in some Muslim cultures, eating pork is taboo
because the pig is considered unclean.

At the more extreme end, incest and cannibalism are taboos in most
countries.

iv) Laws refer to the mores that are formally enforced by political authority and
backed by the power of the state.

Laws may enforce norms or work to change them. Examples of laws that
worked to change existing norms include the liquor prohibition laws of
the 1920s or civil rights legislation of the 1950s.

Ultimately, social norms are important, in part, because they enable

individuals to agree on a shared interpretation of the social situation and
prevent harmful social interactions.
 When individuals transgress against existing norms, they are engaging in
a norm violation. Norm violations refer to public or private instances of
transgression and deviance from culturally-sanctioned behaviors (Kiesler,
1967).

2. values:
Values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in
society. Values are deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and
teaching a culture’s beliefs.

Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments

of what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable.

Values help shape a society by suggesting what is good and bad,

beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided.

Values often suggest how people should behave, but they don’t
accurately reflect how people do behave. Values portray an ideal
culture, the standards society would like to embrace and live up to.

But ideal culture differs from real culture, the way society actually is,
based on what occurs and exists.

A culture’s values shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central value
is group harmony.

EXAMPLE:

1. The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships

and dislike interpersonal conflict. When interpersonal disputes do
arise, Japanese do their best to minimize conflict by trying to resolve
the disputes amicably.

2. People often wanted to have Engineering rather than Doctor or vice

versa is value

3. People preferring higher education from abroad rather than local

institutions is values

4. Preferring food from restaurants rather than home is value

5. Enjoying foreign trips rather than visiting one’s own country’s places
is values
 6. Preferring family members as business partners is called values

7. Reading foreign stuff rather than local stories is called values etc

3. Symbols

Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something
else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions.

Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while

other symbols are in fact material objects. Symbols make social
interaction possible.

Let’s look at nonverbal symbols first. A common one is shaking hands,

which is done in some societies but not in others. It commonly conveys
friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and departure.

Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures,

movements of the hand, arm, or other parts of the body that are meant to
convey certain ideas or emotions.

However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society and
something quite different in another society (Axtell, 1998). [1] In the our
society, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and
if we shake it back and forth, we mean no.

In most of Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking our head
back and forth means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by
putting our thumb and forefinger together, we mean “OK,” but the same
gesture in certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity.

“Thumbs up” in the United States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in

Australia it means the same thing as extending the middle finger in the
United States.

Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw
you using your left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for
bathroom hygiene.
 Some of our most important symbols are objects. Here the U.S. flag is a
prime example. For most Americans, the flag is not just a piece of cloth
with red and white stripes and white stars against a field of blue. Instead,
it is a symbol of freedom, democracy, and other American values and,
accordingly, inspires pride and patriotism.

During the Vietnam War, however, the flag became to many Americans a
symbol of war and imperialism. Some burned the flag in protest,
prompting angry attacks by bystanders and negative coverage by the
news media.

Other objects have symbolic value for religious reasons. Three of the
most familiar religious symbols in many nations are the cross, the Star of
David, and the crescent moon, which stand for Christianity, Judaism, and
Islam, respectively.

Whereas many cultures attach no religious significance to these shapes,

for many people across the world they evoke very strong feelings of
religious faith. Recognizing this, hate groups have often desecrated these
symbols.

As these examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal

communication and tangible objects, are an important part of any culture
but also can lead to misunderstandings and even hostility. These
problems underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction
and meaning.

4. Language
Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language.
In English, the word chair means something we sit on. In French, the
word chaise means the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret
these words, a shared language and thus society are possible.
By the same token, differences in languages can make it quite difficult to
communicate. For example, imagine you are in a foreign country where
you do not know their language and they do not know yours.
As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to communication and thus
to any society’s culture.
 Children learn language from their culture just as they learn about
shaking hands, about gestures, and about the significance of the flag and
other symbols.
Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal species
possesses.
Our capacity for language in turn helps make our complex culture
possible.
In the United States, some people consider a common language so
important that they advocate making English the official language of
certain cities or states or even the whole country and banning bilingual
education in the public schools .
Language, of course, can be spoken or written. One of the most important
developments in the evolution of society was the creation of written
language.
Some of the preindustrial societies that anthropologists have studied have
written language, while others do not, and in the remaining societies the
“written” language consists mainly of pictures, not words.
5. Rituals.
Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures
and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life course.
As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other
elements from one generation to the next.
Initiation and commencement ceremonies in colleges and universities are
familiar examples of time-honored rituals.
Boys have their own initiation ceremonies, some of them involving
circumcision. That said, the ways in which circumcisions are done and
the ceremonies accompanying them differ widely.
Are rituals more common in preindustrial societies than in modern ones
such as the United States? Consider the Nacirema, studied by
anthropologist Horace Miner more than 50 years ago (Miner, 1956).
 In this society, many rituals have been developed to deal with the
culture’s fundamental belief that the human body is ugly and in danger of
suffering many diseases. Reflecting this belief, every household has at
least one shrine in which various rituals are performed to cleanse the
body.
Often these shrines contain magic potions acquired from medicine men.

6. Work ethics:
Another important value in the most of cultures is the work ethic.
A strong work ethic is vital to a company achieving its goals. Every employee,
from the CEO to entry-level workers, must have a good work ethic to keep the
company functioning at its peak.

A work ethic is a set of moral principals an employee uses in his job.

Certain factors come together to create a strong work ethic.

i) Integrity

Integrity stretches to all aspects of an employee's job. An employee with

integrity fosters trusting relationships with clients, coworkers and
supervisors. Coworkers value the employee's ability to give honest
feedback. Clients trust the employee's advice. Supervisors rely on the
employee's high moral standards, trusting him not to steal from the
company or create problems.

1. Sense of Responsibility

A strong sense of responsibility affects how an employee works and the

amount of work she does. When the employee feels personally
responsible for her job performance, she shows up on time, puts in her
best effort and completes projects to the best of her ability.

2. Emphasis on Quality

Some employees do only the bare minimum, just enough to keep their
job intact. Employees with a strong work ethic care about the quality of
their work. They do their best to produce great work, not merely churn
out what is needed. The employee's commitment to quality improves the
company's overall quality.
3. Discipline
 It takes a certain level of commitment to finish your tasks every day. An
employee with good discipline stays focused on his goals and is
determined to complete his assignments. These employees show a high
level of dedication to the company, always ensuring they do their part.

4. Sense of Teamwork
Most employees have to work together to meet a company's objectives.
An employee with a high sense of teamwork helps a team meet its goals
and deliver quality work. These employees respect their peers and help
where they can, making collaborations go smoother.

7. Artifacts

Cultural artifact, or artefact, is a term used in the social sciences,

particularly anthropology and sociology for anything created
by humans which gives information about the culture of its creator and
users.

Cultural artifact is a more generic term and should be considered with

two words of similar, but narrower, nuance: social
artifact and archaeological artifact.

Cultural artifacts can include objects recovered from archaeological sites,

or archaeological artifacts, but can also include objects of modern or near
-modern society, or social artifacts.

Cultural artifacts, whether ancient or current, have a significance because

they offer an insight into: technological processes, economic
development and social structure, among other attributes.

The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that

constitute a society’s material culture.

In the most simple societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools,
the huts people live in, and the clothing they wear.

Although the wheel was a great invention, artifacts are obviously much
more numerous and complex in modern industrial societies.

Because of technological advances during the past two decades, many

such societies may be said to have a wireless culture, as smartphones,
netbooks and laptops, and GPS devices now dominate so much of
modern life.
The artifacts associated with this culture were unknown a generation ago.

Technological development created these artifacts and also new language

to describe them and the functions they perform.

Today’s wireless artifacts in turn help reinforce our own commitment to

wireless technology as a way of life, if only because children are now
growing up with them, often even before they can read and write.
 2. socialization

C ulture and Socialization; formal and non-formal socialization,

transmission of culture, cultural relativism. Sub-cultures.
Socialization:

Y oung and Mack: the process of introducing the individual into social
word is called socialization. In common sense, socialization is a life long
training for the adjustment of one’s life in society. The process of
socialization is process of learning norms, roles, techniques and other
social patterns.

Peter says that socialization is process of transmission of culture, the

process whereby man learns the rules and practices of social groups

Horton and Hunt said that socialization is the process whereby one
internalizes the norms of groups among whom one lives so that a unique
“self” emerges.
Types of socialization
i) Primary socialization
ii) Anticipatory socialization
iii) Developmental socialization
iv) Re-socialization

Source /agencies of socialization

1. The family
2. Peers or age mates
3. Social institutions
4. Literature and mass media of communication
5. The community

Function of socialization
1. man from biological being to social being
2. development of the personality
3. helps to become disciplined
4. helps to enact different roles
5. provides knowledge and skills
6. helps to develop right aspirations of life
7. contributes to the stability of social order
8. helps to reduce social distance
 9. provides scope for bright future
10. helps the transformation of culture

Formal and non formal socialization

Formal socialization is learning skills, values, and norms withplanned and

organized experiences such as in school. Informalsocialization is learning
without an institution or formalprocedure.

Formal education – Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a

formally recognized credential such as a high school completion diploma or a
degree, and is often guided and recognized by government at some level.
Teachers are usually trained as professionals in some way.

Non-formal learning – Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or

may not be guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led
by a qualified teacher or by a leader with more experience. Though it doesn’t
result in a formal degree or diploma, non-formal education is highly enriching
and builds an individual’s skills and capacities. Continuing education courses
are an example for adults. Girl guides and boy scouts are an example for
children. It is often considered more engaging, as the learner’s interest is a
driving force behind their participation.

Informal learning – No formal curriculum and no credits earned. The teacher is

simply someone with more experience such as a parent, grandparent or a friend.
A father teaching his child to play catch or a babysitter teaching a child their
ABC’s is an example of informal education.

These may be overly simplified explanations. There are times when the lines
between each type of learning get blurred, as well. It isn’t always as cut and dry
as it seems, but these definitions give you a general idea of each type of
learning.
o
Stages of socialization

The five stages of development are as follows: 1. Oral Stage 2. Anal Stage 3. Genital
(Oedipal) Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Adolescence Stage.
Erikson (1950) believes that personality continues to be moulded throughout the entire
lifespan from birth to death. This period has been divided into eight stages by him. Each
stage has its characteristic features marked and affected by emotional crisis, particular
culture of the person and his interaction with the society of which he is a part.
1. Oral Stage:
This stage expands from zero to one-and-a-half years. During this period mouth is the
sensitive zone of the body and the main source of joy and pleasure for the child. How the
infant is being cared for by the mother makes the infant trust or mistrusts the world
(represented by mother) around him. If his wants are frequently satisfied, he develops
trust and believes that the world will take care of him.
In case of frequent dissatisfaction, mistrust develops leading the infant to believe that
the people around him cannot be believed, relied on, and that he is going to lose most of
what he wants. After the first six months (sucking period), the remaining one year (biting
period) is fairly difficult for the child and mother because of eruption of teeth and
weaning. If properly handled, infant’s trust gets reinforced and he develops an in-built
and lifelong spring of optimism and hope.
Broken Family: Persons, who had an unpleasant (abandoned, unloved and uncared)
babyhood, are likely to find parenthood as burdensome and may express dependent,
helpless, abusive behaviour, and angry outbursts i.e., oral character. To such people,
caseworker is like parents, who helps the client to verbalise his anger and distrust and
later provides emotional support and protective services.

2. Anal Stage:
Towards the end of biting period of oral stage, the child is able to walk, talk, and eat on
his own. He can retain or release something that he has. This is true of bowel and bladder
function also. He can either retain or release his bowel and bladder contents.

Now, the child no more depends upon the mouth zone for pleasure. He now derives
pleasure from bowel and bladder (anal zone) functioning, which entails anxiety because
of toilet training by parents. Child is taught where to pass urine and where to go for
defecation etc.

In this training of bladder and bowel control, child may develop autonomy, or shame and
doubt. The task of anal is to develop autonomy. If the parents are supportive without
being overprotective and if the child is allowed to function with some independence, he
gains some confidence in his autonomy probably by the age of three and prefers love
over hate, cooperation over willfulness, and self-expression over suppression.
Autonomy, thus, overbalances shame and doubt and leads to development of confidence
that he can control his functions, and also, to some extent, the people around him.
Contrary to this, the child may feel angry, foolish and ashamed if parents criticise his
faeces and over-control his bowel and bladder functioning during the training for toilet.
Observations of sanskaras convey acceptance to the child and help the parents to train
them in appropriate manner.

The children (with more mistrust and doubt in their share) when adults may need help in
accepting failures and imperfection as an inherent part of one’s life. By accepting the
client as he is, the caseworker can reduce his feeling of self-hatred and perfectionism.
Over-demanding adults or those who express temper tantrums when asked to assume
responsibility may need to be helped to control their impulsive acts.

They should be rewarded when they exhibit controls, and one should reinforce their
autonomy and independence when exercised. Autonomy and independence are totally
different from impulsive acts as these involve rationality and not emotionality.

3. Genital (Oedipal) Stage:

The task for this period is to develop and strengthen initiative, failing which the child
develops a strong feeling of guilt. This period extends from 3rd to 6th years of life, i.e.,
pre-school period. He is now capable of initiating activity, both intellectual as well as
motor on his own. How far this initiative is reinforced depends upon how much physical
freedom is given to the child and how far his curiosity is satisfied. If he is led to feel bad
about his behaviour or his interests, he may grow with a sense of guilt about his self-
initiated activities.

Erikson (1950) opines that the child takes first initiative at home when he/she expresses
passionate interest in his/her parent of opposite sex. The parents ultimately disappoint
him/her. They should try to help the child to identify with the same sex parent, e.g., the
girl should be encouraged to identify with mother and the son with the father.

In addition to this initiative, the child also attempts to wrest a place for self in the race of
siblings for parents affection. He sees the difference between what he wants and what he
is asked to do. This culminates into a clear-cut division between the child’s set of
expanded desires and the parental set of restrictions. He gradually “turns these values
(restrictions, i.e.,. don’ts) into self-punishment”.

Slowly and gradually, he extracts more initiative from the conflict and grows happily if
his initiative gets proper and adequate reinforcement. The caseworker encourages the
clients burdened with guilt feelings to take initiative in family as well as in other
situations, and works with his social environment to strengthen his capacity to take
initiative.
4. Latency Stage:
This stage covers the period from 6 to 11 years, i.e., school age. The child can reason out
rationally and can use the tools that adults use. The sexual interests and curiosity
(common in genital period) get suppressed till puberty. If encouraged and given
opportunity, he gains confidence in his ability to perform and use adult materials. This
leads to feeling of industry in him.

When unable to use adult materials, he develops inferiority feelings. Such children may
develop problems with peers. They need to be encouraged to interact with classmates and
be less dependent upon others.

If the child has mastered the task of genital period (initiative in place of guilt) he will be
able to master the tasks of latency (industry in place of inferiority) also provided he is
encouraged to undertake and helped to execute the responsibilities entrusted to him.

5. Adolescence Stage:
This period, regarded as a period of turmoil, usually starts at 12-13 years and can extend
up to 18-19 years. The adolescents, during this transitional process from childhood to
maturity, behave something like an adult and sometimes like a child. Parents too show
their ambivalence to accept them in their new role of an adult in-the-making.

This stage exhibits all the psycho-social characteristics of earlier period and only towards
the end, all these get resolved into a new set of role (identity) for the adolescent. In order
to develop a personal identity, he becomes fan of some hero, starts following certain
ideologies, and tries his luck with opposite sex.

Indecision and confusion are not uncommon in this stage. Identification with a wrong
person shall create problems for him. The task of this age is to develop identity, i.e.,
values, strengths, skills, various roles, limitations, etc., failing which his identity gets
diffused and he fails to know how to behave in different situations. He needs to be helped
to deal with the physiological, emotional pressures along-with pressures from parents,
peers, etc.

Group work is more helpful with problem-adolescents. When showing confusion about
their role, they can be helped to emulate the group leader or identify with group worker.
Parents can handle adolescents properly if educated adequately about the needs and
problems of this age.
 Similarly, tasks for young adulthood, adulthood and old age are intimacy vs. isolation,
generativity vs. stagnation, and ego-integrity vs. despair. These psycho-analytical
concepts are helpful in understanding behaviour of the individuals. Apart from these,
there are some other tasks described by some other scholars for each stage which
according to them are to be achieved for a normal human development.

Theories of socialization

1. The looking-glass self (In 1902, C harles Horton C ooley created the concept of the
looking-glass self, which explored how identity is formed)

The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept created by Charles Horton Cooley in 1902. It
states that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.
The term refers to people shaping their identity based on the perception of others, which leads the people
to reinforce other people's perspectives on themselves. People shape themselves based on what other
people perceive and confirm other people's opinion of themselves.

There are three main components of the looking-glass self:

First, we imagine how we must appear to others.
Second, we imagine the judgment of that appearance.
Finally, we develop our self through the judgments of others.
In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, "the mind is mental"
because "the human mind is social. " In other words, the mind's mental ability is a direct result of
human social interaction. Beginning as children, humans begin to define themselves within the
context of their socializations. The child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a
response from his/her parents, not only when they are in need of necessities, such as food, but
also as a symbol to receive their attention. George Herbert Mead described the self as "taking the
role of the other," the premise for which the self is actualized. Through interaction with others,
we begin to develop an identity about who we are, as well as empathy for others.

Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) is considered to be the founder of the
psychodynamic approach to psychology which looks closely at the unconscious drives that
motivate people to act in certain ways.
Learning Objectives
Explain the theory of psychosexual stages in the context of adult personality
development
Describe Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality

Key Points
o Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that
human behavior is the result of the interactions among three
component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego.
o This "structural theory" of personality places great importance on how
 conflicts among the parts of the mind shape behavior and personality.
These conflicts are mostly unconscious.
o According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is
critically shaped through a series of five psychosexual stages, which
he called his psychosexual theory of development.
o During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between
biological drives and social expectations; successful navigation of
these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each developmental
stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality.
o Freud's ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of
his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human
personality development.

Freud's Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he
proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and
superego. Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find balance
among what each of them "desires," determines how we behave and approach the
world. What balance we strike in any given situation determines how we will
resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioral tendencies: our biological
aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal control over
those drives.
Conflict within the mind
According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-
seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.

The Id
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant
gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously
(outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger
eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn't know,
or care, that it is rude to take something belonging to someone else; it would care
only that you wanted the ice cream.
The Superego
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals— similar to what many
people call their "conscience" or their "moral compass." It develops as a child
learns what their culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past
the same stranger, it would not take their ice cream because it would know that that
would be rude. However, if both your id and your superego were involved,
and your id was strong enough to override your superego's concern, you would still
take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over
your actions.
The Ego
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational,
pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly
conscious and partly unconscious. It's what Freud considered to be the "self," and
its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of
reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego
would mediate the conflict between your id ("I want that ice cream right now") and
superego ("It's wrong to take someone else's ice cream") and decide to go buy your
own ice cream. While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which
would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the
compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an
unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame.
Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult
personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles
throughout childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a
healthy personality and that imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what
we now think of as anxiety and depression) and unhealthy behaviors.
4. C ognitive Development: (Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a
comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence.

Jean Piaget was a French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known
for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and
epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology. " He believed answers for the
epistemological questions at his time could be better addressed by looking at their genetic
components. This led to his experiments with children and adolescents in which he explored the
thinking and logic processes used by children of different ages.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and
development of human intelligence.
Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change and as such, it is defined in
reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems.
Specifically, he argued that reality involves transformations and states.
Transformations refer to all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo.
States refer to the conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between
transformations.
Piaget explains the growth of characteristics and types of thinking as the result of four stages of
development. The stages are as follows:
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages in cognitive development that
"extends from birth to the acquisition of language. " In this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating experiences with physical actions–in other
words, infants gain knowledge of the word from the physical actions they perform. The
development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments of this
stage.
[

The pre-operational stage is the second stage of cognitive development. It begins

around the end of the second year. During this stage, the child learns to use and to
represent objects by images, words, and drawings. The child is able to form stable
concepts, as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs.

The third stage is called the " concrete operational stage" and occurs approximately
between the ages of 7 and 11 years. In this stage, children develop the appropriate use of
logic and are able to think abstractly, make rational judgments about concrete
phenomena, and systematically manipulate symbols related to concrete objects.
 The final stage is known as the " formal operational stage" (adolescence and into
adulthood). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to
abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive
reasoning.
When studying the field of education Piaget identified two processes: accommodation and
assimilation.