B.Tech.

KRISHNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY
(NAS-105/205)
UNIT- I

Environment and it study

Introduction: We live with nature. Nature comprises two very much complex
entities.

Organisms Environment
Any living thing is Every thing around us is
organisms, it may be environment. Environment
plant, an animal, a means surrounding. It
mosquito tree, including derives from French word
human being. environment which means
surrounding.
 Environment is sum total of all biotic (living) and biotic (non-living) components
factors that surround and potentially influence an organisms.
 Environment is the sum total of all social, economical, biological physical and
chemical factors which constitute the surrounding of human, who are both creator and
destroyers (moulders) of the environment. “The term environment which
etymologically means t the conditions in which organisms live and thus consists of
air, water, food and sunlight. organisms and environment are interrelated,
interdependent and mutually reaches. Any organisms can only survive in appropriate
environment. They interact with each other and are influenced by whole complex
factors.
Types of environment:
 It may be divided in to the following categories –
1. Natural environment
2. Anthropogenic Environment (Man-made Environment)
 Natural Environment –
- It includes components such as air, water, land, forest, forest wildlife, flora and fauna.
- It operates through a self-regulating mechanisms (system). Any change brought about by
one component is counter balanced by some other changes in another component of the
environment.
 - The natural environment is never static, the changes may sometimes be negligible or
drastic.
 Anthropogenic Environment:-
- Environment which have been created by human begins according to their need by
modern technology is known as Anthropogenic environment.
- It includes component that have been introduced by human beings depending on their
need and requirements.
- These may refer to alteration of surroundings for industrial, commercial, agricultural or
housing purposes.
Another way to understand environment is:-
Physical Environment Chemical Environment Biological Environment.
- It includes matter - Includes all the chemical - Includes life on earth.or
which directly components of like all living forms on earth.
influence the gasses, acids, water, in Such as- bacteria,
organisms and organic element & microbes herbs, shrubs,
determine the organic substances etc. mammals.
existence of any kind - May be different for - Also determines the
of life. different group of influence of factors such
Eg.- Solar energy is organisms as warmth ,moisture and
crucial for production of For ex: Chemical humidity.
food by plants which in Environment for farm
turn provide food to other, livestock includes
living beings temperature, fertilizers, warm drenches
humidity, soil rain. inset sprays etc.
Livestock ;- Refer collee-
tively all cattles, domestic
and other beneficial
animals.
- For aquatic environment
it pertains to different
gasses, nutrients dissolved
in water.
 Segments of Environment
Or
Components of Region of Environment
- There are four segments of or components of environment.
a) Atmosphere
b) Lithosphere
c) Hydrosphere
d) Biosphere
- Every sphere has a two-way linkage to every other sphere including itself.
- The two way linkage signifies that matter flow from one sphere (Compartment) to other
in both directions.
Diagram
Atmosphere
- The atmosphere is blanket of gasses and suspended liquids and solids that entirely
envelops the earth.
- “Atmosphere forms a protective shell over the earth.”
- It is composed of various gasses and water vapour.
- The major gasses of the lower atmosphere.

- Are nitrogen, oxygen, Argon and CO2 . White there are a number of trace or minor
gasses like – neon, helium CH 4 , H 2 , CO, O3 (ozone) etc.

- The four major gasses N 2 98.084% , O2 20.94% , Ar .93%  & CO2 .0314%  accounts for
more that 99% of the total atmospheric mass.

- On the other hand, the total of all the trace gasses does not exceed .02%.
- The amount of major & minor gasses very at different elevation of atmosphere.

- Water vapour is also present in lower atmosphere in very small quantity .01  5%  but
its importance is great.
- Water enters the atmosphere by evaporation from the hydrosphere and by transpiration
and leaves the atmosphere by precipitation.
- It is never ending two-way traffic.
- Role of atmosphere;-
- It is the source of oxygen-essential for respiration.
- It is the source of carbon di oxide-esssential for photosynthesis.
-
 On the basis of temperature profile and other related phenomena atmosphere is divided
into four major layers –
a) Troposphere
b) Stratosphere
c) Mesosphere
d) Thermosphere
Troposphere:-
- It is the lower portion of atmosphere.
- Extending upto 15km. above the earth surface.

It contains about
3 th 75%  of the total atmospheric mass.
- 4
- Thermal convection, cloud formation, storm and majority of our weather occur.

Structure of Atmosphere along with Temperature profile of Atmosphere and

Related phenomenon.
TROPOSPHERE:-
- This is the region in which most of the living things exist & operate also the air which
we breathe.
- One of the most recent changes in troposphere is phenomenon of acid rain.
- Most outstanding characteristic of the troposphere is the fairly uniform decrease in
0
temperature with increase in altitude (about 6 c / km ). This phenomenon is commonly.
- Called the “Environmental lapse Rate.”
- At the edge of troposphere is a narrow transition zone known as the tropopause.
 Stratosphere
- Above the tropopause is the stratosphere

- This layer contains about 19.9% of the total atmosphere mass.

- In the first 9 kms of this layer temperature remains constant with height.
- A ozone with constant temperature in the atmosphere called an ‘isothermal layer’.
- From an atitutde of 20 to 50 kms temperature increases with an increase in altitude,
0
reached up to 0 c due to absorption ultraviolet radiation by ozone.
- Ozone is formed here i.e, why this layer is also known as ozone-layer or ozonosphere.
Ozone concentration is greatest between about 20-40km 2  8 ppm .
- At the top of the layer there is a transition ozone known as stratopause.
Mesosphere
- Beyond the stratopause, is the Mesosphere.
- Temperature decreases slowly with the attitude and reached upto coldest temperature
0
i.e.- 85 c .
- Most meteorites burn and disintegrate here, as they experiencing friction.
Therompshere
- In this region, the temperature again rises to very high value and at time approaches
1200 0 c, 2000 0 c.

- This extreme rise in temperature is due to absorption of intense solar rachiatio by oxygen
O2  molecules.
- While these temp. seem extreme, the amount of heat energy is very small. As the air in
thermosphere again is very this i.e. intramolecular space is high.
- Although, the gas molecules exhibit high kinetic energy, & therefore have high
temperature; but they are too sparse to transfer significant quantities&difficult to
messure with an ordinary thermometer.
- That’s why the exposed hand of an astronaut would not feel hot in the thermosphere.
- In thermosphere region exhibit negative base rate (rise in temp with attitude) & charact
erized by high kinetic of gas molecules.
Ionosphere

- Upper part of thermosphere is ionosphere determined on the basis of ionistation of O2

molecules & their effect on propagagation of radio-waves.
0
- Temperature in this layer as high as 1200 c .
- Main feature in this region is the presence of ionized ( O2 molecules) whose effect is to
reflect the propagation radiowaves (short waves)
- This layer is imp. For operation of satellites.
Exosphere
- The exosphere is the region lying above ionosphere extending theoretically up to
32190km. known as hyper space.

- Ranging high temperature due to intense solar radiation.

- In this region atoms & molecules have sufficient velocity to escape from earth’s
gravitation.
Lithosphere
- Geologically, lithosphere is outer crust of earth on which the continents and besins lies.
- The lithosphere mainly contains three layers – crust, mantle & and core.

- Outermost solid zone of the earth is known as crust. It is about 8  40km above the
mantle. The surface of crust is covered with the soil.

- Directly below the crust is ‘mantle’ extends about 2900  3000km above the core and is
in the mother state.
- It constitutes largest volume of earth’s interior.

- The core is central fluid having diameter of about 2500kms from the centre. It is
composed of Nickel-Iron.
- Lithosphere includes different varieties of land masses and land forms with different
type of ecosystems ranging from ‘and dersert’ to “rain forest.”
Hydrosphere

- Hydrosphere is the water domain as more than

2
3rd
90.8% of earth surface is covered
with water in the form of oceans seas, estuaries, glaciers, polar ice caps river, lakes, etc.

- Of this 90.8%  approximately 97% of water is contained in the oceans & seas. Where
the high salt content does not permit its use for human consumption.

- About 2% of the water resources are locked in the glaciers and ice caps. Which is frest-
water.

- Remaining 1% is available as fresh-water in surface water resources (rivers, lakes,

ponds, streams etc) & in graund water resources.
- Evaporation of water from oceans, cloud formation and precipitation are responsible for
worldwide supply through hydro-logical cycle.
 Biosphere
- The term biosphere was first coined by the Austrian geologists, Edward suess in 1875,
but he did not give a strict definition for the term.
- The Russian chemist Vladimir. I. vernadsky defined the biosphere as the ozone or
surface envelope of the earth which is naturally capable of supporting life.
- It includes lower atmosphere, all the hydrosphere & upper lithosphere.
- Biosphere indicates domain of living organisms & their interaction with environment.

- The biosphere extends vertically in to the atmosphere up to 10km downward in to the

ocean to a depth of 35000H . and about 23000H . in to the earth surface itself where
life has existed.
- Under natural circumstances plants and animals influence each others life directly or
indirectly.

- For ex- Green plants through photosynthesis accumulate life supporting O2 in the
atmosphere, animals in hole O2 during respiration and give out CO2 . Which is further
utilized by plant during photo synthesis.
Ecosystem
- The term ecosystem was introduced by British ecologist.
Sir Arthur Tansley (1935).
- Who defined it as ‘the system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living
factors of the environment.”
- It can also be defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere or segment of
nature consisting of community of living beings and physical environment both
interacting and exchanging materials between them.
It can be also defined as :-
‘Ecosystem is a region in which biotic components interact with their physical
environment’.
- Or ecosystem is the minimal entity that has the properties required to sustain life.
In an ecosystem the biotic communities and a biotic environment influence, each other.
This relationship is called holcoenosis.
The set of ecosystems comprising of many similar ecosystems through out the world
grouped together, is called a ‘biome’.
Kind or Types of Ecosystem
 On the basis of their habitat ecosystem are divided in to 2 categories:-
1) Natural Ecosystems.
2) Artificial or Man-mode or Anthropogenic ecosystems.
Ecosystem

Natural/Permanent Artificial or man-mode

Ecosystem or Anthropogenic
Ecsystem.

Terrestrial Aquatic
Ecosystem Ecosystem

Desert
Forest Fresh water Marine – water
Grass- Ecosystem Ecosystem (Ocean, Sea)
land 97% of world’s water
Cultiva area found in oceans &
ted seas
land

Lentic (Standing water) Lotic (Running water)

Eg. (lake, pond, swamp, Eg.- River, Stream,

ditch Stream, spring

Channel

Narrow excavation for

drainage.

Natural Ecosystem –
- Natural ecosystem is operated by themselves under natural conditions without any major
interference by human beings.
- An ecosystem may be as small as drop of pond water or as large as an ocean.
- On the basis of kind of habitat, a natural ecosystem may be classified as –
1) Terrestrial ecosystem
2) Aquatic Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
- Ecosystems found on land are called terrestrial ecosystem e.g.- forest, grass-land, desert
etc.
Aquatic Ecosystem
- Ecosystems found in water bodies are known as aquatic ecosystem.
- For e.g. Tanks, rivers oceans, lakes etc.
They are further divided in to –
A) Fresh-water Ecosystem
- Only 3% of world’s water is fresh.
- 2% is locked in polar ice-caps or glaciers.
- 1% is found in lakes, ponds, river, streams etc.
- Fresh – water ecosystem is further divided in to
1) Lentic or standing water ectosystem.
Eg.- Ponds, lakes, swamp etc.
Lotic or Running-water ecosystem
Eg. – Rivers, streams, springs.
B) Marine – water Ecosystem
- Two-third surface of earth covered by marine- water.
- Ecosystem which are found in marine water is known as Marine – water ecosystem.
For eg. Oceans, seas and tidal waves .

Balanced- Ecosystem
- Economic and environmental development of developing countries becoming critical
day by day.
- For economic growth agricultural and industrial bases becoming the priority at the cost
of environment.
- Depletion of resources leading to the situation of environmental degradation.
- Development should occur but by maintaining the ecosystem because it contains the
element of renewability.
- In the natural environment a balance or equilibrium exists among the various organisms
and a biotic components.
- This condition is known as eco-balance and this system is called ‘balanced ecosystem’.
- The important components of balanced ecosystem are –
a) Population stabilization.
b) Integrated land-use planning
c) Conservation of biodiversity.
d) Air and water pollution control
e) Renewable energy resources.
f) Recycling of water and residues.
- “An ecosystem is ideal or balanced when natural plants and animals and non-living
components integrate with each other.
- An ideal ecosystem should fallow some characteristics.

Characteristics of balanced ecosystem

- The population of any species should be limited to the available food resources
capability.
- Species diversity should be sufficient for recycling of materials in the ecosystem.
- The pollution loads do not exceed the self-purification capacity of system.
- Energy consumption should be minimum.
- The system proceeds towards new evolutionary trends without losing stability.

Structure of components of ecosystem

- Every balanced ecosystem has two major component:-
1) A biotic component.
2) Biotic Component.

A biotic Components
Structurally a biotic components includes –
a) Climatic regime :- Temperature, light, wind, precipitation humidity etc.
b) Edaplic regime :- Soil, minerals, Topography etc.
c) Inorganic substaces:- N, S, P, H, O etc involved in material cycling.
d) Organic substances:- Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humie substances that link
the biotic components to biotic components.

Biotic Components
- The biotic components represents the trophic structure of on ecosystem in which living
organisms are distinguished on the basis of their nutritional relationships.
- The living components of an ecosystem include –
1. Autotrophic Components
- They are autotrophs or self nourishing organisms such as algae, green plants & photo
synthetic bacteria.
- They are known as producers as they derive energy from sunlight and make organic
compounds from inorganic compounds (substances) as food in the process of photo
synthesis.
- As producers convert solar energy in to chemical energy they are also known as
convertors or transducers.
2. Heterotrophic Components
- They are consumers which are heterotrophs (dependent on others for food.)
- They consume organic matter built up by the producers or autotrophs.
- They are further categorized as;-A)-Macroconsumers B)-Microconsumers
A. Macro consumers
- Marco consumers are heterotrophs which become in an order as occur in a food chain.
1. Herbivores
- Also known as primary consumers, feed directly on living plants or plant residues.
 For ex- deer, goat, grasshopper, cattle etc are some example of terrestrial ecosystem.
(Protozoon’s, moluscs & crustaceans for aquatic habitat.
2. Carnivores
- Are animals which feed or prey upon other animals.
- They categories as –
a) Primary Carnivore
- They feed upon herbivores
- Known as second order consumers
Ex – Prog. Birds, fox, eat etc.
b) Secondary Carnivores
- They feed on primary carnivores
- Known third order consumers
Ex- Owl, peacock, dogs
c) Tertiary Carnivores
- They prey up on secondary carnivores.
Ex.- Wolves,
d) Quaternary carnivores
- Feed on tertiary carnivores
- and are not eaten up by any other animals.
Ex- lion, tiger, panthers etc.
3. Omnivores
- They feed on plants & animals both.
- Bear, Human beings
B. Microconsumers or decomposers
- Decomposers are those organisms which feed on dead organisms (plant and animals) and
their organic wastes.
- They secrete digestive enzymes in the surrounding medium to digest the organic material
(extracellular digestion)
- and release inorganic mineral compound including water & CO 2 which are then used
by producers (plants) as nutrients.
For ex.- (Funge, bacteria etc. As they release minerals in to the soil, the process is known
as mineralization.
- Also called reducers as they decompose & reduce the dead bodies of the organisms.
 Ecosystem
On the basis of mode of nutrition

Abiotic Components Abiotic Components

Climatic factors Eduphic factors

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
(regime) regime
(Producers,
converters or
transducers as they Macro - Macro –
Rain Soil convert solar energy consumers consumers
decomposes
to chemical energy Or
height PH (Algae, green-plant, Saprophytes
Photo synthetic
Wind Minerals bacteria)
To
decomposes
Temperature Topography
eeeeee Ex- micro organisms
fungi, bacteria

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Omnivores

consumers consumers consumers consumers Bear, Human,
or or or or beings
(Herbivores) (Primary carnivores) (Secondary (Tertiary
(ex. Goat, deer, (ex. cats, foxes, carnivores) carnivores)
rabbit, grass- snakes, hawk. lizard Peacock, Lion, Tiger,
hopper, cow etc) wolves, owl Panthers
dogs,
Structure of Ecosystem
Functions of ecosystem
- Every ecosystem has a natural tendency to persist or sustain.
- So, various functions are performed by the structural components of the ecosystem to
sustain.
- For example, food production in plants carried out by the process of photosynthesis,
nutrients contained in the organic matter are released through the process of
decomposition.
- So, the functioning of ecosystem can be understand under these four major functional
attributes.
A) Productivity
B) Energy flow
C) Decomposition
D) Nutrient – mineral cycling
 Productivity :-
- The rate of production of organic matter or biomass is called productivity.
- It is of two types:
a) Primary Productivity.
b) Secondary productivity.
Primary Productivity
- The rate at which the radiant energy is captured by the producers for the synthesis of
organic compound through photosynthesis is called primary productivity.
2
- It is expressed as K cal / m / year.
- It is further distinguished in to –
a) Gross primary Productivity (GPP)
b) Net primary productivity. (NPP)
Gross primary productivity
- The rate of total production of organic mother/biomass by the producers per unit area
and time.
Net primary productivity
- The rate at which energy or organic matter stored by the producer after respiration and
maintenance per unit area and time or “Net primary productivity is the balanced energy
or biomass left after meeting the cost of respiration and maintenance of producers.
Net primary productivity (NPP) = Gross primary productivity (GPP)- loss due to
respiration & maintenance.
1. Secondary productivity
- The rate of increase in the biomass of consumers per unit area and time is called
secondary productivity.
2. Energy flow:-
- The functioning of ecosystem depends on the flow of energy matter.
- Energy enters into the ecosystem from the solar radiation and is converted in to chemical
form by the producers is only small fraction of the energy captured at the producer level
or the herbivore assimilation or secondary productivity is approximately 10% of the
gross primary productivity (GPP) of the producers.
- The herbivore level of energy either utilized by the carnivores or get transferred to the
decomposers after the death of herbivores.
- In this way, again only a small fraction i.e. about 10% of herbivore productivity is used
to support carnivore productivity.
- In the same way, a very small portion of assimilated energy at carnivore level is used to
support the next trophic level.
- Why does this happen?
- With increasing trophic levels the respiration cost also increases sharply.
- On an average, producers consume about 20% of their gross productivity in respiration.
- The herbivores consume about 30% of assimilated energy in respiration & it rises up to
60% of assimilated energy in carnivores.
- Thus, there is a tremendous loss of energy at successive higher trophic levels.
- As a result, the residual energy is decreased to such at extent that no further trophic level
can be supported.
- From there the energy passes from one trophic level to the next through food.
- The flow of energy in the ecosystem is governed by two basic laws of thermodynamics.
i.e. (1) energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed from one state
to another.
(2) every transformation or transfer of energy is accompanied by its dispersion. (It means,
100% transformation or transfer of energy from one for to another is not possible. It is
always accompanied by some dispersion or loss of energy asked.

There are two aspects with respect to energy flow in ecosystem.

a) There is unidirectional flow of energy in the ecosystem i.e, from producers through
herbivores to carnivores. The energy cannot be transferred in the reverse direction.
i.e. the energy that is captured by producers (autotrophs) does not revert back, to solar
input or the energy which passes to the herbivores does not pass back to the autotrophs &
soon.
b) The amount of energy decreases with successive trophic level.
- Producers capture only a small portion of solar energy (1  15% of total radiation) & the
bulk of unutilized energy is dispersed as heat.
- Energy actually used by the herbivore trophic level.

3. Decomposition
- It refers to the process by which complex organic materials of producers & consumers
are broken down by the decomposers to inorganic raw materials like CO 2 , water and
various nutrients.
- The upper layer of soil is the main site for decomposition.
- Decomposers makes inorganic raw materials available for reutilization by the plants.
4. Mineral- Nutrient Cycles:
- The circulation of materials involves trapping of the solar energy by the green plants.
Which is ultimately lost by the organisms in several ways.
- The mineral- nutrients move continuously from the non-living to the living organisms
and back to the non-living environment.
- This cyclic movement of minerals from reservoirs (air, water and soil) to the living
component and back to the reservoir is known as bio-geochemical cycles or mineral
nutrients cycles.
Diagram
Need of Public Awareness;-
- As human society evolved and progressed, human being tried to device ways to make
their lives more & more comfortable.
- He uses much more material and energy for his agriculture, industry, transport, comfort,
communication, aesthetic pleasure and even war than any other species on the earth.
- This increasing human needs and greeds have disturbed the delicate ecological balance.
- Humans are depleting and degrading the vital life supporting systems including air,
water and land.
- Any government at its own level cannot achieve the goals of sustainable development
until the public has a participatory role in it.
- It is possible only when they aware about the ecological and environmental issues.
- There are several laws enacted by the govt. of India for conservation and prevention of
pollutions.
- But laws cannot be implemented unless education takes society aware of the risks of
living in a deteriorating environment.
- People can be both protectors and destroyers of the nature and their perception or
education or awareness is very important.
- Environmental protection and conservation is beyond the capacity of an individual, an.
Institution or a government.
- So, for active participation public awareness can play a key role.

For – ex.

Importance of Environment;-
- Environment is our life support system and its is impossible to truly estimate its value
(priceless).
- For example forest prevents soil erosion, landslides & flooding: maintains the purity of
the air and water affect local and global rainfall.
- Promote watershed and biodiversity.
- Biodiversity provides problem solving raw materials for shelter and useful products.
- The survival of all species are interconnected and dependent on each other.
- Bacteria and insects breakdown organic material to produce nutrients so plants can grow.
- Plants provide oxygen and food for animals & many other benefits.
- Bees and other species of insect disperse spread their seeds or spores.
- Nature providing us with penicillin, aspirin, morphine & steroids: the medicine Taxol,
which fights with breast and ovarian cancer comes from the bark of the Pacific Yew tree.
- According to physician and biochemist Michal Zasloff, “There’s so much we don’t
know about the natural world” and we are destroying large parts of it before we even
appreciate our ignorance.’’
- The fragile balance of plants and animals that share the earth took Millions of years to
develop.
- So, God’s gift must not be taken for granted – it must be cared for.
- If not humanity will face the grim consequences of its action.
Ecological Pyramids
- In ecosystem energy passes from one trophic level to another trophic level and in each
transfer much of its energy is lost as heat.
- Each trophic level receives less energy as compared to the previous trophic level.
- The energy level gradually decreases in the food chain forming a pyramid-like structure.
- Charles Elton(1927) a pioneer British ecologist developed the concept of ecological
pyramids.
He defined, “An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of trophic structure
in which producers occupy the base and top carnivore occupy the apex (top)”.
- These are also called Eltonian pyramids or food pyramids.
- Basically three types of pyramids are recognized:-
a) Pyramids of number
b) Pyramids of biomass
c) Pyramids of energy
Pyramids of Number
- A pyramid of number shows the no. of organisms of each trophic level of the ecosystem.
- Some important features of such pyramids are –
1. The producers have highest no., whereas the number decreases in each successive level
and becomes the lowest at the open to the pyramid.
2. The no. of individual decreases, from base to apex but the size of organism increases.
3. The pyramid is upright e.g. grassland & pond ecosystem.
4. Organisms of each trophic level are collectively called standing crop.
Example:- In grassland ecosystem the base of pyramid is formed by herbaceous producers
(grasses, herbs etc) and these are maximum in number.

Primary consumers – rabbit, nice, gross hoppers etc.

(They are lessor in no.)

Sec. consumers - lizards, snake, owl etc.

 (Which are lesser in no. Than primary consumers & so on.

Pyramid of Biomass
- ‘Biomass’ is defined as the total living material present in any organism. It is measured
in terms of dry weight in ecosystem at any one time .
- The pyramid shows the total biomass of organisms at each trophic level.
- In terrestrial ecosystem the pyramid of biomass is up right.
- The producers (crop plants, grasses or trees) have the maximum biomass.
- The primary consumers are less in number and have less biomass followed by secondary
and tertiary consumers respectively.
Diagram
- But in Aquatic ecosystem (Ponds, rivers, lakes etc.) the pyramid of biomass in inverted.
- The phytoplankton, Algae & small aquatic plants (Producers) are lighter in biomass and
are rapidly catch by the primary consumers (water, fleas, insects, larvae etc). Which are
some-what heavier.
- In aquatic ecosystem, the biomass of primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
increases due to their large size and longer life.
- The pyramid shows the total mass of organisms at each trophic level.
For example:-
- In terrestrial ecosystem the pyramid of biomass is up right.
- The producers (crop plants, grasses or trees) have the maximum biomass.
- The primary consumers are less in number and have less biomass followed by secondary and
tertiary consumers respectively.
Diagram
- But in Aquatic ecosystem (Ponds, rivers, lakes etc.) the h
- The phytoplankton, Algae & small aquatic plants (Producers) are lighter in biomass and
are rapidly catch by the primary consumers (water, fleas, insects, larvae etc). Which are
some-what heavier.
- In aquatic ecosystem, the biomass of primary, secondary and tertiary consumers
increases due to their large size and longer life.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY

The pyramid of energy is

the best representation of the overall nature of an ecosystem.

- It shows the rates of the passage of energy through the food chains, while the pyramid of
number and biomass represent standing situation.
- The producers always have (possess) greater energy as compare to the herbivores.
- The energy transferred to the next trophic level is lesser; therefore consumers get lesser
amount of energy than the herbivores.
- The deficiency of transfer of energy for one tropic level to another trophic level to about
10% (hideman’s 10% energy rule)
- Since, this energy relation is always maintained, the shape of nergy pyramids always
remains upright.
 Ecological Succession
- Any area of bore ground does not remain free from (devoid of) plants and animals when
it is barred of its original vegetation by serve flood, drought, earthquake etc.
- Over a period of time that area is gradually colonized by a variety of plant and animals
both.
- Community which develops initially in a given area is known as sere or seral stages,
white the stable and mature community is called the climax.
Ecological succession can be defined as –
“Succession is a natural process by which different groups or communities colonize
the some area over a period of time in definite sequence.”
Or
“The development of community by the action of vegetation on the environment
leading to the establishment of the new species is known as ecological –
- Succession is the universal process of directional change in vegetation during ecological
time.
- Can be recognized by the progressive change in species composition of the community.
Types of Succession.
a) Primary succession
- Primary succession begins on a sterile area, such as newly exposed rocks or sand dune
where the conditions of existence may not be favorable initially or may not be occupied
by any other biotic community.
b) Secondary Succession
- Begins where soil is already present and has been cleared by the natural disturbances
such as flood, drought, earthquake, fire etch and human activities such as cutting of trees
for, overgrazing etc.
Process of Succession
- The entire process of primary succession can be understand under following sequential
steps;-
 Nudation
- This is the development of a bare area without any form of life occur due to several
cause such as land-slide, erosion, deposition or other catastrophic agency.
Nudation are of three types.
a) Topographic – Due to soil. Erosion by water & wind deposition of sand, landslide
volcanic activity etc. any existing community may disapper.
b) Climatic – Glaciations, drought, fire etc may also destroy the community.
c) Biotic – Man from most important biotic factor, responsible for destruction of forest,
grass-land for industry
- Other factors are disease epidemic due to viruses fungi etc. etc. can also destroy the
whole community.\
2 Invasion
- Is the successful establishment of new species in a bore area.
- It includes the following three steps:-
a) Migration (dispersal)
- Seeds, spare or other propagules of species reach the bare area by air (wind), water etc.
b) Ecesis (establishment)
- After migration, seeds or propagules germinate, seedling grow and adults start to
reproduce.
c) Aggregation
- After eclsis, as a result of reproduction, the individual of the species increase in number
and they come close to each other.
- Plants or autotrophic organisms are the first to colonize and aggregate are called
‘pioneers’.
3. Competition and Coactions:-
- Due to aggregation of a large no. of individuals of at the limited place, there develops
competition (inter specific and intra specific completion) for space and nutrition.
- Individuals of species affect each other life in various ways and this is called coactions.
- The species which fail to complete with other species are ultimately discarded.
4. Reaction:
- Reaction includes the mechanism of the modification of the environment through the
(by) of living organisms on it.
- Changes take place in soil, water, temp etc. of the environment.
- As a result of reaction the environment is modification and become unsuitable for the
existing community which souner or later is replaced by another community (seral
community).
5. Stabilization
- After passing all these stages the species coming by establish themselves by maintain
equilibrium with ultimate in the area and the ecosystem attain stability.
- This process is known as stabilization.
- The final community is not replace and is known as elimax community and the stage as
climax stage.
Changes during succession
- The general appearance of community keeps on becoming more and more complex as
the succession proceeds. There is a progressive increase in the amount of living biomass
and dead organic matter.
- The food chain relationship become more and more complex.
- Nutrients in the young stage are allocated mostly in the soil, but as the seral stages
advance nutrient get allocated more in vegetation and less in soil.
- The role of decomposers becomes more and more important.
- The quality of habitat gets progressively modified to moderate condition from either too
dry or too wet conditions.
- The life-cycle of mature community species are longer and more complex.
- Relationship among competent species become more & more mutualistic even though
there exist enough competition to prevent invasion of out side elements.
-
- Biogeochemical Cycles
- Biogeochemical cycles are the cyclic pathways in which a regular & continuous
transition of elements occur from the environment in to organisms and from the
organisms in to the environment.
- The world bio represent living organisms geo denotes soil environment, chemical means
elements such as ‘e’ ‘p’ ‘N’ & ‘S’ which undergo transition regularly.
1. Biogeochemical cycles are of two types -
A) Sedimentary Cycles -
- In this cycle main reservoirs of the nutrients is the soil. For ex.- Sulphur (s) cycle &
phosphorus (p) cycle.
B) Gaseous - cycle
- In this type of cycle the main reservoir of nutrients in the atmosphere & oceans. For ex-
carbon, oxygen, Nitrogen. The four most abundant elements in the living systems –
H,C,O and N have predominantly gaseous cycles.
- In the sedimentary cycles, the reservoir for the nutrients elements is in the sediments of
the earth. Elements, like P, S,K, and Ca, have sedimentary cycles.
- Three most important mineral cycles of the nature – namely, carbon, nitrogen and
sulphur – are briefly discussed hereunder.

3.8.1 Carbon Cycles

The biosphere contains a complex mixture of carbon compounds, in a

continuous state of creation, transformation and decomposition. Practically, all
organic matter originates in process or photosynthesis. The plants use the solar energy
to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates by splitting water
 to derive hydrogen and by drawing in CO 2 from the air). In the process, the plants
release free oxygen O2  into the atmosphere. While plants absorb carbon dioxide
during photosynthesis all living organisms respire and release carbon dioxide.
Decomposition bacteria to the same in regard to dead matter (organic residue) as
shown in Fig. 3.1. But while respiration and decomposition go on all the time,
photosynthesis takes place during day time only., The concentration of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere comes down during day time from an average of 320 ppm (parts
per million) to around 305 ppm, but at night it increases up to as much as 400 ppm
near the ground level.

Apart from the daily production and consumption of carbon (in the form of
CO 2 ), the earth has a vast stock of carbon in permanent form. This stock consists of
inorganic depostis (mainly carbonates like calcium carbonate, etc.) and organic fossil
releases a considerable quantity of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. In this cycling
or carbon in the biosphere, carbon may be stored for some time before it is returned to
the cycle via the atmosphere and water.

3.8.2 Nitrogen Cycle

It is a complete gaseous type cycle. It is an example of a relatively perfect, self
regulating cycle with a large gaseous reservoir. The process by which nitrogen is
made available to living organisms is somewhat more complex that the carbon and
oxygen cycles. Nitrogen is an essential element in compounds such as aminocides,
purines, vitamins, proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids. These compounds are usually
produced first in green plants and then made available to animals.
 Nitrogen Cycle - .
- It is a complete gaseous type of cycle.
- Nitrogen is an essential constituents of animals and plants as it is main constituents of
various organic compounds such as proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, enzymes amino
acids etc. These Compounds are first produced in gren plants and then made available to
animals.
' N 2 ' is also found in chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis.
-
- The chief reservoir of ' N 2 ' is atmosphere but neither animals for plants are capable of
absorbing nitrogen directly from the atmosphere.
Now the question arises – How ' N 2 ' is atmosphere assimilated to the plants is converted
in to useful products like NH 3 , NHO3 etc.
(While the concentration of N 2 in atoms remains unchanged).
The answer is – ‘Nitrogen Cycle’.
‘Nitrogen cycle is a cycle in which atmospheric N 2 is converted in to its compounds
such as Nitrates and the combined N 2 is again constantly passing back to the
atmosphere.”
Nitrogen is a non-reactive gas because of the triple bond between ' N ' atom in ' N 2 ' a
molecules which takes it relatively insert.
So, Nitrogen gas can be taken from atmosphere in two basic ways:-
a) Non-biological N 2 fixation

- Lightening provide enough energy to break the triple bonds of N 2 molecule N  N ,

thereby making individual ' N ' atom available for chemical transformation.
- The other way is nitrogen fixation by nitrogen fixing microorganisms (Biological –
Nitrogen-fixation)

- Nitrogen fixation is a process where in N 2 (molecule is converted in to Ammonia by

which organisms can attain nitrogen directly from the atmosphere.
- In non-biological nitrogen fixation, due to rainy season thunder storm or lightening
provide high energy required for the combination of free nitrogen with oxygen and
hydrogen of water the resulting ammonia and nitrates come down on the earth in rain
water (acid rain).
b) Biological N2 Fixation:-
- In biological fixation some bacteria, fungi and blue green algae are capable of extracting
molecular nitrogen from the atmosphere and combine it with hydrogen to form ammonia
NH 3  (free living bacteria) cyan bacteria blue-green algae.
- In some casein, symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) in habitat roots of legumes and of
angiosperms receive carbo hydrates from their host plant in exchange for some of N 2
they fix.
- In aquatic environment, blue – green algae i.e., cyan bacteria is an important free –
living fixer).
- Nitrogen fixed by symbiotic and non-symbiotic microorganisms in soil and water is one
source of nitrogen.
- Organic matter is another source of nitrogen.
- Nitrogen is present in the soil in the form of organic nitrogenous substances i.e, humus
formed by decay of dead plants and animals.
- (Faeces, urine, dead plants and animals fall on to the soil and get decomposed by
bacteria and fungi (by putrifying bacteria).
- Putrefaction
- After putrefaction the nitrogen present in them is converted in to ammonia and nitrogen
compounds. (Ammonifiction mineralization.
- Ammonia and its salts present in the soil are oxidized to nitrites by nitrifying bacteria.
(Nitrosomonas).
- The nitrites are further oxidized to nitrates by the action of another kind of bacteria
(nitrate bacteria) present in the soil. (Nitrification- Nitrobactor)
(Nitrites are poisonous for plant, while nitrates are most efficient plant food).
- The nitrogen is assimilated by the plants from the soil is returned back to the soil again
through ammonification and nitrification.
 2 NO2  2 H 2O  2 H 
2 NH 3  3O 2 

(Nitrites)
(This reaction can take place in the soil, in lakes, in sea water or sediments and whenever
NH 3 is being release and O2 is present).

The nitrite so formed combine with excess O2 to form nitrates.

2 NO2  O2 
 2 NO3

(Both these process are performed by nitrite bacteria (nitrosomonas and nitrobactor)
Denitrification :- (pseudodomonos ,Acromobactor– denitrifying bacterias)
- Oxidized form of Nitrogen present in the soil are constantly decomposed in to nitrogen
by the action of denitrifying bacteria present in the soil.
- Thus, a part of nitrogen is again set free and return back to the atmosphere
SULPHUR CYCLE;-
Note-It is sedimentary type of cycle, in which the soil and sediments is the great reservoir
and safety valve of the system. The sulphur oxidation process is shown in the upper half
cycle in Fig. The lower section shows the conversion of sulphate into plant and animal
materia l by bacterial action and incorporated into proteins i.e. organic sulphur is
produced.
 Note – Protoplasm is the living material (content) of the cell that is surrounded by
plasma-membrane.
- It is composed of small molecules such as amino-acids, monosaccharide’s water and
macromolecules nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides.
Sulphur Cycle–
- Sulphur is an essential constituent of proteins and amino acids.

- In nature sulphur mainly exist in the form of element sulphur, sulphides H 2 S 

sulphites SO3  & sulphates SO4 .
- Sulphur cycle may be gaseous or sedimentary cycles because it includes gaseophase &
sedimentary phase both.
- The combustion of fossil (fuels, volcanic eruptions, the surface of oceans and gasses
released by decomposition are the main source of sulphur in atmosphere.
Note :- ‘S’ is dissolved in Sea-Water.

- Gasses released during volcanic system in to the atmosphere are water vapour, CO2
followed by SO2 . Volcano also releases smaller amount of other gasses like
H 2 S , H , CO, Hcl , HF2 and Hiliam).

- In the beginning ‘S’ comes in the atmosphere as H 2 S , shich under goes oxidation and
gets converted in to SO2 .

- The SO2 present in the atmosphere soluble in water and is carried book to the earth
after being dissolved in rain water in the form of dil. H 2 SO4 as ‘Acid rain’.

- Sulphur in a solution, mostly as SO4 ion is absorbed through plant roots, where it is
incorporated in to certain organic molecules such as amino acids & proteins.
- From the producers (plants) sulphur in amino-acids is transferred to the consumes
(animals).
- The excess sulhur is exerted in the forces.
- When animal excreta/waste or dead & decaying material of plants and animals are
decomposed by micro-organisms sulphate is returned back in to the soil by aerobic
decomposition (oxidation) or by aerobic decomposition H 2 S gas is released which is

reconverted in to sulphate SO4  by the action of sulphur bacteria under aerobic

condition & further used by plants. (organic phase as organic ‘S’ mineralized as SO4 .
Thus is gaseous phase of ‘S’ cycle.
- Under anaerobic conditions some ‘sulphur’ is also removed from the organic matter
which is insoluble and accumulates (deposits) in sediments.
- It is released from the sediments or deposits by weathering or decomposition and carry
in to the water bodies through rain water.

- In presence of Iron in wet soil and need it makes iron sulphide FeS  after combination.

- ' Fes' which is insoluble firmly held in mud and wet soil when exposed to air produces

ferric sulphate Fe 2 SO4 .

- This sulphate SO4  is further taken-up by plants.

- This is “sedimentary phase” of ‘S’ cycle that is long termed or slow.
Delpletion of natural Resouces
With the dawn of the industrial revolution, humans turned their attention to
other needs beyond those associated with survival. Automobiles, household
appliances, processed food and beverages, etc. has now become so popular as to
become necessities, and meeting these acquired needs had become a major thrust of
modern industrial society. These acquired needs have increased the demands on our
natural resources, resulting in the depletion of the natural resources. Further, the over-
exploitation (excessive use) of natural resources has also disturbed the natural balance
in the relationship between organisms and their physical environment. This has not
only caused ecological crisis, but has threatened man’s existence too.

Presently, the natural resources are depleting very fast. Various causes
identified for the depletion of resources are:

o Over-use/irrational use;
o Non-equitable distribution:
o Technological and industrial development; and
o Population growth.
1. Over-use of Natural Resources: Over-exploitation of natural resources, to meet the
ever-increasing demand for economic and industrial growth, is the major cause for the
depletion of natural resources. The forest resources are depleting very fast due to
overgrazing, commercial logging, shifting cultivation, fuel wood gathering, mining,
quarrying and other forms of over-exploitation, both for commercial and household
needs. The unlimited exploitation of timber for commercial/industrial use leads to
deforestation.

Water is generally a very inexpensive resource due to its great abundance. As a

result, water is used in tremendous quantities as compared to other natural resources.
In recent years, the total quantity of water used on earth per year has been
approximately 1000 times the global total production of minerals (including fossil
fuels, metals and non-metals). The over-use of fresh water has depleted it to such an
extent that there is a shortage of fresh water for drinking, irrigation, electricity
 generation and industrial purposes in many parts of the world. The major
environmental issue regarding the inland surface water sources (rivers, lakes, etc.) is
the degradation of these sources by the disposal of sewage and effluents without
treatment.

Economic forces can encourage people to over-exploit their land for short term
gains, over-cultivation, over-grazing, wrong cultivation practices (like cutting fields
along the direction of hill slopes), excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
etc. are common practices that leads to land degradation (i.e., loss of fertility of
productivity of the soil).

The per capita daily consumption of minerals (including fossil fuels) is also
increasing day by day to meet the demands of industrial, transport power, and other
sectors. This over-use may lead to the depletion of fossil fuels and other important
minerals in the near future.

2. Non-equitable Distribution of Resources: Natural resources are not equally distributed

over the world. This uneven distribution of natural resources is one of the major causes
of their depletion. For instance, on a global scale, total water abundance is not the
problem; the problem is of fresh water’s availability i

- BIODIVERSITY;-
- The word biodiversity is derived from bios meaning ‘life’ and diversity meaning variety.
- It refers to wide variety of life on earth to all plants animals and microorganisms which
exist on this planet.
- Biodiversity is a concise form of biological diversity.
The term was coined by Harvard scientist ‘EO Wilson’ in 1985.
According to the world Resource Institute, “Biodiversity is the variety of the world’s
organisms, including their genetic diversity and the assembledge they form.
The concept become so popular during earth summit in “Rio de Janerio’ in the year 1992.
(Nations conference on environment and Development).
- The Global convention on Biological diversity (1992) defined it as, ‘the variability
among living organisms from all sources including inertia, terrestrial marine and other
aquatic ecosystem and ecological complexes of which they are apart, “this includes
diversity within species and of ecosystem.”
- It can be generally described (classified) in terms of its three fundamental and
hierarchically related levels of biological organizations-
1) Genetic diversity
2) Species diversity
3) Ecosystem diversity
1) Genetic diversity
- Genetic diversity is a concept of the variability within a species, as measured by the
variation in genes’ (chemical units of hereditary information that can be passed from one
generation to another) within a particular species, variety, subspecies or breed.
- Genetic diversity is the combination of different genes found, within a population and
the pattern of variation found with in different populations of the same species.
- For ex – Coastal populations of shrimps are generally different from fresh water
population.
(genetic adaptations to local climatic conditions results in genetic differences between
two populations of the same species)
- Similarly all rice varieties belong to species oryza sativa but there are thousands of wild
and cultivated verities of rice which show genetic variations in their colour, size, shape,
aroma and nutrient content.
This is genetic diversity of rice.
2) Species Diversity
- Species diversity is a concept of the variety of living organisms on earth and is measured
by the total number of species in the world or in given area under study.
- The richness of species in an ecosystem is called as species diversity.
- The number species in a region is its “species richness.”
- Species are the basic and most important units in modern system for classifying living
organisms.
(Note-Similar species are grouped together in genera, similar genera in families, families
in order and so on until the highest level of the kingdom.)
- More precise term for species diversity is “taxonomic diversity” also considers the
evolutionary relationship of species to earth other.
- For ex- An island with two species of birds and one species of lizard has a greater
taxonomic diversity than an island with three species of birds but he lizards.
3) Ecosystem Diversity
- Ecosystem diversity relates to their diversity and health of the ecological complexes
within which species occur.
- Ecological processes governs primary and secondary production (energy flow),
mineralization of organic matter in the soil and sediments, and storage and transport of
minerals and biomass.
- That’s why ecological diversity shows variations in ecological niches, trophic structure,
food webs, nutrients cycling etc and also in physical parameters such as moisture, temp
altitude precipitation etc.
Measurement of Biodiversity
- At the simplest level, diversity may be defined as the number of species, present in a
community, a measure termed as ‘species richness’.
- Actually, diversity is a single statistic is which the no. of species and evenness are
compounded.
- The mathematical indices of biodiversity that have been developed to represent species
biodiversity at different geographical scale are –
Alpha Diversity (Diversity within community)
- Also known as local diversity
It refers to number species which share the same community habitat (in a single community)
and can be used to compare the number of species in different ecosystems.
- Alpha diversity, infect, refers to the popular concept of species richness in an ecosystem.
Beta Diversity : (Diversity between community)
- Beta diversity refers to the degree to which the species composition changes along an
environmental gradient in communities/habitats.
- There are differences in species composition of communities/habitats along
environmental gradients such as communities habitats.
- There are differences in species composition of communities/habitats along environment
gradients such as altitudinal gradient moisture gradient etc.
- For example – moss community on a mountain, beta diversity is higher if the species
composition of mass communities changes at successively higher altitudes on a
mountain slope, but it is low if the same species occupy the whole mountain side.
Note : ‘Species are set of organisms that resemble one an other in appearance and behavior”.
The organisms in a species are potentially capable of reproducing naturally among
themselves.
4) Gamma Diversity : (Diversity of habital over the total landscape or-geographical
area)
- Refers to the diversity of the habitals over the total geographical area.
- It reflect species turnover rate with distance between sites of the similar habitals or with
expanding geographical areas.
- It is applicable on larger geographical scales and is defined as the rate at which
additional species are encountered subsequent to geographical replacement.
India as a Mega diversity Nation
- Mittermeir and Werner (1990), using the criteria of species richness introduced the
concept of Mega diversity centres.
- Following their concept 12 courtiers/region have been classified as Mega diversity
Nations/Regions.
- These include Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Mexico,
Malaysia, Madagascar, Peru & Zaia.
- Brazil occupies first whereas India is sixth on a list of 12 Mega diversified countries.
- Great wealth of biodiversity in India is its important strength.
- India has a great diversity of natural ecosystems from the cold and high Himalayan
ranges to sea coast, from the wet northeastern green forests to the dry northwestern arid
deserts, different types of forest wetland, island and the oceans.
- India shows a great diversity in climate, topography, & geology and hence the country is
very rich in terms of biological diversity.
For ex –
- India has only 2% of the total landmass of the world containing about 6% of the world’s
known wildlife.
- Country has 47,000 species of flora (plants) and 89,457 species of fauna (animals)
representing about 7.3% of world fauna and 10.88% of world’s flora.
- Eastern Himalayas and the western are the mountainous regions are the treasure house of
endemic species and genetic diversity.
- Western Himalayas are rich in Alpine flora.
- Western Ghats has 40% of total endemic plants, 62% of Amphibians 50% of lizards and
also have low elevation forest.
- Southern western ghats known as the Malabar is the major estate with biodiversity of
ancient linkage.
- Marine biodiversity has a coastline of 9516.5Km. with exclusive economic ozone of 200
million sq. km supporting the ecosystems such as mangroves, estuaries, lagoon and coral
reefs.
- In India, by 2005-38 mangrove areas have-been identify the are disappearing due to
coastal development.
- Coral reefs are natural wonders of the ocean having steady ecosystem exhibiting high
productivity & biodiversity.
- During formation of shell it absorbs carbon dioxide as a part of ‘ C’ cycle.
- The reefs helps to protect the coastal zone from the impact of sea waves and storms.
- Human expansion, sewages, industrial outflow, increases in temperature of sea water are
the major threats to coral reefs.
- We can divide India’s rich biodiversity in land, plant animal, marine and agro
biodiversity.
- There are 167 crops species and wild relatives.
- India’s rank in other aspect apart from being 6th in world.
Plant diversity - 4th in Asia and 10th in world
Mammals diversity - 10th in world
Endemic invertebrate - Eleventh in world diversity
Agriculture & animal- Seventh in world. Husbandry (Agro-bit diversity)
Threat to Biodiversity
- The elimination of species is a natural process and is known as ‘species extinction’
- The rate of extinction, in undisturbed ecosystem, is estimated to be about one species per
decade.
- But due to human impacts, the rate of extinction has accelerated, causing hundreds of
species of plants and animals to extinct every year.
- And, if present trend continues million of kinds of plants, animals and microorganisms
may be destroyed in the next few decades.
- The main causes of loss of biodiversity are :-
1) Habitat loss and degradation
- Destruction of natural habitat is the primary cause of biodiversity loss leading to the
species extinction.
- According to International union for conservation of nature & natural resources. (I
UCN), habitat destruction is responsible for 93% of species loss.
- Habitat loss and degradation has resulted to 89% of threatened bird species, 83% of
threatened mammals and 91% of threatened plant species to become extinct.
- The main causes of habitat loss are agricultural activities, harvesting or extraction
(including fishing, mining, logging etc.) and development of human settlements industry
and associated infrastructure.
- The greatest destruction of biodiversity has occurred during the last 150 years during
which the human population.
- Went from just one billion (1850 AD) to 6.2 billion (2002) and will reach to 7.8 billion
(2005).
- Destruction of forest, wetlands, mangroves and other biologically rich ecosystems
around the world threatens to eliminate million of species.
- By destroying habitat we eliminate not only the prominent species but also may obscure
ones of which we may not even be aware.
2) Habitat fragmentation
- Sometimes, habitat that formerly (originally) occupied large area, are often divided in to
pieces by roads fields, towns, canals, industries, power line etc.
- This is known as habitat- fragmentation.
- And as a result of habitat fragmentation the population of species gets separated in to
isolated groups.
- The isolated, small, scattered population are more to inbreeding depressions, high infant
rate and thus to environmental stresses and finally load to extinction.
- For ex – (i) May wild life species such as beers and large c that require large territory to
survive, gets badly threatened,
(ii) Many singing birds are vanishing due to habitat fragmentation.
(iii) Large animals like elephant and tigers require large area to move about.
- Thus, habitat fragmentation due to human impact has many adversed impact (effect) on
biodiversity.
3) Poaching of wild- life: Commercial hunting
- Poaching is the illegal trade to wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered and
rare species of animals.
- In recent decades it has emerged as an insidious threat to wildlife.
- Poaching of wildlife is pushing several species at the verge of extinction.
- Despite ban on trade in endangered and rare species and their proudest, smuggling of
wild-life and their products such as hide, skin, far, antlers, meat horn, tusk, musk
decorative & herbal products continuous.
- In India rhino is hunted for its horns, tigers for bones and skin, musk deer for musk,
elephant for ivory, crocodiles & ghariyal for their skin etc.
- Nine Indian animal species for ex – Fin Whale, Himalayan musk deer, Green turtle,
Hawksbill turtle, olive ridley turtle,
salt – water crocodile, Desert monitor lizard yellow monitor lizard and Bengal monitor
lizards have been severely depleted due to international trade.
4) Man-wildlife conflict
- Expansion of human population causes shrinkage of natural habitat.
- Therefore wildlife habitation faces problems.
- People and animals are increasingly coming on conflict over living space and food.
- People lose their crops, live stocks, property and sometimes their own lives.
- In order to prevent the future conflict, people often retaliate and kill the animals. Many
of them being endangered or threatened.
- For Eg – In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in last ‘S’ years by elephants
relation the villagers killed ‘98’ elephants.
Causes of Man-wildlife conflict
i) Shrinking of forest cover.
ii) Ill, wear ad injured animals have a tendeneg to attack.
iii) Due to electric wiring in fields, animals get injured, suffer in pain and turn violent.
Settlement of wild-life corridors through which the wild animals used to migrate
seasonally in groups to other area.
5) Over exploitation of Biological resources
- Over- exploitation of bio-resources is one of the chief causes of loss of not only species
of economic use, but also biological curiosities. For ex- insectivorous plants such as
Nepenthes bhasiana and animals sps – frogs, earthworms cockroaches etc needed for
laboratory work & overused.
6) Pollution
- Pollution alters the natural habitat and cause reduction and elimination of species.
- Excessive use of pesticides entering the water body and disturb water ecosystem
resulting in declination of fish eating birds & Falcons.
- Cd poisioning causes etai etai disease in fishes and lead poisoning
- Acid rain, global warming and ozone layer depletion affect adversely.
7) Introduction of exotic or Alien species
- Exotic species are also known as biological agents (pollutants) due to which native
species are subjected to competition for food and space.
For ex – Introduction of goats and rabbits in the Indian and pacific region has resulted in
the destruction of habitat so several plants, birds and reptiles.
Pathogenic microorganisms if introduced to new virgin area may cause epidemics
resulting total elimination of species.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY:-
Conservation of biodiversity is concerned with the protection of genes their numbers in
population, ecosystems or habitats.
When varieties of plants &animal species are destroyed the genetic diversity within a
species is diminished. Each variety within the species contains unique genes, so it is
important to conserve numerous varieties of plants &animals.
“Biodiversity conservation refers to the effort to maintain or enhance biodiversity
involving protection ,upliftment & scientific management at its optimum level.”
There are two approaches of biodiversity conservation:-
A)In-situ conservation (on-site )
B)Ex-situ conservation (off- site)
IN –SITU CONSERVATION:-
In-situ conservation deals with conservation of biodiversitythrough their maintenance
within their natural habitat.
This approach includes an extensive system of “ protected areas” such as National parks
,Wildlife sanctuaries ,Biosphere reserves , Nature reserves etc.
“A protected area is defined as an area of land or sea specially dedicated to the protection
& maintenance of biodiversity .” The protected area vary remarkably in size ,design, aim
&effectiveness of management.
NATIONAL PARKS:-
A national park is an area which is strictly dedicated to the betterment & conservation of
wildlife ( plant & animal species ) where activities such as forestry , grazing or
cultivation are not permitted.
No private ownership is allowed.
The boundaries are limited by legislation.
Usually national parks are meant to the habitat for particular wild animal species like lion,
tiger, rhinoceros etc.
 According to national wildlife database 2004, there are 92 existing national parks
covering an area of 37,921.66sq.km which is 1.15% of the total geographical area of
country.
For ex;- Corbett N,P., Rajaji N.P., Periyar N.P.etc.
WILD-LIFE SANCTUARIES:-
Wild-life sanctuaries are also protected areas dedicated to protect wild-life but they are
aimed at conserving animal species only.
Boundaries of a sanctuaries is not limited by legislation.
In these protected areas killing ,shooting ,hunting &capturing of wild-life is prohibited.
A sanctuary is generally species oriented, such as Great Indian Bustard.
- According to National data base resource, 2004 there are 492 existing wildlife
sanctuaries in India, which is 3.56% of geographical area of the country.
- Another 2/7 sanctuaries are proposed.
- Some wild-life sanctuaries in India are –
i) Annamalai Sanctuary (Tamilnadu) – for (Elephant, Panther, tiger, Sambhar, Sloth bea,
barking dear etc)
ii) Sultanpur Lake Bird s sanctuary – (Haryana, Gurgaon) – For crane, Duck spot bill, green
pigeon etc.
iii) Chilika – lake Birds Sanctuary (Balangao, Orissa) – For, water fowls, Duck, crane,
osprey, and piper etc.
Biosphere Reserves
- Biosphere reserves are special category of protected areas of land/coastal environment,
representing natural ecosystems or biomes.
- Unique biological communities (species of plants and animals) are selected for long term
in situ conservation.
- The concept of biosphere reserves was initial under the “Man and Biosphere”
programmer by UNES CO in 1971.
- The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserves is to conserve in – situ (in their
natural habitat) all forms of life, along with its support system in its totality.
- In B.R.’s wild population as well as traditional life style of tribal’s and various plants
and animal genetic resources are also protected.
- There are three distinct zones in a biosphere reserve. They are –
a) Core zone: also known as natural zone compresses and undisturbed ecosystems (&
legally protected).
b) Buffer zone: Surrounding core zone is managed to accommodate a greater variety of
resource use strategies, research and educational activities.
c) Transition zone : Outer most part of biosphere reserves, is meant for active participation
between reserve management and the local people where in activities such as settlements
cropping, forestry, recreation and other economy uses are allowed with conservation
goals.
- Till may 2002 there were 408 B.R. spread over 94 countries.
- In India Nilgiri Biosphere reserve (first biosphere reserve) spread over kerala, Tamilnadu
and Karnatka (1986).
- There are 13 biosphere reserves in India and 14th was declared in 2005.
- Some biosphere reserves are – Nandadevi (18/1/1988), Gulf of Mannar (14/3/1989) &
Sunderbans (29/3/1989) etc.
Ex-Situ Conservation:
- Ex-situ approach of conservation implies conservation outside the bahitats such as in
genetic resource centers, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collection, etc.
- It also includes setting on germplasm banks for seeds, pollen ova, tissues etc.
- Ex – Situ conservation includes the following methods –
Zoos or Zoological Parks:
- Are the places where animals are kept for public showing.
- Zoos contribute to the conservation of animal diversity by propagating and reintroducing
rare and endangered species.
- They also act as centers for research to improve management of captive and wild
population.
- There are more than 800 zoos around the world with 3,000 species of animals and many
of them have well developed captive breeding programme for restoring those animals
(sps) of animals chose no. of surviving sps. is so small and there is no realistic chance of
in situ survival.
- As the no. of individual increases in the capture breeding they are selectively released in
the wild.
- Till March 2006, there were 159 recognized zoos in India, (19 large, 12 medium and 27
small and many mine zoos.)
Botanical gardens:
- They play an important rate in the conservation plant species.
- There are several instances where plants believed to be extinct were found living only in
a botanical gardens.
- World over, there are more than 1,600 botanical gardens where specific tree and shrubs
species are cultivated, contain more than 4 million plants.
- The Royal Botanic England is a monumental centre that atone contains about 80,000
plant species i.e. about 30% of all known species.
- Plant resources centres Bhubaneswar is the largest botanical garden.
- Along with conservation of plant sps. B. G’s play a significant role in preservation in
wild and in supply of plants for research and education.
Seed- banks:
- The seed bank is an excellent method of conserving diversity.
- The seeds can be kept for several years without accumulation of mutations and with
minimum loss viability.
- Such sort of conservation is practiced by the help of cold storage in seed banks.
- For storage to recalcitrant seeds (i.e. those cannot be stored at low moisture content)
especially many fruits and forest species a three- fold strategy is adopted.
(i) Dry storage (ii) cryogenic storage (iii) 4 storage at fully hydrated seeds.
Pollen Storage:
- Pollen storage is of great importance in the conservation of genetic diversity.
- The life of pollen is much shorter than seed and a maximum.
Natural Resources on the basis of availability:-
- The “Natural resources” are the stock that can be drawn upon from nature & can be
used directly or after transformation to sustain life.
or
- The “Natural resources” are the components of the environment that can be drawn upon
for the supporting life.
Or
- “Natural resources” are goods and services supplied by our environment. These include
energy, mineral, land (soil) food, forest, water, air (Atmosphere), plants and animals.
Natural Resources based on availability
- On the basis of availability Natural resources may be of the following type:-
A) Inexhaustible resources or Renewable resources:
- Renewable resources have the inherent ability to reappear or replenish or regenerate by
recycling, reproduction or replacement.
- It includes sunlight, plants, animals, soil, water and living organisms.
- Biological organisms are self-renewing.
Forest resources:- distribution
- The united Nation’s food and Agriculture organization (FAO) estimates the world’s land
area as of 1994 to be 144.8 million sq. kms (about 29% or the surface of the globe) of
which forest and woodland account for 30%.
- As per the state of forest report 1999, the total forest cover of India is 6,37,293 sq. km
which is 19.39% of the total geographical area of the country.
- Of which dense forest accounts for (11.48%)
- Open forest – 7.76%
- Mangroove forest occupies 0.15%.

- Tropical forest accounts for three-fourth of forest area of India.

Water- resources:-
- Approximately, 90.8% of the earth surface is covered with water mainly in the oceans.
- It is estimated that hydrosphere contains about, 1,360 million cubic km of water.
- Of this about 97% is in the oceans and seas (high salt content).
- About 2% locked in glaciers and ice caps.
- About 1% is present in surface water resources such as rivers, streams, lakes and spring)
and ground water resources.
Indian Potential for water resources
- Average run-off in the river system has been estimated as 1869 km3 and utilizable
portion is estimated to be 690 km3.
- Ground water potential – 432km3
The per capita availability of water has reduced from about 5277m3 in 1855 to 1970m3
in 2000.
B) Exhaustible and non-renewable natural resources
- Natural resources that cannot be regenerated or replenished in fixed time.
- For ex- Fossil fuels, minerals (metals & non-metals both)
- They are present in fixed amounts in the environment.
- Unlike renewable resources non-renewable resources are finite in quantity and quality.
 (Bombay High) – Off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujrat & Rajasthan.
Mineral Resources:
- The finite stock of minerals on Earth is non-renewable and not only that the geographical
distribution of essential minerals is unequal.
- India’s mineral resources are sufficiently rich, but their geographical distribution is very
uneven.
- India’s major mineral resources are – coal (fourth largest reserves in the world), Iron
one, Mn, Mica, Bauxite, theorem are, chromit Natural gas, Petroleum etc.
- Most of the India’s crude oil reserve are located in the western coast (Mumbai high),
northeastern part of the country and also in offshore Boy of Bengal and in state of
Rajasthan (meet 25% off countries demand).
- The huge mass of India’s Natural gas production comes from western offshore regions,
particularly the “Mumbai High complex”, onshore fields in Assam, Andhra Pradesh and
Gujrat states.
- Most of the Natural gas field are found in user, but we also have a bigger role in this
sector as a result a large natural gas find in 2002 in the Krishna Godavari basin.
Problem associated with Natural resources (depletion)
- Man is closely associated with nature as he is a part of it.
- A striking feature of Man’s progress through centuries lies in his outright dependence on
nature and its resources.
- But rapid increase in population and increased rate of urbanization has forced man to
consume resources at a rate beyond their regeneration.
Causes for depletion of natural resources
1) Uneven distribution of resources:
- Natural resources are unevenly distributed around the world.
- For ex- Petroleum is found abundantly in gulf countries and may be poorly represented
or even lacking in other countries.
- South Africa contains most of the world’s gold and platinum but has little of silver.
- North America is rich in molybdenum.
- Malaysia and Indonesia are rich in the tungsten and Mn.
- India is rich in Thorium but poor in uranium.
- Africa & Asia although rich in natural resources, were exploited b foreign ruler for
many years and much of their mineral and forest wealth has been depleted.
2) Population growth
- Continuous increase in population growth has caused on increasing demand for
resources.
- The need for huge quantities of food crops resulted in the intensive farming methods that
soon deplete the nutrients of soil.
- Synthetic pesticides to control pests, destroy the soil quality in long run.
- Large quantities of freshwater is diverted to agricultural fields.
- A large amount wood is used as fuel and foliage is used as fodder.
3) Industrial development
- Rapid industrial development, without caring the nature consumes large quantities of
minerals, burns large amount of fossil fuels, uses large quantities of water and consumes
plenty of energy – i.e. electricity.
- Setting up of industrial area and estates results in clearing of forest area and loss of
habitats.
- Construction of downs for water results in destruction of forest and uprooting of wildlife.
- Transportation & communication network further depletes natural habitats.
4) Over exploitation of economic development
- Over exploitation of natural resources for fulfilling human demands is causing a great
shortage and non-availability of natural resources.
- Thus, prices of resources especially of petroleum, diesel & mineral oil are increasing
tremendously.
- Mass scale deforestation& poaching of wildlife is causing threat to biodiversity.
- Loss of biodiversity and improperly managed agriculture is causing desertification.
Mineral Resources
- Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic & organic both crystalline solids having a
definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties.
- Exhaustible, nonrenewable resources found in earth’s crust.
- Geographically localized mineral deposits of economic importance are called Ares.
- Formation of mineral deposits are slow process, taking million of years.
- Formed by concentration of minerals during cooling of mother rock material, by
evaporation of lake or sea water; by action of intense heat and pressure or by microbial
activity.
 Types of Mineral Resources
A) Minerals can be metallic. E.g.- Iron, copper (cu), sliver, gold etc.
Metallic minerals are found basically in the form of ares.
B) Non-metallic ones occur as minerals. E.g. sand, line stone, phosphate, zinc etc.
- Coal has been considered as mineral because it, along with crude oil (petroleum) and
natural gas comes under the category of fuel minerals.
- Fuel mineral constitute nearly 88%.
- Coal -42%
- Petroleum – 33% of the total value of mineral production.
- Natural gas – 10.5%
- Lignite – 2.5%
- Whereas metallic and non-metallic minerals constitute 6-7% only.
Mineral Wealth of India
- The earth’s crust is composed of about 88 elements.
- 99% of earth’s crust is composed of oxygen, Nickel, sodium, Potassium and uranium.
- India has rich reserves of coal & Iron.
- It has unevenly distributed huge resources of Iron extensive deposits of coal and mineral
oil, rich deposits of bauxite and virtually monopoly in mica but is deficient in petroleum,
tin, lead, zinc and nickel.
- Next to Russia, India has the largest supply of manages.
- Chromite deposits are found in Bihar, cattack in Orissa, Krishna district in Andhra
Pradesh and Mysore and Hassan in Karnatka.
- Bauxite deposits are in western Bihar, South west Kashmir central Tamil Nadu, parts of
kerala, UP, Maharashtra & Karnataka.
- Gypsum reserves are in Tamil Nadu &Rajasthan.
- Panna, Chatarpur, Satna in Madhya Pradesh and some part of Banda in U.P. are only in
diamond belt.
- Ramgiri field in Andhra Pradesh and kolar and Hutti in Karnataka are the important for
Goldmines.
- Iron (Hematite and Magnetic ore) is extracted out in Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P., Andhra
Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and Goa.
- Copper pyrites are located in Khetri (Rajasthan), Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnatka,
Maharashtra and Goa.
 Types of Mining
- For extraction of minerals, two methods of mining are practiced:-
A)Surface Mining:-
- This method of mining is utilized when mineral deposits occur at or hear the surface of
earth. It can be done by following ways:
i) Surface mining (open pit mining)
- The minerals are extracted out by making pits by removing the over burden (i.e. the
material that cover the deposits).
- For ex:- Iron, Copper, gravel, limestone, sand-stone, marble granite etc.
ii) Dredging
- Dredge or bucket like apparatus arranged in drag lines are used to scrap out minerals
from under water mineral deposits (from oceans and seas).
iii) Strip Mining
- Top soil burden is scraped away using earth moving equipment.
- Mineral deposits are cut and removed from a narrow trench.
- After extraction of the ore, the depression formed is filled up with the over burden
removed.
- Parallel to this strip a new trench is dug and ore is extracted.
- This method leaves a row of uncovered trenches after the mine is abandoned.
iv) Couth our strip mining
- This method is adopted in mountainous terrains.
- The over burden is removed as waste material, and the are is exposed in the from of
terrace.
- Exposed mineral is excavated using power shovel.
v) Mountain top Mining
- In this method mountain top layer are loosened using explosives for blasting.
- The layers are, thus loosened is excavated using heavy machinery.
2) Sub-surface Mining
- This method is used when the mineral deposit lies deep beneath the earth’s surface.
- Big hole are dug in the earth surface and tunnels and benches are formed inside the earth
so that the ores can be extracted and transported out.
For ex- coal and minerals, such as gold.
Environmental Effects on Extraction
- Exploration and extraction of minerals cause significant impact on the land, water, air
and the biological resources.
- Some major environmental effects of mining, processing operation and use of minerals
are.
- Pollution of surface and ground water sources due to release of harmful trace elements
such as ed, cobalt, copper lead etc.
- Pollution of air due emission of mine dust harmful gasses and transport vehicles emitting
various pollutants.
- Soil is degraded the land that has been destroyed is known as derelict or mine spell.
- Land becomes useless for agriculture.
- Loss of biodiversity and chances of extinction of wildlife.
- Re-habitation problem for those who have lost their habitats.
- Stress on local services including water supplies, sewage & solid waste management.
- Accidental hazards during the operations, due to shaft that are not filled.
- Causing wide variety of disease due to toxic water.
- Changes in nutrient cycling, total, biomass species diversity and ecosystem stability due
to alternation in surface water & ground water.
Dereliction (Closing of abandoning mines)
- i.e. deserting and left to fall into rain result from the ruthless exploitation of natural
resources without considering the future.
- In fact, most dereliction is the result of thoughtless and uncontrolled mineral extraction
and processing.
- Dereliction arises because mining operators are unwilling to spend money on re-
habitation which will give them no direct financial return.
- In harmful effects of dereliction are
(i) Waste of agricultural & industrial land.
(ii) Ugliness
(iii)Health and accident hazards: land over underground mines may subside, may cause
houses to collapse.
(iv)Shaft that are not filled it may lead to accidents.
(v) Permanent damage to landscape.
 Energy:-
- Energy is the capacity or physical ability for doing work.
- Word energy is derived from the greek word energeia meaning activity operation
which appears for the first time during 4th Century B.C. by Aristotle.
- Energy is the pre-requisite of all forms of life.
- Though sun is the primary source of energy, however it is present in a variety of
forms such as:-
a) Mechanical Energy
b) Thermal Energy
c) Chemical Energy
d) Electrical Energy
e) Biological Energy
f) Geo Thermal Energy
g) Energy in matter etc.
Radiation:-
- Radiation is the transfer of energy via electromagnetic waves.
- Radiation does not need an intervening medium to pass the heat energy from the
emitter to absorber. i.e. transfer of solar energy.
- Note – Radiation sources are generally collection of matters or devices that convert
other forms of energy in to Radiation.
- There are two general type of radiation:-
1. Particle Radiation:-
- Particle radiation consists of small particles of matter moving through space at very
high velocity.
- They carry energy because of their motion.
- It comes mainly from radioactive materials, outer machine that accelerate particles.
2. EMR (Electromagnetic Radiation):-
- A EMR the energy is ‘packaged’ or found in small units known as photon or quanta.
- A photon or quantum of energy does not contain matter.
- Since it does not contain matter, it has no mass or weight.
- EMR waves are produced by the motion of electrically charged particles.
- EMR waves are first postulated by the James clerk Maxwell.
- EMR carries, energy and momentum that may be imparted to matter with which it
interacts.
- The classification of radiation types is based on wave length.
Energy Sources:-
- The energy is stored in different ways, in the energy sources.
- A source of energy is one that can provide adequate amount of energy in a usable
form.
- The energy are mainly divided in to two groups.
1. Renewable Energy:- Non- Conventional Energy.
- They can be replenished in a short period of time can be generated continuously in the
nature.
- They are in exhaustible e.g. wood, solar energy, tidat energy, hydropower, biomass
energy and hydrogen.
2. Non-renewable energy:- Conventional
- They have accumulated in nature over a long period of time.
- The cannot be replenished quickly when exhausted.
Eg. coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels like uranium and thorium.
Note :- Wood is renewable source of energy as we can get new wood by growing a
tree within 15-20 years but it has taken millions of years for the formation of coal
from trees and can not be regenerated in our life time.
Solar Energy:-
- Solar energy is a radiant energy that is produced by sun.
- The energy from the sun in form of radiation is called solar energy.
Fossil-fuel based energy:-
- Coal, oil and Natural gas are called fossil fuels, because they have been formed from
the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals.
- Fossil-fuels are non-renewable resources as they take million of years to form.
- They are found in deposits beneath the earth.
- The beds of organic remains mixed with silt and mud to form layer and over time
mineral sedimentation formed.
- Increased pressure and temperature caused organic material to breakdown in to
simpler form of hydrocarbons i.e. coal, oil and gas.
- Carbon is the basic element of fossil fuel.
 Coal:-
- Coal was formed or avoid 250-350 million years ago in the hat damp regions of the
earth.
- It was formed by the decomposition of the remains of vegetation growing in swamps
and banks of river, buried after the death in to the soil.
- The decomposed material from plants and trees was transformed first by bacterial
action and later under the influence of heat and biochemical reactions gradually get
converted in to various types of coal.
- It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, Nitrogen and varying amount of sulphur.
- According to its sulphur and carbon content it is classified in to four categories –
- Anthracite:- It is hardest coal and high in carbon content 92  98%  low moisture
content, calorific value -7500-8100k/ol.
- Energy content is highest in Anthracite coal 30-40 million joules per kg (MJ/kg) due
high ‘c’ content.
Bituminous coal:- 70-90% of ‘c’ content.
- Energy content is bituminous coal is in the range of 23-34 MJ/Kg.
Sub-Bituminous Coal – (Soft Coal) :-Energy content is in the range of 16-26
MJ/Kg. ‘C’ Content is 75-83%.
Lignite:- (Brown Coal) 60-72% ‘C’ content.
- Lignite Coal is softest and low in carbon content and high in hydrogen and oxygen.
- It has lowest energy content ranging 13-16 MJ/Kg.
“Coal is one of the most important sources of energy and accounts for about 60% of
the India’s commercial requirement.”
- The coal reserves are likely to lat for about 200 years with the current usage and if the
usage increase by 2% per year, then it will diminish in the next 65 year. CHINIL is
leading producer of coal & USA is the second largest producer of coal.
- The coal states of India are – Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra While major coal-field are Raniganj, Jharia,
Bokaro, Singrasli andGodawari valley. Anthracite coal occurs only in J&K .
When coal is burnt it producers CO 2 Which is a green house gas. Coal also contains
impurities like sulphur and Nitrogen therefore if burns smoke contains toxic gasses
like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
- While major coal-field are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Singrasli and Godavari Valley.
- Anthracite coal occurs only in J&K.
Petroleum (Crude Oil):-
- Oil or petroleum is a complex mixture of the heavier (non-gasseous) or olkane
hydrocarbon.
- It tock millions of years for conversion of organic remains of Marine organisms (tiny
sea plants and animals) into hydrocarbons. (Crude oil) due to heat, pressure and
catalytic action.
- Petroleum deposits are locked in porous rocks almost like water is trapped in a wet
sponge.
- When crude oil comes out of the ground. It can be as thin as gasoline or as thick as
far.
- By fractional distillation of crude oil can be separated in to petrol, paraffin, diesel oil,
lubricating oil etc. at different temperature.
Jet fuel- Petrol – Kerosene – Diesel – Lubricating Oil – Neptha NH s & N 2 wax –
grease – charcoal.
- Petroleum is a cleaner fuel as compared to coal as it burns completely and leaves no
residues.
- It is also easier to transport and use.
- At the present rate of usage the world’s crude oil reserves are estimated to get
exhausted in the next 40 years only.
- Oil fields in India are located at Digboi (Assam), Gujrat, Plains, Bombay hight,
offshore areas in deltaic coasts of Godavari, krishna, kaveri & Mahanadi.
- There are 13 countries having 67% of the world’s petroleum reserves which together
formed the organization of petroleum property exporting countries. (OPEC).
th
- About 1 4 of oil reserves exit in soudi-arbia.

* Crude oil or petroleum is the life-line of global economy.

Natural Gas:-
- It is gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane but including significant
quantities of heavier hydrocarbons like Ethane, propane, butane and pentane as well
as small quantities of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulphide.
- It is found in oil fields (associated), in natural gas fields and in coal beds (as coal bed
methane).
 Note:- When methane rich gasses are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil
organic material, these are referred to as biogas.
- Natural gas is highly flammable.
- Its calorific value of about 50 KJ/g.
- It is colourless, odorless and tasteless.
- As a safety measures Natural gas companies odd a chemical.
- Odorant called mercaptan to defect escaping of gas.
- Russia has maximum Natural gas reserves (40%) followed by Iron (14%) and USA
(7%).
- In India, Natural gas reserves have been found in the eastern coast Tamilnadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa, as well as Tripura, Rajasthan and Off-shore wells in Gujrat and
Maharastra.
- Gas Authority of India Limite (GAIL) was set up in 1984 for transportation,
processing and marketing of Natural gas.
- It is commonly used to heat and cool homes.
- Also used as a fuel in Thermal power plants for generating electricity as source of
hydrogen gas in fertilizer industry and as a source of ‘C’ in tyre industry.
- India produced 2.8 million tones of natural gas against a demand of 3.4 million tones
but this deficit in 2001-02 is now gone up to 3.30 million tones.
Nuclear-Energy:-
- Theoretically, nuclear energy can be obtained from almost any substance, but it is not
practical, because the power needed for triggering the energy release is more than the
energy released.
- So, Nuclear energy is released (produced) by two types of Nuclear reaction – Nuclear
fission
1. Nuclear-fission:-
- It is nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic nuclear (eg. uranium 235) splits in to
two approximately equal nuclear at the same time emitting neutrons and releasing
very large amount of energy.
 It Nuclear power plants:-
- The reactor uses uranium rods as fuel,
- Neutrons smash in to the nucleus of the uranium atoms which splits roughly in to
halves
(kr and ba), release the 3 atoms of neutron and energy in the form of heat.

- CO 2 gas and water is pumped through the reactor to take the heat away, this then

heats the water to make steam.

- The steam drives turbines which drives generators to generate electricity.
- The reactor is controlled with ‘control rods’ mode of boron, which absorbs neutrons.
2. Nuclear-fusion:-
- The main row material for fusion is deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen. Helium is the
end product, is harmless (environmentally safe).

1 H 2  1 H 2  3 He 2  0 n 1  energy 24 MeV 

- It is a nuclear reaction in which light atomic nuclear fuse together to form a single
heavy nucleus with the release of a large quantity of energy at high temp.
- In nature, fusion occurs in the suns cove and otter stars which have extremely high
temperature required for the fusion.
- The main problem in producing fusion (and energy) is the development of a device
which can heat the nucleic to be fused to a sufficiently high temperature about 100
million0C and its containment.

Different between Nuclear fission and Nuclear fusion

Nuclear – fission Nuclear – fusion
1. Is a process of breaking a heavy nucleus with Is a process of fusing two light nucleic, in to a
some nucleus with some projectiles in to two or single nucleus with the vibration of large amount of
more light fragments, with the liberation of energy.
large amount of energy.
2. The mass number and atomic number of The mass number and atomic number of the product
daughter nucleic are considerably lower than is higher than that of the starting elements.
that of parent nucleus.
3. During fission, neutrons are emitted. During fusion protons are emitted.
4. It takes place spontaneously at ordinary temp. It takes place at very high temp.
5. It gives rise to chain reaction. It does not gives rise to chain reaction.
6. It can be performed under controlled conditions. Can not be performed under control conditions.
7. It results in the emission of radioactive rugs and It does not exist any kind of radioactive rays. In
thus, environmentally hazardous. fact, the end product (helium) so hamsters and thus
fusion is.
Wind Energy
- Wind is the term which is nothing but “air in motion”.
- And wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric
air.
 Diagram
- As we known 79  80% of the land area is covered with water and only 20  21% is
earth surface.
- Air particles above both the surfaces (water surface & earth surface) get the heat form
the sun.
- Air particles above the earth surface become more warmer due to refraction of sun
light from earth surface and their density is low than air particle above the water
surface.
- So, the warm patches of the air raise in to the atmosphere and other air patch (above
the water surface) blows to fill the patch (space).
- This is known as global convective current i.e. wind.
- The energy in the wind can be used by building a tall tower with large blade/propeller
should be 3 or 4 in numbers.
- With the wind blade, wind turbine and electric generator are connected.
- When the wind blows, to blade or propeller, start moving round, and blades in wind
turbine starts moving which drives the generator to produce electricity.
- Wind turbine transforms the wind energy in to mechanical power which can then be
used to directly for grinding or further converting into electric power.
- For power generation wind speed should be 25-30km/hr.
- Anemometer is a device which is used to measure wind speed.
- A no. of wind turbine are used in series to produce large.
- Power known as “wind farm”.
- Small wind turbines called aero generators can be used to charge large batteries.
- The best places for wind farms are in coastal areas, at top of rounded hills, open plains
and gaps in mounted.
- It has been used for hundred of years for sailing, grinding grains and for irrigation (In
china).
- Five nations – Germany, USA, Denmark, Spain, and India accounts for 80% of the
world’s installed wind energy of capacity.
- Wind energy continuous to be the fastest growing renewable reaching up to 14,000
M.W.
Advantages of wind Energy:-
- Wind is free, wind forms need no fuel.
- Produces no. fuel and greenhouse gasses.
- The land beneath can usually still be used as farming.
Shortcoming:-
- It is fluctuating in nature.
- Due to its irregularity it needs storage devices.
- Wind power generating systems produce ample noise.
Wind Energy : Wind speed 25-30 Km/hr wind is the term which is nothing air in
motion.
Hydrogen fuel energy:-
- Hydrogen is the simplest element and each atom has only one proton.
- It is the simplest and lightest fuel in gaseous form at atmospheric pressure and
ambient temperature.
- As hydrogen burns in air, it combines with O 2 to form water and large amount of
energy is to released.
- It is abundantly present in nature but in combine form. As H 2 does not exist on earth
as gas, we must separate it from other compounds.
Ex.- In water, biomass or natural gas molecules.
- Due to its high colorific value, it can serve as an excellent fuel.
- Production of hydrogen is possible by –
0
1. Thermal dissociation of water at 3000 k
2. Electrolysis of water gives H 2 (hydrogen) and O 2 (oxygen) by making a current
how through it.
3. Photolysis of H 2 O (water) involves breakdown of water in the Presence of sunlight
to release H 2 .
4. Natural gas reforming to separate hydrogen.
5. H 2 from biomass particularly algae.
Hydrogen is used as fuel by fuel cells. A fuel cell is a device that generates
electricity by a chemical reaction. With O 2 or other oxidizing agent.
- Hydrogen is the basic fuel but fuel cell also requires oxygen.
- A single fuel cell is made up of by placing on electrolyte in between two electrodes –
an anode (-ve) and a cathode (+ve) and a catalyst which speeds the reaction at the
electrodes.
- The electrolyte is a specially designed substance, so, ions can pass through it but
electrons can not the reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes.
- At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel (hydrogen), turning it in to a …… charged
ion and a-vely charged electrons.

The ions H  travel through the electrolyte to the cathode and react with oxygen

-
atom to generate waste heat in form of water vapour.
- And the freed electrons travel through a wire crating the electric current.
- A single fuel cell generates a little amount of direct current DC  electricity,
approximately
7 to 1 volt.
 - To increase the amount of production the fuel cells are assembled in series to form a
stack.
- A fuel cell stock may contain only a few or as many as hundreds of fuel cell. as per
requirement.
Uses – (NASA- National Aero natives and space administration).
- Welsh physicist William grove developed the first crude fuel cell in 1839.
- In first commercial use of fuel cell was in NASA space program to generate power.
- Liquid Hydrogen fuel lifts the space shutter in to orbit Hydrogen batteries power the
shutters electrical system.
- The only by-product is pure water, can be used by crew.
- Fuel cells also can power the laptop, computer, home appliances, vehicle and central
power generation.

Disadvantage:-
- Hydrogen is highly, inflammable and explosive in nature hence safe handling is
required for using hydrogen as a fuel.
- It is difficult to store and transport, being very light.
- Requires considerable energy to release hydrogen from combined forms such as water
and hydrocarbons.
- Because of high cost of build fuel cells, large hydrogen power plants want be built for
a white.
 Energy From Biomass:- (Biomass is an organic matter produced by the plants or
animals).
- It is an organic matter (Compound) which decomposed itself without or with the
presence of oxygen (anaerobic/aerobic). Ex- crop residues, manure, cattle dung,
sewage etc.
- Energy from biomass can be obtained in three forms –
The energy obtained from the organic matter (wastes), after conversion is called
biomass energy.
1. In Solid form:-
- Crop residues, such as wheat and rice straw biogases (sugarcane residues), coconut
shells, peanut hulls, cotton stalk are some of the agricultural waste which can be used
to Produce energy by burning.
- In rural India, animal dung cakes are burnt to produce to produce heat.
- About 80% of rural heat energy requirements are met by burning agricultural waste,
wood and animal dung cakes.
- In brazil 30% of electricity is obtained from burning bagasse (sugar cane residues) -
cane stalk can be crushed and the pulp (called baggsse) can be burn to make steam to
drive turbines to produce electricity.
2. In Liquid form:-
- Sugarcane, sweet sorghum and sunflower are grown and can be fermented to make
alcohol. Which can be burnt to generate power. For ex:- ethanol, Methanol & Behrol.
- This process is known as Fermentation Potential substitute for petrol or diesel.
- Petro-crops are those plants which are used for production of biodiesel from their
fruits or seeds. Examples are Jatropha, Pongamia and oil palms are rich in
hydrocarbons.
[Pongamia pinnata is a free sure source of 2nd generation biodiesel of has high
viscosity so ti is difficult to use to run auto mobile alone.
- So, we can yield oil like substance under high temperature and pressure known as
biodiesel.
- They can be burn directly or by mixing with petrol & diesel, Best mixing of Zatropha
oil with Diesel or petrol is 20:80 ratio & 20% zotropha & 80% diesel or petrol.
Presented as B 20. Biotuel are characterizes Bs, B-10, B-15, B-20 etc.
- This process is known as bioconversion of plants.
 The burning of plant residues or animal wastes cause air pollution and produce
a lot of ash as a waste residue.
Burning wastes destroy essential Nutrients of soil such as ‘N’ and ‘P’. So, it is
more useful to convert the bio mass in to biogas and bioethical.
3. In Gasseous form - Biogas:-
- Biogas is a clean fuel produced through anaerobic digestion of several organic wastes
may be agricultural animal, domestic or industrial waste.
- The composition of biogas is –
Methane – 50-75%
CO 2 - 25-40%

Nitrogen N 2  - 0-10%
Hydrogen – 0-1%
Hydrogen sulphide ( H 2 S ) – 0-3%
Oxygen - 0-2%
- It is a sustainable source of energy by virtue of its production.
- Biogas production is a naturally occurring biotechnological process that starts off
when anaerobic decomposition of organic matter takes place.
- Anaerobic digestion the process consists of a complex series of reactions catalyzed by
mixed group of bacteria which converts up to 90% combustible energy of degradable
organic matter to methane and carbon dioxide.
- The by-product produced during the process is a high grade manure.
- Biogas is commonly produced from cattle dung in a biogas plant; human excreta,
agricultural wastes can also be used for biogas (its) production.
Manufacturing Process:-
- The biogas plant consists of mainly two components.
1. A digester (fermentation tank made up of concrete called digester tank, a waterproof
container).
2. A gas holder or cylindrical air proof container with an inlet which is made up of
stainless steel and also known as dome.
- In India two types (categories) of biogas plants are available.
a) Floating gas holder type gas plant:- In this type of plant gas holder or dome floats
on the slurry and collects the gas generated.
b) Fixed dome type biogas plant:- In this type of plant dome is made up of concrete
which is called the digester tank. Since the dome is fixed the plant is known as fixed
dome type.
- A slurry of waste organic matter is fed in to the digester from an inlet, and gas formed
is trapped by an inverted drum (dome). Fermentation of slurry takes 50 days known as
retention time.”
- As gas is produced drum rises – acting as gas storage chamber, from where gas is
drawn off as per requirement.
- Its calorific value is more than 5000 K eal/m3 depending on CO 2 content.
- It has a calorific value of more than 5000 Kcal/m3 depending on its CO 2 content.
- Its calorific value can be improved by reducing its CO 2 content by passing the
biogass through a lime solution.
- It liquefies at a pressure of 350 Kg/cm3.
- Such plants helping obtaining both fuel and manure from the same quantity of wastes.
- Optimum digestion takes place between a pH of 7.0 & 7.4 and at a temp of 20-400C.

Application of Biogas:-
- Common use of biogas is for cooking
- A plant capacity of 2m3 biogas production per day is enough for providing cooking
fuel to a family of 4 to 5 members.
- It is used to operate duel fuel engine a can replace up to 75% of the diesel.
 Merits of Biogas Energy (Plants):-
- A non-polluting, renewable source of energy.
- It is an excellent way of energy conversion.
- During production high grade manure is produced as by product, can be used as
fertilizer.
- The biogas plant provide a decentralized power generation.
Demerits of Biogas Plants:-
- Biogas cause obnoxious smells.
- Low production during winter month.
- High retention time.
- Low methane content.

Hydro-electric power plant:- (Hydroelectric Energy) – Generated by hydro

powered)
- Hydroelectric power plant is that where electric power in form of electricity is
generated through a plant by use of hydro.
- Hydro meant water in general.
- This is accounted fro approximately 20% of the world’s electricity and for 63% of
electricity from renewable sources.
- First commercial hydro electric plant was built in 1882 on the for 0 river, in the USA.
The essential components of power plant are:-
1. Water Reservoir:- It is the primary requirement of hydro electric plant. The reservoir
is employed to store water which is further utilized to generate power.
- It may be of two types.
a) Natural :- A natural reservoir may by a lake in high mountains.
b) Artificial :- Artificial reservoir is built by creating a dam across the river.
2. DAM:- A dam is a barrier to raise water for storage or diversion to create a hydraulic
head.
- An hydraulic dam diverts the flow of water from the river to the turbines & usually
the heads.
3. PENSTOCK:- It is closed metallic pipeline or channel for supplying water under
pressure to a turbine.
4. SURGE-TANK:-
- A surge-tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises to reduce the
pressure swings.
5. Hydraulic turbines:-
- A hydraulic turbine coverts the potential energy of water in to mechanical energy
which in turn is utilized to run an electric generator to get electric energy.
6. Generators:-
- The generator employed in a hydro plant to convert mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
Procedure:-
- For production of electricity from water a dam is built to trap water (water level
increases).
- The trapped water in hydroelectric dam conserves large amount of gravitational
potential energy.
- As the difference between the water level and water outflow increases so does the
potential energy of the water.
PE - m.g.h.
m = mass of water
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = head
due to difference in height potential energy is generated.
- The water run through a channel called the penstock. It carries kinetic energy.
- Through penstock water reaches into the surge tank which connects with hydraulic
turbine with high pressure water nozzle through which water pressure is controlled.
- Flowing water drives the turbine to generate mechanical energy (rotational energy).
- The rotational energy of the turbine is converted to electricity by the generator.
Hydro eclectic Power Plant :-
- From ward clear that Hydraulic power in form of electricity in generated through a
plant by use of hydro- hydro meants water in general.
- India have total 75-80% plant based on thermal (coal/gas base).
- 20% of power generated in India is my use of Hydro power.
The components of Plant are –
1. Dam - used to give head p – QH
2. Reservoir - Head Race Where P is Power
Tail Race
3. Penstock - Q Discharge of water
4. Hydraulic turbine H Head in metals.
5. Electrical Generator

Turbines used in Hydro electric plant are petro turbine Keplanubine francis for as per
head they used.
These are three type hydria electric power plant.
Food Chain:-
In all ecosystem food is the primary source of energy for all organisms only plants are
capable to synthesis them. All other organisms are only consumers.
- So, “The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of
organisms with repeated eating and being eaten up is referred to as a food-chain.”
- The successive levels of energy flow constituting the links of the food chain are called
trophic levels.
Or
- Any organism’s position in food chain is known as “trophic level.”
Example:-
Producers Food
 Primary consumers Food Sec. consumers Food
 Tertiary Cons. (Sec.
(Green plants) (Herbivores) (primary carnivore) Cornivore)
Green (Plants) Mouse Snakes Howks
Food
 Food
 Food


Types of food chain

- Mainly food are two types in an ecosystem.
(i) Grazing food chain:- It starts from green plants and operates.
- From herbivores to primary carnivores and so on. Examples are:-
a) Pond Ecosystem:-
Phytoplankton   Aquatic insects   Small fish   Large fish
b) Marsh community
Green plants  Butter –fly   Dragon fly   Flog   Snake 
 Hooks
c) Grassland – Ecosystem
Grass   Mouse   snake   Hook
(ii) Deteritus food Chain
- It starts from dead organic matter from grazing food chain and passes through detritus
feeding organism (detrivores) and their predators.
- The dead organic matter is decomposed in to detritus by microorganisms like bacteria
and fungi.
- ‘odum’ (1970) described example for detrituo food chain:
Mangroove leaves   Detritus (by microorganisms   example & shrimps
Large fishes  Small – fishes
Linbs Between Grazing and Detritus food chain
- The energy of grazing food chain can enter the detritus food chain and that from
detritus food chain to grazing food chain.
- For example the dead remains of plants (litter) and animals are decomposed by
microorganisms and converted in to detritus and through detritus feeding organisms
(detrivores) in soil, energy enters to organism feeding on detritus feeder (bectles &
flies).
or
Grazing food chains and detritus food chains are linked with each other since dead
organisms from the grazing food chain form the base for detritus food chain. Which in turn
provides nutrients that are intake to the green plants so, one can not exist without the other.
Food – Web –
- In nature the food relationship can not be explained only in terms of a single food
chain, as the same organisms may derive nutrition (food) from more than one trophic
level and even the same organisms may be eaten by several organism of a higher
trophic level.
- So, it nature a network of food chain is found and, these interconnected food chain
form a structure called food web.
or
A network of food chains which are interconnected at various trophic levels to form a
number of feeding connections amongst defferent organisms is called ‘food – web.”
- “A food web opens several alternate pathways for the flow of energy”.
For example : - A field mouse may be eaten by a wild cat, a snake or an owl.
Similarly a wild eat derive its nutrition from a no. of organisms like birds, mice, squirrels
etc.
Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental studies
- The subject environmental sciences (studies) is inherently (multidisciplinary).
- Existence and behavior of living and non-living components of the environment
required inputs from physical, chemical, biological, social and sciences.
- Study of environment requires attention of experts from different fields.
- Physical sciences including chemistry and physics along with geology atmosphere
science, oenology (graphy) geography etc. increase our knowledge of physio-
chemical structure of a biotics (non-living) components of the environment.
- Life science including botany, zoology, biochemistry, biotechnology, microbiology,
genetics, ecology, etc. help in understanding the different aspects of biotic
components of the environment.
- Mathematics, statistics and computer science serve as effective tools in eco modeling
and resource management.
- Various branches of engineering form the basis of technologies dealing with the
control of environmental pollution, waste.
- Management, industrial effluent treatment, understanding different calamities etc.
- Meteorology adds our knowledge of weather forecast.
- Environmental laws provide the tools for judicious management and protection of the
environment.
- Political science helps in solving various environmental issues at global level.
- “Education helps in making people aware of various environmental problems and
their solutions.”
Thus, the knowledge of various disciplines helps us to understand the entire spectrum
of the environment.
Hot-Spot of Biodiversity
- Hot – spot are biologically rich areas with high diversity and a large percentage of
endemic (native) species.
- The term was introduced by ‘Myers’ in the year ‘1988’. According to him an area is
designated as a hot-spot when it contains at least 0.5% o plant species as endemic.
- For example: 20% of the world’s plants are found on the 0.5% of the earth’s surface.
Hot spots support about 60% of the world’s biodiversity while covers 1.4% of earth’s
land area.
Myers et. al (2000) recognized 25 hot – spot on global level. Two of these lie in India
and extending in to neighbouring countries –
A) The Indo-Burma region covering Eastern Himalayas and
B) Western Ghats- Srilanka region.
Eastern Himalayas (Indo-Burma region)
- The Indo Burma hot – spot includes all of Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos and nearly
the entire areas of Thailand, Myanmar and Bhutan as well as part of Nepal, for eastern
India and extreme southern China.
- In addition, it covers several offshore Island and Andamann and Nicobar Island is the
Indian ocean.
Important Biodiversity features:-
- The eastern Himalayas display an ultra-varied topography, forest species diversity and
endemism.
- In India’s sector of area, there are about 5,800 plant species of which roughly 2000
(36%) are endemic.
- In Nepal, there are 9000 plant species, any of which overlap with those of India,
Bhutan and even Yunnan, of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be
endemic to Nepal.
- Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are
considered to be endemic to the eastern Himalayas.
- Studies have shown that north-east India along with the contiguous region the Chinese
provinces of Yunnan and schezwan is an active centre of organic evolution.
The western Ghats and Sri Lanka
- Western Ghats extends along a 16,000 km long strip of forest parallel to the western
coast of Indian peninsula in Maharashtra, Karnatka, Tamilnadu and Kerala and has
40% of the total endemic species of plants and animals.
- The Southern western Ghats known as Malabar, is the major genetic estate with an
enormous biodiversity of ancient lineage.
- Though, the entire extent of the hot–spot was originally about 1,82,500 square
kilometers; but due to tremendous population pressure now only 12,445 square kms
or 6.8% is in pristine condition.

Characteristic features of western – Ghats (Biodiversity)

- According to Myers’ et al only 6.8% of the original extent of vegetation exists today.
- There are main centers of biodiversity, the Agastyamalai Hills and the silent
valley/New Amanpalam Reserve basin.
- This region is home for diverse and endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles and
ambhibians.
The important populations include
a) Asian Elephants.
b) Indian Tigers
c) The endangered lion tailed macaque.
d) Fairy blue bird.
e) Hizard, Howk (etc)
- This region has 40% of the total endemic plant species, 62% amphibians and 50%
lizards are endemic to western Ghats.